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74-617: Funding for the Alaska Conservation Foundation come primarily from grants and donations. These come from individuals, organizations, businesses, other foundations, etc... Donations come from in and out of the state of Alaska, with larger grants and donations typically coming from out-of-state organizations. Smaller environmental organizations use the ACF to their advantage by applying for grants that they offer. The Alaskan Conservation Foundation then decides if and how much they will grant

148-632: A ban on segregating signs, with discriminatory actions punishable by a $ 250 fine and up to 30 days in jail. Alaska became part of the United States in 1959 upon President Dwight D. Eisenhower recognizing Alaska as the 49th state. In 1971, with the support of Alaska Native leaders such as Emil Notti , Willie Hensley , and Byron Mallott , the U.S. Congress passed the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA), which settled land and financial claims for lands and resources which

222-642: A certain organization. Typically, the groups that end up receiving funds are dedicated to public lands such as Bristol Bay, the Tongass, and the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. ACF builds strategic leadership and support for Alaskan efforts to take care of wild lands, waters, and wildlife - which sustain diverse cultures, healthy communities, and prosperous economies. The Alaska Conservation Foundation provides financial support, among many other things, for Alaskan organizations and individuals that protects

296-406: A child returned to his or her own native village, or located elsewhere, after completing education in a Federal Indian boarding school. Specifically this meant that Alaskan Native children could no longer speak their native language, wear traditional native clothing, be amongst other natives, eat native foods, practice any native religion, ultimately resulting in the intergenerational trauma caused by

370-670: A form of taxation imposed by the Russians, was a tribute in the form of otter pelts. It was a taxation method the Russians had previously found useful in their early encounter with Indigenous communities of Siberia during the Siberian fur trade . Beaver pelts were also customary to be given to fur traders upon first contact with various communities. The Russian-American Company used military force on Indigenous families, taking them hostage until male community members produced furs for them. Otter furs on Kodiak Island and Aleutian Islands enticed

444-545: A great deal of political power in the 1920s. They protested the segregation of Alaska Natives in public areas and institutions, and also staged boycotts. Alberta Schenck (Inupiaq) staged a well-publicized protest against segregation in a movie theater in 1944. With the help of Elizabeth Peratrovich (Tlingit), the Alaska Equal Rights Act of 1945 was passed, ending segregation in Alaska. In 1942, during World War II,

518-600: A group of environmental directors, led by Paul Lowe from Alaska, Bob Allen of Kendall Foundation in Boston, Dick Cooley, a professor at UC Santa Cruz, and Denny Wilcher of the Sierra Club Staff in San Francisco, met outside of Fairbanks, Alaska to discuss the early developments of a foundation that would assist in funding Alaskan conservation efforts. The prospective foundation would receive funding from other organizations across

592-441: A number of Northern Athabaskan cultures. They are often defined by their language groups. Many Alaska Natives are enrolled in federally recognized Alaska Native tribal entities , who in turn belong to 13 Alaska Native Regional Corporations , who administer land and financial claims. Ancestors of Native Alaskans or Alaska Natives migrated into the area thousands of years ago, in at least two different waves. Some are descendants of

666-598: A school with American children if the family has abandoned their culture. At the same time, a system was put in place to disrupt Alaskan Native families. Federal records indicate that the United States viewed official disruption to the native family unit as part of Federal Indian policy to assimilate Indian children. The Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative, for example, was directly responsible for intergenerational trauma by disrupting family ties in Alaskan native villages. An important outcome of deliberate Federal disruption to

740-461: A soil (and the fauna and flora associated to it) that took more than a 1000 years to build up. Soil regeneration is the reformation of degraded soil through biological, chemical, and or physical processes. When productivity declined in the low-clay soils of northern Thailand, farmers initially responded by adding organic matter from termite mounds , but this was unsustainable in the long-term. Scientists experimented with adding bentonite , one of

