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87-512: This sutra shows elements of Mahayana sutras such as the belief that an Arahant can see all the Buddha fields and a practice which allows one to see with the eyes of the Buddha and receive teachings from him. Yet there is no clear differentiation made between Mahayana and Sravaka teachings, which are seen as inferior in later Mahayana texts. The word Mahayana does not appear in it. Therefore this sutra

174-515: A Buddha from countless previous incarnations ago, alias Samyaka Dharma-vidya Tathāgata means "Tathāgata who clearly understood the right Dharma". Because of his great compassion and because he wanted to create proper conditions for all the Bodhisattva ranks and bring happiness and peacefulness to sentient beings, he became a Bodhisattva, taking the name of Avalokiteshvara and often abiding in the Sahā world. At

261-413: A Buddha is often seen as "a spiritual king, relating to and caring for the world", rather than simply a teacher who after his death "has completely 'gone beyond' the world and its cares". Buddha Sakyamuni 's life and death on earth is then usually understood docetically , as a "mere appearance", his death was an unreal show (which was done in order to teach others), while in reality he continues to live in

348-458: A Buddha, a disciple of a Buddha, a deva (heavenly being), a ṛṣi (a sage), or an emanation of one of these beings; however, they must first receive certification from a Buddha that its contents are true Dharma. The Indian Mahāyāna scholar Shantideva (8th century) states: Through four factors is an inspired utterance [ pratibhana ] the word of the Buddhas. What four? (i)...the inspired utterance

435-470: A body of ten Mahayana sutras translated by Lokaksema before 186 C.E. – and these constitute our earliest objectively dated Mahayana texts. This picture may be qualified by the analysis of very early manuscripts recently coming out of Afghanistan, but for the meantime this is speculation. In effect we have a vast body of anonymous but relatively coherent literature, of which individual items can only be dated firmly when they were translated into another language at

522-730: A broad genre of Buddhist scripture ( sūtra ) that are accepted as canonical and as buddhavacana ("Buddha word") in certain communities of Mahāyāna Buddhism . They are largely preserved in Sanskrit manuscripts, and translations in the Tibetan Buddhist canon and Chinese Buddhist canon . Several hundred Mahāyāna sūtras survive in Sanskrit, or in Chinese and Tibetan translations. They are also sometimes called Vaipulya ("extensive") sūtras by earlier sources. The Buddhist scholar Asaṅga classified

609-483: A common prevailing view of the Mahāyāna sūtras among modern Buddhist studies scholars as follows: Western scholarship does not go so far as to impugn the religious authority of Mahayana sutras, but it tends to assume that they are not the literal word of the historical Śākyamuni Buddha. Unlike the śrāvaka critics just cited, we have no possibility of knowing just who composed and compiled these texts, and for us, removed from

696-407: A compassionate bodhisattva who hears the cries of sentient beings and who works tirelessly to help those who call upon his name. A total of 33 different manifestations of Avalokiteśvara are described, including female manifestations, all to suit the minds of various beings. The chapter consists of both a prose and a verse section. This earliest source often circulates separately as its own sutra, called

783-460: A fashion similar to later Mahayana sutras by stating that those who teach the sutra will attain good rebirths and Buddhahood and those who listen to even one verse it will become Bodhisattvas , while those who condemn the sutra will go to hell. Hence this sutra shows only an opposition to those who deny the teachings presented in the sutra, not to mainstream practitioners working towards Arhatship. Mahayana sutras The Mahāyāna sūtras are

870-828: A female form and is called Guanyin (also spelled Kwan Yin, Kuanyin, or Kwun Yum), "Hearing the Sounds of the World". In Japan, Guanyin is Kannon or Kanzeon; in Korea, Gwaneum ; and in Vietnam, Quan Am . Avalokiteśvara is worshipped as Nātha in Sri Lanka. The Tamil Buddhist tradition developed in Chola literature , such as Buddamitra's Virasoliyam , states that the Vedic sage Agastya learned Tamil from Avalokiteśvara. The earlier Chinese traveler Xuanzang recorded