814-507: A tool of colonial exploitation of the indigenous people. When the Aleut revolted and won some victories, the Russians retaliated, killing many. They also destroyed the peoples' boats and hunting gear, leaving them no means of survival. The greatest mortality was caused by the Aleuts' encounters with new diseases: during the first two generations (1741/1759-1781/1799 AD) of Russian contact, 80 percent of

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888-716: Is governed by a national, 18-member volunteer board of directors . Nancy Lord, Alaska's poet laureate from 2008 to 2010, was elected to serve as board chair in 2010. The board of trustees includes Jimmy Carter and Doug McConnell . ACF was founded the same year the United States Congress passed the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act . Co-founders Celia Hunter and Denny Wilcher were veterans of that campaign to protect more than 100 million acres (400,000 km) of Alaska's parks , refuges and national forests . In 1979

962-521: Is the evolution towards climax. Regardless of its name, the equilibrium stage of primary succession is the highest natural form of development that the environmental factors are capable of producing. The cycles of evolution of soils have very variable durations, between tens, hundreds, or thousands of years for quickly evolving soils (A horizon only) to more than a million years for slowly developing soils. The same soil may achieve several successive steady state conditions during its existence, as exhibited by

1036-400: Is the main factor for soil degradation and is due to several mechanisms: water erosion, wind erosion , chemical degradation and physical degradation. Erosion can be influenced by human activity. For example, roads which increase impermeable surfaces lead to streaming and ground loss. Improper agriculture practices can also accelerate soil erosion, including by way of: Here are a few of

1110-519: The Better Business Bureau 's 20 standards for charity accountability. The watchdog service American Institute of Philanthropy awarded ACF an "A−" rating as one of the nation's top rated environmental nonprofits. GuideStar recognizes ACF as a valued partner in the Guidestar exchange. ACF received a Green Star Award for demonstrating strong environmental and business ethics by implementing

1184-582: The Pygmy forest sequence in Mendocino County, California. Soils naturally reach a state of high productivity , from which they naturally degrade as mineral nutrients are removed from the soil system. Thus older soils are more vulnerable to the effects of induced retrogression and degradation. There are two types of ecological factors influencing the evolution of a soil (through alteration and humification ). These two factors are extremely significant to explain

1258-756: The United States Supreme Court decision in Alaska v. Native Village of Venetie Tribal Government (1998). Except for the Tsimshian, Alaska Natives no longer hold reservations but do control some lands. Under the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 , Alaska Natives are reserved the right to harvest whales and other marine mammals . Four indigenous tribes in Alaska, the Shishmaref , Kivalina , Shaktoolik and Newtok tribes, are being considered

1332-590: The smectite family of clays, to the soil. In field trials, conducted by scientists from the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) in cooperation with Khon Kaen University and local farmers, this had the effect of helping retain water and nutrients. Supplementing the farmer's usual practice with a single application of 200 kg bentonite per rai (6.26 rai = 1 hectare) resulted in an average yield increase of 73%. More work showed that applying bentonite to degraded sandy soils reduced

1406-488: The 1850s Russia lost much of its interest in Alaska. Alaska has many natural resources, which, including its gold, caught the attention of the United States. In 1867, the United States purchased Alaska from Russia. It did not consider the wishes of Native Alaskans or view them as citizens. The land that belonged to Alaska Natives was considered to be "open land", which could be claimed by white settlers without redress to

1480-551: The 21st century, the numerous congregations of Russian Orthodox Christians in Alaska reflect this early history, as they are generally composed mostly of Alaska Natives. Rather than hunting and harvesting marine life themselves, the Sibero-Russian promyshlenniki forced the Aleuts to do the work for them, enserfing the Aleuts. As word spread of the riches in furs to be had, competition among Russian companies increased. Catherine

1554-563: The Alaska Natives had lost to European-Americans . It provided for the establishment of thirteen Alaska Native Regional Corporations to administer those claims. Similar to the separately defined status of the Canadian Inuit and First Nations in Canada, which are recognized as distinct peoples, in the United States, Alaska Natives or Native Alaskans are in some respects treated separately by

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1628-696: The Alaska Natives living there. The only schools for Alaska Natives were those founded by religious missionaries . Most white settlers did not understand the sophisticated cultures the Alaska Natives had developed to live in challenging environment and considered them to be inferior to European Americans, correlating with white supremacist beliefs. The Klondike Gold Rush occurred in the 1896–1898, increasing white presence in Alaska as well as discriminatory practices. Americans imposed racial segregation and discriminatory laws (similar to Jim Crow laws ) that limited Alaska Native opportunities and participation in culture, treating them as second-class citizens . With

1702-533: The Alaskan Native family unit was the removal of children from their native villages to off-reservation Indian boarding schools alongside other Indian tribes children. The Federal Government accordingly devised artificial communities of Indian children throughout the Federal Indian boarding school system, resulting in the creation of other Indian or Alaskan Native families and extended families depending on whether

1776-505: The Alaskan government recommended not building on permafrost or using extra layers of insulation that is used on foundation walls (EPA). Food insecurity has also created stress and health issues, families can not get enough food due to animals also relocating to get to a climate that is more suitable to them (Brubaker). Families also do not have a secure food system because their ways of storing food, underground ice cellar, are no longer frozen year long due to climate change, their cellars thaw in

1850-453: The Aleut population died from Eurasian infectious diseases . These had been endemic among the Europeans for centuries, but the Aleut had no immunity against the new diseases. The Russian Tsarist government expanded into Indigenous territory in present-day Alaska for its own geopolitical reasons. It consumed natural resources of the territory during the trading years, and Russian Orthodoxy

1924-476: The Arctic and the circumpolar north, the ancestors of Alaska Natives established varying indigenous , complex cultures that have succeeded each other over time. They developed sophisticated ways to deal with the challenging climate and environment. Historical groups have been defined by their languages, which belong to several major language families. Today, Alaska Natives or Native Alaskans constitute more than 20% of

1998-765: The Center for Development Research at the University of Bonn and the International Food Policy Research Institute in Washington, the quality of 33% of pastureland, 25% of arable land and 23% of forests has deteriorated globally over the last 30 years. 3.2 billion people are dependent on this land. At the beginning of soil formation, the bare rock outcrops are gradually colonized by pioneer species ( lichens and mosses ). They are succeeded by herbaceous vegetation, shrubs, and finally forest . In parallel,

2072-523: The Great , who became Empress in 1763, proclaimed good will toward the Aleut and urged her subjects to treat them fairly. The growing competition between the trading companies, which merged into fewer, larger and more powerful corporations, created conflicts that aggravated the relations with the indigenous populations . Over the years, the situation became catastrophic for the Aleuts, as well as other Native Alaskan people who were impacted by Russian contact. As

2146-560: The Native Alaskan groups were spread throughout Alaska. Arriving from Siberia by ship in the mid-eighteenth century, Russians began to trade with Alaska Natives in what became known as the Aleutian Islands . They started new settlements around trading posts, and Russian Orthodox missionaries were part of these. The Russian missionaries were the first persons to translate Christian scripture into Native languages, such as Tlingit . In

2220-590: The Northern Latitudes Partnership (NLP). The NLP collaborates with organizations from Alaska and Western Canada to find indigenous-lead solutions to issues in arctic regions. The NLP works to design resources and strategies that will mitigate the effect of floods and storms, while spreading knowledge about the perseverance of rural Alaska and different regions of Canada. ACF received a four-out-of-four star rating from Charity Navigator , an independent organization that rates non-profits. In 2010, ACF met

2294-467: The Russian American Company an edge in competition with American and British fur traders. But the conscription separated men from their families and villages, thus altering and breaking down communities. With able-bodied men away on the hunt, villages were left with little protection as only women, children, and the elderly remained behind. In addition to changes that came with conscription,