957-516: A known date. A. K. Warder notes that the Mahāyāna Sūtras are highly unlikely to have come from the teachings of the historical Buddha, since the language and style of every extant Mahāyāna Sūtra is comparable more to later Indian texts than to texts that could have circulated in the Buddha's putative lifetime. Warder also notes that the Tibetan historian Tāranātha (1575–1634) proclaimed that after

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1044-411: A monk and becomes an Arhat. As an enlightened Arhat he is able to see the Buddha fields (Skt. buddha-kṣetra) where Buddhas live and teach. According to Paul Williams, the development of early Mahayana may have been influenced by the desire to access Buddha fields in visions and dreams. The sutra also teaches that recitation of the name of the Buddha can save one from suffering and hell. The sutra ends in

1131-619: A result of the works of the earliest Western translators of Buddhist Scriptures, the Lotus Sutra, however, has long been accepted as the earliest literature teaching about the doctrines of Avalokiteśvara. These are found in Chapter 25 of the Lotus Sutra: The Universal Gate of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara ( Chinese : 觀世音菩薩普門品 ; pinyin : Guānshìyīn púsà pǔ mén pǐn ). This chapter is devoted to Avalokiteśvara, describing him as

1218-507: A select few individuals. The practice of visualization of Buddhas (in texts like the Sukhāvatīvyūha ) has been seen by some scholars as a possible explanation for the source of certain Mahāyāna sūtras which were seen as revelations from Buddha in other heavenly worlds. Williams also notes that there are other Mahāyāna texts which speak of sūtras being revealed or entrusted to forest dwelling monks by devas (deities). Paul Harrison notes that

1305-662: A small elite of hardcore ascetics. While some Mahāyāna sūtras like the Vimalakirti sūtra and the White Lotus sūtra criticize arhats and sravakas (referring to non-Mahāyānists) as lacking wisdom, and reject their path as a lower vehicle, i.e. ' hīnayāna ' (the 'inferior way'), earlier Mahāyāna sūtras do not do this. As noted by David Drewes "early Mahāyāna sūtras often present their teachings as useful not only to people who wish to become Buddhas, but to those who wish to attain arhatship or pratyekabuddhahood as well. The old idea that

1392-667: A temple dedicated to Avalokitesvara in the south Indian Mount Potalaka , a Sanskritization of Pothigai , where Tamil Hindu tradition places Agastya as having learned the Tamil language from Shiva . Avalokitesvara worship gained popularity with the growth of the Abhayagiri vihāra 's Tamraparniyan Mahayana sect. Western scholars have not reached a consensus on the origin of the reverence for Avalokiteśvara. Some have suggested that Avalokiteśvara, along with many other supernatural beings in Buddhism,

1479-463: A transcendent realm in order to help all beings. Mahāyāna sūtras, especially those of the Prajñāpāramitā genre, teach the importance of the practice of the six perfections ( pāramitā ) as part of the path to Buddhahood , and special attention is given to the perfection of wisdom ( prajñāpāramitā ) which is seen as primary. The importance of developing bodhicitta , which refers to a mind that

1566-480: A translation by Amoghavajra (T. 1033, 20: 9b1–7): namoratnatrayāya | nama āryāvalokiteśvarāya bodhisattvāya mahāsattvāya mahākāruṇikāya | tadyathā padmapāṇi sara sara ehy ehi bhagavann āryāvalokiteśvara ārolik | In Chinese, oṃ ārolik svāha is pronounced Ǎn ālǔlēi jì suōpóhē (唵 阿嚕勒繼 娑婆訶). In Korean, it is pronounced Om aroreuk Ge Sabaha (옴 아로늑계 사바하). In Japanese, it is pronounced On arori kya sowa ka (おん あろりきゃ そわか). The Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra also features