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2368-477: The Russian American Company provided them with an education. Many Orthodox missionaries, like Herman of Alaska , defended Natives from exploitation. Creole people were believed to have high levels of loyalty toward the Russian crown and Russian American Company. After completing their education, children were often sent to Russia, where they would study skills such as mapmaking, theology, and military intelligence. In

2442-434: The Russians to start these taxations. Robbery and maltreatment in the form of corporal punishment and the withholding of food was also present upon the arrival of fur traders. Catherine the Great dissolved the giving of tribute in 1799, but her government initiated mandatory conscription of Indigenous men between the ages of 18 and 50 to become seal hunters strictly for the Russian American Company. This mandatory labor gave

2516-708: The Tongass Natural Forest is the largest natural forest in the World. It currently faces a threat from the Alaskan Congressional Delegation which opened sections of the forest to dangerous logging procedures. This is notable because the Tongass draws a significant amount of excess carbon from the atmosphere, meaning that destruction to the forest could contribute to the current climate crisis. The Alaskan Conservation Foundation has provided funding to numerous organizations and individuals that are advocating for

2590-447: The United States forced evacuation of around nine hundred Aleuts from the Aleutian Islands . The idea was to remove the Aleuts from a potential combat zone during World War II for their own protection, but European Americans living in the same area were not forced to leave. The removal was handled so poorly that many Aleuts died after they were evacuated; the elderly and children had the highest mortality rates. Survivors returned to

2664-446: The United States through donations and grants. The funds earned would then be disbursed to organizations in Alaska that needed assistance. Typically, the money went towards an organizations operating expenses such as rent, utilities, payroll, etc... Developments of this project took place quickly. Those who were involved early in the process were appointed positions within the foundation. The dean of Alaskan Conservationists, Celia Hunter,

2738-439: The amount of respiratory illnesses in many regions in Alaska, in 2005 pneumonia was the leading cause of hospitalizations (Brubaker). Many of the affected tribes are experiencing increased mental stress due to climate change and the problem of relocating but no policy or way to relocate (Brubaker). Stress has also increased on villages who face infrastructure damage due to melting permafrost, there are almost no regulations other than

2812-523: The animal populations declined, the Aleuts, already dependent on the new barter economy created by their fur trade with the Russians, were increasingly coerced into taking greater risks in the dangerous waters of the North Pacific to hunt for more otter. As the Shelikhov-Golikov Company and later Russian-American Company developed as a monopoly, it used skirmishes and systematic violence as

2886-401: The complete destruction of the soil. Man can deeply modify the evolution of the soils by direct and brutal action, such as clearing, abusive cuts , forest pasture, litters raking. The climax vegetation is gradually replaced and the soil modified (example: replacement of leafy tree forests by moors or pines plantations). Retrogression is often related to very old human practices. Soil erosion

2960-486: The consequences of soil regression and degradation: Problems of soil erosion can be fought, and certain practices can lead to soil enhancement and rebuilding. Even though simple, methods for reducing erosion are often not chosen because these practices outweigh the short-term benefits. Rebuilding is especially possible through the improvement of soil structure, addition of organic matter and limitation of runoff. However, these techniques will never totally succeed to restore

3034-468: The conservation of the Tongass. Another large focus of the ACF's is the preservation of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, a region of land that's home to a multitude of wildlife. In 2017, after being protected since 1960, Congress and then-U.S. president Donald Trump opened the Arctic Refuge to drilling for oil and gas. This process taking place causes a lot of concern for environmental activists due to

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3108-445: The contiguous United States, Alaska Natives or Native Alaskans do not have treaties with the United States that protect their subsistence rights, except for the right to harvest whales and other marine mammals. The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act explicitly extinguished aboriginal hunting and fishing rights in the state of Alaska. Census 2010. According to the 2010 census this was the ethnic breakdown of Alaska Natives by region,

3182-442: The disturbance undergone by the ecosystem is too important. In this latter case, erosion is responsible for the destruction of the upper horizons of the ground, and is at the origin of a phenomenon of reversion to pioneer conditions. The phenomenon is called retrogression and can be partial or total (in this case, nothing remains beside bare rock). For example, the clearing of an inclined ground, subjected to violent rains, can lead to

3256-477: The effect it can have on the land and its wildlife with heavy machinery, housing, and more. The Alaskan Conservation Foundation has expressed concerns towards the amount of research and intent that is going into this process. As they have done in similar situations, the ACF has provided funding towards organizations that are hoping to prevent these actions from taking place. ACF is a non-profit organization with approximately 13 full-time employees located in Alaska. It

3330-420: The eight Green Star Standards. Soil degradation Soil retrogression and degradation are two regressive evolution processes associated with the loss of equilibrium of a stable soil . Retrogression is primarily due to soil erosion and corresponds to a phenomenon where succession reverts the land to its natural physical state. Degradation is an evolution, different from natural evolution, related to

3404-526: The eighteenth century. British and American traders, coming mostly from eastern settlements in North America, generally did not reach the area until the nineteenth century. In some cases, Christian missionaries were not active in Alaska until the twentieth century. Vitus Bering spotted Alaska during an expedition. Native Alaskans first came into contact with Russians in the 18th century. Time of contact with Russians varied throughout each native group since

3478-521: The end of 1983. Alaska Conservation Foundation seeks to build the influence of Alaska's conservation movement through its community capacity initiative. Organizational capacity grants promote effective operations and leadership within Alaska's conservation organizations. The new Alaska Native Fund, launched in partnership with an Alaska Native steering committee, advances Alaska Native priorities for protecting our land and sustaining our ways of life. The conservation internship program focuses on developing

3552-412: The evolution of soils of short development. The destruction of the vegetation implies the destruction of evoluted soils, or a regressive evolution. Cycles of succession-regression of soils follow one another within short intervals of time (human actions) or long intervals of time (climate variations). The climate role in the deterioration of the rocks and the formation of soils lead to the formulation of

3626-641: The family separation and cultural eradication. In 1912, the Alaska Native Brotherhood (ANB) was formed to help fight for citizenship rights. The Alaska Native Sisterhood (ANS) was created in 1915. Also in 1915, the Alaska Territorial legislature passed a law allowing Alaskan Natives the right to vote – but on the condition that they give up their cultural customs and traditions. The Indian Citizenship Act , passed in 1924, gave all Native Americans United States citizenship. ANB began to hold

3700-597: The first climate refugees for America, due to sea ice melting and increased wildfires in the regions (Bronen and Brubaker). The effects of climate change on the people of Alaska are extensive and include issues such as increased vulnerability to disease, mental health issues, injury, food insecurity, and water insecurity (Brubaker). According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the loss of sea ice will increase erosion area and further displace more native communities. The melting sea ice will also affect

3774-474: The first humus -bearing horizon is formed (the A horizon), followed by some mineral horizons (B horizons). Each successive stage is characterized by a certain association of soil/vegetation and environment, which defines an ecosystem . After a certain time of parallel evolution between the ground and the vegetation, a state of steady balance is reached. This stage of development is called climax by some ecologists and "natural potential" by others. Succession

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3848-442: The government from other Native Americans in the United States . This is in part related to their interactions with the U.S. government which occurred in a different historical period than its interactions during the period of westward expansion during the 19th century. Europeans and Americans did not have sustained encounters with the Alaska Natives until the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries when many were attracted to

3922-409: The imposition of discriminatory laws, segregation amongst Alaskan Natives and Americans occurred; for example, " whites only " signs excluded natives from entering buildings. There were also segregated schools. An 1880 court case describes a child not allowed to attend a school with Americans because his stepfather was native. A child that was part native and part American would only be allowed to attend