1653-443: Is Guanyin ( Chinese : 觀音 ; pinyin : Guānyīn ). It was initially thought that this was due to a lack of fluency, as Guanyin indicates the original Sanskrit form was instead Avalokitasvara , "who looked down upon sound", i.e. , the cries of sentient beings who need help. It is now understood that Avalokitasvara was the original form and is also the origin of Guanyin "perceiving sound, cries". This translation

1740-607: Is oṃ maṇi padme hūṃ hrīḥ. Hrīḥ is the seed syllable of the Lotus Buddha family and the Buddha Amitabha . Recitation of this mantra while using prayer beads is the most popular religious practice in Tibetan Buddhism. Another popular religious practice associated with om mani padme hum is the spinning of prayer wheels clockwise, which contains numerous repetitions of this mantra and effectively benefits everyone within

1827-656: Is "three and a half syllables" (ardhacaturthākṣara) heart-mantra: " oṃ ārolik svāha " (or sometimes just Ārolik or oṁ ārolik ), which is found (in many forms and variations like ārolika , arulika , etc.) in numerous pre-tenth-century Indian texts, including the 7th century Chinese translation of the Dhāraṇīsaṁgraha , the Susiddhikarasūtra , the Mañjuśriyamūlakalpa , and the Guhyasamājatantra . This

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1914-496: Is aimed at full awakening (i.e. Buddhahood) is also stressed. Another central practice advocated by the Mahāyāna sūtras is focused around "the acquisition of merit , the universal currency of the Buddhist world, a vast quantity of which was believed to be necessary for the attainment of Buddhahood". According to David Drewes, Mahāyāna sūtras teach simple religious practices that are supposed to make Buddhahood easy to achieve. Some of

2001-724: Is almost exclusively Theravada , based on the Pali Canon. The only Mahayana deity that has entered the worship of ordinary Buddhists in Theravada Buddhism is Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara . In Sri Lanka, he is known as Natha-deva and is mistaken by the majority for the Buddha yet to come, Bodhisattva Maitreya . The figure of Avalokitesvara is usually found in the shrine room near the Buddha image. In more recent times, some western-educated Theravādins have attempted to identify Nātha with Maitreya Bodhisattva; however, traditions and basic iconography (including an image of Amitābha Buddha on

2088-895: Is also the main mantra for the bodhisattva in Shingon Buddhism and is considered to be the main mantra of the Lotus Buddha family . One text (Taisho Tripitaka no. 1031) describes a visualization practice done after reciting oṁ ārolik svāhā seven times which includes meditating on the meanings of the four letters of ārolik which are: The Ārolik mantra has also been found engraved on a few sculptures found in north India . One of these begins with "ārolik oṁ hrīḥ". Another one of these found in Bihar also included other mantras, including ye dharma hetu , followed by "namo ratnatrayāya namo Āryāvalokiteśvarāya bodhisatvāya mahāsatvāya mahākāruṇikāya Ārolok Oṁ hriḥ hriḥ". Another longer mantra appears in

2175-401: Is based on the idea that "Whatever is well spoken [ subhasita ], all that is the word of the Buddha [ buddhabhasita ]." As such, this idea holds that Mahāyāna is the "word of the Buddha" because it leads to awakening ( bodhi ), not because it was spoken by a specific individual with the title "Buddha". According to Venerable Hsuan Hua , there are five types of beings who may speak "Buddha word":

2262-517: Is connected with truth, not untruth; (ii) it is connected with the Dharma, not that which is not the Dharma; (iii) it brings about the renunciation of moral taints [ klesa ] not their increase; and (iv) it shows the laudable qualities of nirvana, not those of the cycle of rebirth [samsara]. Williams writes that similar ideas can be found in the Pali Canon , though it is interpreted in a more open ended way in

2349-433: Is evidence of disagreement as regards the details of the Buddha's teaching. John W. Pettit writes that "Mahāyāna has not got a strong historical claim for representing the explicit teachings of the historical Buddha". However, he also argues that basic Mahāyāna concepts such as "the bodhisattva ethic, emptiness (sunyata), and the recognition of a distinction between buddhahood and arhatship as spiritual ideals," can be seen in

2436-661: Is promoted in some of the sutras themselves. The Prajñāpāramitā sutras promote the copying, reading, recitation, contemplation, and distribution of the sutra, and they also teach its worship and veneration. The Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra states: Here, the sons or daughters of good family are enjoined to put up a copy of the Prajñāpāramitā on an altar, and to pay respect to it, to revere, worship and adore it, pay regard and reverence to it with flowers, incense, powders, umbrellas, banners, bells, and rows of burning lamps. The Prajñāpāramitā sutras also reference themselves as

2523-459: Is seen as dating from a period before the Buddhists that held "Mahayanist" views began to see themselves as distinct from mainstream Buddhism. One of the central themes of the sutra is the importance of practicing Dāna (giving to the community of monks) by the laity. In the sutra a beggar woman attempts suicide because she has nothing to give and is presented with gifts from a god which she gives to

2610-464: Is the most popular mantra in Tibetan Buddhism . The name Avalokiteśvara combines the verbal prefix ava "down", lokita , a past participle of the verb lok "to look, notice, behold, observe", here used in an active sense, and finally īśvara , "lord", "ruler", "sovereign", or "master". In accordance with sandhi (Sanskrit rules of sound combination), a + īśvara becomes eśvara . Combined,

2697-509: Is widely chanted and recited by East Asian Buddhists is: Chinese: 南無觀世音菩薩 , Pinyin: Námó Guānshìyīn Púsà (Japanese: Namu Kanzeon Bosatsu ) In English: Homage to Guanyin Bodhisattva. There are also longer chants, usually termed "White Robed Guanyin" (Baiyin Guanyin) sutras (jing) or mantras (zhou). The most well known is the "Divine White-robed Guanyin Mantra" (c. 11th century). This longer mantra

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2784-640: The Gaṇḍavyūha Sūtra and Xuanzang's Great Tang Records on the Western Regions , is Mount Potigai in Ambasamudram , Tirunelveli , at the Tamil Nadu - Kerala border. Shu also said that Mount Potalaka has been a sacred place for the people of South India since time immemorial. It is the traditional residence of Siddhar Agastya at Agastya Mala . With the spread of Buddhism in the region beginning at

2871-720: The Avalokiteśvara Sūtra ( Chinese : 觀世音經 ; pinyin : Guānshìyīn jīng ), and is commonly recited or chanted at Buddhist temples in East Asia. When the Chinese monk Faxian traveled to Mathura in India around 400 CE, he wrote about monks presenting offerings to Avalokiteśvara. When Xuanzang traveled to India in the 7th century, he provided eyewitness accounts of Avalokiteśvara statues being venerated by devotees from all walks of life, from kings to monks to laypeople. In Chinese Buddhism and East Asia, Tangmi practices for

2958-604: The Pāli Canon . According to Pettit, this suggests that Mahāyāna is "not simply an accretion of fabricated doctrines" but "has a strong connection with the teachings of Buddha himself". Mahāyāna sūtras are generally regarded by Mahāyānists as being more profound than the śrāvaka texts as well as generating more spiritual merit and benefit. Thus, they are seen as superior and more virtuous to non-Mahāyāna sūtras. The Mahāyāna sūtras were not recognized as being Buddha word ( buddhavacana ) by various groups of Indian Buddhists and there

3045-492: The 18-armed form of Avalokiteśvara called Cundī are very popular. The popularity of Cundī is attested by the three extant translations of the Cundī Dhāraṇī Sūtra from Sanskrit to Chinese, made from the end of the seventh century to the beginning of the eighth century. In late imperial China , these early esoteric traditions still thrived in Buddhist communities. Robert Gimello has also observed that in these communities,