3996-481: The islands to find their homes and possessions destroyed or looted. Civil rights activists such as Alberta Schenck Adams and Elizabeth Peratrovich protested discriminatory laws against Native Alaskans with what were effectively sit-ins and lobbying. The Alaska Equal Rights Act of 1945 , the first anti-discrimination state law in the U.S., occurred as a result of these protests. It entitled all Alaskans to "full and equal enjoyment" of public areas and businesses,

4070-456: The local climate and vegetation . It is due to the replacement of primary plant communities (known as climax vegetation ) by the secondary communities. This replacement modifies the humus composition and amount, and affects the formation of the soil . It is directly related to human activity. Soil degradation may also be viewed as any change or ecological disturbance to the soil perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. According to

4144-466: The majority of Alaska Natives live in small villages or remote regional hubs such as Nome , Dillingham , and Bethel , the percentage who live in urban areas has been increasing. In 2010, 44% lived in urban areas, compared to 38% in the 2000 census. As of 2018, natives constitute 15.4% of the overall Alaskan population. The modern history of Alaska Natives begins with the first contact between Alaskan First Nations and Russians sailing from Siberia in

4218-416: The migration of some animals that the tribes rely on and with the ice melting there will be no place to store the food that they do obtain (EPA). Due to the permafrost melting, the infrastructure that has been around in the past will become unstable and native villages will collapse (EPA). The Shishmaref, Kivalina, Shaktoolik and Newtok tribes are located on the west coast of Alaska and due to sea-level rise

4292-645: The next generation of conservation leaders. The Alaska Conservation Foundation hires interns each Summer and appoint them to a non-profit organization. These organizations are devoted to conserving Alaskan land. ACF is directly involved in the Arctic Youth Ambassador program, a system that puts young people from different Arctic regions in a position to learn about conservation efforts. They're then able to participate in conversations and conferences that cover climate change, subsistence, and other conservatory efforts. ACF also houses staff members that represent

4366-469: The particles of the ground to their roots. A disturbance of climax will cause retrogression, but often, secondary succession will start to guide the evolution of the system after that disturbance. Secondary succession is much faster than primary because the soil is already formed, although deteriorated and needing restoration as well. However, when a significant destruction of the vegetation takes place (of natural origin such as an avalanche or human origin),

4440-562: The population of Alaska. Below is a full list of the different Alaska Native or Native Alaskan peoples, who are largely defined by their historical languages (within each culture are different tribes): The Alaska Natives Commission estimated there were about 86,000 Alaska Natives living in Alaska in 1990, with another 17,000 who lived outside Alaska. A 2013 study by the Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development documented more than 120,000 Alaska Native people in Alaska. While

4514-602: The proposed Pebble Mine raised concern for many Alaskans as it threatened over 14,000 jobs, more than 30 Alaska Native Tribes, and a sockeye salmon fishery that's valued at more than $ 1.5 billion. Along with Pebble Mine, two other initiatives have been prioritized by the Alaskan Conservation Foundation as of 2020. First, the preservation of the Tongass National Forest. Located in Southeast Alaska,

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4588-582: The region in gold rushes. The Alaska Natives were not allotted individual title in severalty to land under the Dawes Act of 1887 but were instead treated under the Alaska Native Allotment Act of 1906. The Allotment Act was repealed in 1971, following ANSCA, at which time reservations were ended. Another characteristic difference is that Alaska Native tribal governments do not have the power to collect taxes for business transacted on tribal land, per

4662-623: The risk of crop failure during drought years. In 2008, three years after the initial trials, IWMI scientists conducted a survey among 250 farmers in northeast Thailand, half who had applying bentonite to their fields and half who had not. The average output for those using the clay addition was 18% higher than for non-clay users. Using the clay had enabled some farmers to switch to growing vegetables, which need more fertile soil. This helped to increase their income. The researchers estimated that 200 farmers in northeast Thailand and 400 in Cambodia had adopted

4736-457: The risk of injury, usually there are thick layers of ice all year long but due to increasing temperatures in the atmosphere and the sea the ice is becoming thinner and is increasing the number of people who fall through the ice, if a person survives falling through the ice they are faced with other health concerns (Brubaker). Increased water insecurity and failing infrastructure caused by climate change has created sanitation issues which has increased