3132-407: The Buddha taught the sutras, they disappeared from the human world and circulated only in the world of the nagas . In Warder's view, "this is as good as an admission that no such texts existed until the 2nd century A.D." Paul Williams writes that while Mahāyāna tradition believes that the Mahāyāna sūtras were taught by the Buddha, "source-critical and historical awareness has made it impossible for

3219-468: The Buddha under whom Dharmakara became a monk and made forty-eight vows before becoming Amitābha . Avalokiteśvara's six armed manifestation as Cintāmaṇicakra is also widely venerated in East Asia. The Cintāmaṇicakra Dharani ( Chinese : 如意寶輪王陀羅尼 ; pinyin : Rúyì Bǎolún Wáng Tuóluóní ) is another popular dharani associated with the bodhisattva. There are various mantras and dharanis associated with Avalokiteśvara. In Tibetan Buddhism ,

3306-425: The Buddha's word by the school of Theravāda Buddhism . The origins of the Mahāyāna and their sūtras are not completely understood. Modern scholars have proposed numerous theories about the origins of Mahāyāna and the Mahāyāna texts. Some of the main theories are the following: According to David Drewes, none of these theories have been satisfactorily proven and they lack sufficient evidence. Drewes writes that

3393-536: The Buddhas Amitabha , Akshobhya and Vairocana , and the bodhisattvas Maitreya , Mañjusri , Ksitigarbha , and Avalokiteshvara . An important feature of Mahāyāna is the way that it understands the nature of Buddhahood . Mahāyāna texts see Buddhas (and to a lesser extent, certain bodhisattvas as well) as transcendental or supramundane ( lokuttara ) beings, who live for eons constantly helping others through their activity. According to Paul Williams, in Mahāyāna,

3480-629: The Great Compassion Mantra. It is very popular in East Asian Buddhism . Another popular Avalokiteśvara dharani in East Asian Buddhism is Eleven-Faced Avalokitesvara Heart Dharani . This dharani is associated with Avalokiteśvara's eleven face form, known as Ekādaśamukha , one of the six forms of Guanyin. In East Asian Buddhism, the most popular form of Avalokiteśvara is the feminine white robed Guanyin . A common phrase which

3567-525: The Mahāyāna began with the rejection of the arhat ideal in favor of that of the bodhisattva is thus clearly incorrect." Paul Williams also writes that earlier Mahāyāna sūtras like the Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra and the Ajitasena sutra do not present any antagonism towards the hearers or the ideal of arhatship like later sutras. According to David Drewes, Mahāyāna sūtras contain several elements besides

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3654-423: The Mahāyāna in order to include a larger set of teachings that were seen as spiritually useful. The modern Japanese Zen Buddhist scholar D. T. Suzuki similarly argued that while the Mahāyāna sūtras may not have been directly taught by the historical Buddha, the "spirit and central ideas" of Mahāyāna "are those of its founder". Thus, Suzuki admits (and celebrates) how the Mahāyāna evolved and adapted itself to suit

3741-637: The Mahāyāna sūtras as part of the Bodhisattva Piṭaka , a collection of texts meant for bodhisattvas . Modern scholars of Buddhist studies generally hold that these sūtras first began to appear between the 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE. They continued being composed, compiled, and edited until the decline of Buddhism in ancient India . Some of them may have also been composed outside of India, such as in Central Asia and in East Asia . Some of

3828-454: The Mahāyāna sūtras is the ideal of the Bodhisattva path, something which is not unique to them, however, as such a path is also taught in non-Mahayana texts which also required prediction of future Buddhahood in the presence of a living Buddha. What is unique to Mahāyāna sūtras is the idea that the term bodhisattva is applicable to any person from the moment they intend to become a Buddha (i.e.

3915-428: The Mahāyāna teachings. The reason these accounts give for the historically late disclosure of the Mahāyāna teachings is that most people were initially unable to understand the Mahāyāna sūtras at the time of the Buddha (500 BCE) and suitable recipients for these teachings had not yet arisen. Some traditional accounts of the transmission of the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras claim that they were originally stored or hidden in

4002-471: The World") and Chenrezig (in Tibetan), is a tenth-level bodhisattva associated with great compassion ( mahakaruṇā ). He is often associated with Amitabha Buddha . Avalokiteśvara has numerous manifestations and is depicted in various forms and styles. In some texts, he is even considered to be the source of all Hindu deities (such as Vishnu , Shiva , Saraswati , Brahma , etc). While Avalokiteśvara

4089-614: The World"). In Tibetan , Avalokiteśvara is Chenrézig ( Tibetan : སྤྱན་རས་གཟིགས་ ). The etymology of the Tibetan name Chenrézik is spyan "eye", ras "continuity", and gzig "to look". This gives the meaning of one who always looks upon all beings (with the eye of compassion). The name Avalokiteśvara first appeared in the Avatamsaka Sutra , a Mahayana scripture that precedes the Lotus Sutra . On account of its popularity in Japan and as

4176-474: The arising of bodhicitta ) and without the requirement of a living Buddha. They also claim that any person who accepts and uses Mahāyāna sūtras either had already received or will soon receive such a prediction from a Buddha, establishing their position as an irreversible bodhisattva. Some Mahāyāna sūtras promote it as a universal path for everyone, while others like the Ugraparipṛcchā see it as something for

4263-569: The central mantra is the six-syllable mantra oṃ maṇi padme hūṃ ( Sanskrit : ॐ मणि पद्मे हूँ , also called the Mani mantra. Due to his association with this mantra, one form of Avalokiteśvara is called Ṣaḍākṣarī ("Lord of the Six Syllables") in Sanskrit . The Mani mantra is also popular in East Asian Mahayana . There are also different variations of the mani mantra, the most common which

4350-513: The content found in the sūtras. Numerous Mahayana sutras teach the veneration and recitation of the sutras themselves as a religious icon and as an embodiment of the Dharma and the Buddha. In Indian Mahayana Buddhism , the worship of sutras, like the Prajñāpāramitā sutra books ( pustaka ) and manuscripts became an important part of Mahayana practice which was considered to bring wisdom, merit and apotropaic protection from harm. This practice

4437-680: The designation 'Teacher' with regard to this perfection of wisdom—he thinks, 'The Teacher is face to face with me, the Teacher is seen by me.' Since the sutras teach and lead one to perfect wisdom, and perfect wisdom was considered to be the mother of all Buddhas, then to honor and to know the text was to honor and to know the Buddha. As such, the Aṣṭasāhasrikā states: Avalokite%C5%9Bvara In Buddhism , Avalokiteśvara (meaning "the lord who looks down", IPA : / ˌ ʌ v əl oʊ k ɪ ˈ t eɪ ʃ v ər ə / ), also known as Lokeśvara ("Lord of

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4524-687: The early Mahāyāna texts, which were not written documents but orally preserved teachings. Drewes writes, that Mahāyāna sūtras advocate mnemic/oral/aural practices more frequently than they do written ones, make reference to people who have memorized or are in the process of memorizing them, and consistently attach higher prestige to mnemic/oral practices than to ones involving written texts. Study of differences in various versions of sutras translated into Chinese has directly shown that these texts were often transmitted orally. Mahāyāna sūtras were committed to memory and recited by important learned monks called "Dharma reciters" ( dharmabhāṇakas ), who were viewed as

4611-413: The entire Hīnayāna corpus. There is also no evidence that Mahāyāna ever referred to a separate formal school or sect of Buddhism, but rather that it existed within the early Buddhist schools as a certain set of ideals, texts and later doctrines, for bodhisattvas. Mahāyānists also never had a separate Vinaya (monastic rule) from the early Buddhist schools . The Chinese monk Yijing who visited India in