4810-677: The spread of disease also altered the populations of Indigenous communities. Although records kept in the period were scarce, it has been said that 80% of the pre-contact population of the Aleut people were gone by 1800. Relationships between Indigenous women and fur traders increased as Indigenous men were away from villages. This resulted in marriages and children that would come to be known as Creole peoples , children who were Indigenous and Russian. To reduce hostilities with Aleutian communities, it became policy for fur traders to enter into marriage with Indigenous women. The Creole population increased in

4884-427: The state's natural environment. Those that are receiving grants provided by the ACF are focused on limiting and ultimately eliminating threats to Alaskan ecosystems. These threats include climate change, pollution, and soil degradation . The ACF has provided support for several organizations that are working on Alaska's most notable environmental situations, such as the protection of Bristol Bay from Pebble Mine. In 2019,

4958-541: The summers leaving their food supply inedible. Gathering of subsistence food continues to be an important economic and cultural activity for many Alaska Natives. In Utqiaġvik, Alaska , in 2005, more than 91 percent of the Iñupiat households which were interviewed still participated in the local subsistence economy, compared with the approximately 33 percent of non-Iñupiat households who used wild resources obtained from hunting, fishing, or gathering. But, unlike many tribes in

5032-580: The territory controlled by the Russian American Company. The growth of the Russian Orthodox Church was another important tactic in the colonization and conversion of Indigenous populations. Ioann Veniaminov, who later became Saint Innocent of Alaska , was an important missionary who carried out the Orthodox Church's agenda to Christianize Indigenous populations. The church encouraged Creole children to follow Russian Orthodox Christianity, while

5106-443: The theory of the biorhexistasy. When the state of balance, characterized by the ecosystem climax is reached, it tends to be maintained stable in the course of time. The vegetation installed on the ground provides the humus and ensures the ascending circulation of the matters. It protects the ground from erosion by playing the role of barrier (for example, protection from water and wind ). Plants can also reduce erosion by binding

5180-520: The third wave of migration, in which people settled across the northern part of North America. They never migrated to southern areas. Genetic studies show they are not closely related to native peoples in South America. Alaska Natives came from Asia. Anthropologists have stated that their journey from Asia to Alaska was made possible through the Bering land bridge or by traveling across the sea. Throughout

5254-471: The use of clays, and that a further 20,000 farmers were introduced to the new technique. Alaska Native Alaska Natives (also known as Alaskan Indians , Alaskan Natives , Native Alaskans , Indigenous Alaskans , Aboriginal Alaskans or First Alaskans ) are the Indigenous peoples of Alaska and include Russian Creoles , Iñupiat , Yupik , Aleut , Eyak , Tlingit , Haida , Tsimshian , and

5328-428: The villages are experiencing more severe storm surges that are eroding their coastlines (Bronen). There is no land for these tribes to move to that are already in the area they live in which forces these communities to migrate and change their whole way of living (Bronen). It is predicted that a climate event will submerge the tribes completely in less than fifteen years (Bronen). Extreme weather conditions has increased

5402-485: Was evangelized. Their movement into these populated areas of Indigenous communities altered the demographic and natural landscape. Historians have suggested that the Russian-American Company exploited Indigenous peoples as a source of inexpensive labor. The Russian-American Company not only used Indigenous populations for labor during the fur trade, but also held some as hostages to acquire iasak . Iasak,

5476-478: Was named the chairperson of the trustees. Denny Wilcher was named president, making both Wilcher and Hunter the founders of the Alaska Conservation Foundation. Other early members were expanded and appointed to advising positions of their own. By the end of 1983, The Alaska Conservation Foundation had received a total of $ 1,156,000 in funding. This led to them being able to disburse grants to 26 different Alaskan conservation organizations, totaling $ 610,000 in grants by

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