4698-513: The esoteric practices of Cundī were extremely popular among both the populace and the elite. In the Tiantai school, six forms of Avalokiteśvara are defined. Each of the bodhisattva's six qualities is said to break the hindrances in one of the six realms of existence: hell-beings, pretas , animals, humans, asuras , and devas . According to the prologue of Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī Sūtra, Gautama Buddha told his disciple Ānanda that Avalokiteśvara had become

4785-458: The fact that they only appeared at a later time. One such reason was that they had been hidden away in the land of the Nāgas (snake deities, dragons) until the proper time for their dissemination arrived. The Mahāyāna sūtras were not accepted by all Buddhists in ancient India, and the various Indian Buddhist schools disagreed on their status as "word of the Buddha". They are generally not accepted as

4872-493: The fifth and sixth centuries saw a great increase in their production. By this time, Chinese pilgrims, such as Faxian , Yijing , and Xuanzang were traveling to India, and their writings describe monasteries which they label 'Mahāyāna' as well as monasteries where both Mahāyāna monks and non-Mahāyāna monks lived together. Dating the Mahāyāna sūtras is quite difficult; and many can only be dated firmly to when they were translated into another language. Andrew Skilton summarizes

4959-398: The fifth century. This earlier Sanskrit name was supplanted by the form containing the ending -īśvara "lord", but Avalokiteśvara did not occur in Sanskrit before the seventh century. The original meaning of the name fits the Buddhist understanding of the role of a bodhisattva. The reinterpretation presenting him as an īśvara shows a strong influence of Hinduism , as the term īśvara

5046-511: The first appearance of the dhāraṇī of Cundī , which occurs at the end of the sūtra text. After the bodhisattva finally attains samādhi with the mantra "oṃ maṇipadme hūṃ", he is able to observe 77 koṭīs of fully enlightened buddhas replying to him in one voice with the Cundī Dhāraṇī: namaḥ saptānāṃ samyaksaṃbuddha koṭīnāṃ tadyathā, oṃ cale cule cunde svāhā. The Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī is an 82-syllable dhāraṇī for Avalokiteśvara also known as

5133-504: The front of the crown) identify Nātha as Avalokiteśvara. Andrew Skilton writes: ... It is clear from sculptural evidence alone that the Mahāyāna was fairly widespread throughout Sri Lanka, although the modern account of the history of Buddhism on the island presents an unbroken and pure lineage of Theravāda. (One can only assume that similar trends were transmitted to other parts of Southeast Asia with Sri Lankan ordination lineages.) Relics of an extensive cult of Avalokiteśvara can be seen in

5220-465: The highest object of study and worship, claiming that studying, reciting, and worshiping them is superior to worshiping stupas , Buddha relics , and other objects. The Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā claims that this is because "the relics of the Tathāgata have come forth from this perfection of wisdom". Since the very concept of Prajñāpāramitā (transcendent knowledge, perfection of wisdom) is linked with

5307-502: The idea that devas may preach the Buddha word is also present in non-Mahāyāna texts. Paul Harrison has also noted the importance of dream revelations in certain texts such as the Arya-svapna-nirdesa which lists and interprets 108 dream signs. A different Mahāyāna justification for the authenticity of the Mahāyāna sūtras is that they are in accord with the truth, with the Buddha's Dharma and therefore they lead to awakening. This

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5394-461: The modern scholar to accept this traditional account." However, Williams further writes that Nevertheless, it is not always absurd to suggest that a Mahāyāna sūtra or teaching may contain elements of a tradition which goes back to the Buddha himself, which was played down or just possibly excluded from the canonical formulations of the early schools. We have seen that even at the First Council there

5481-477: The monks; the sutra predicts that she will attain Buddhahood because of her almsgiving and gain a good rebirth. This story presents the idea that all people have access to Buddhahood. One of the main characters in the sutra is Nandimitra, who is sent by the Buddha as an adviser to king Ajitasena (whose son is the reborn woman above) to teach the king about the importance of almsgiving. The prince decides to ordain as

5568-887: The most influential Mahāyāna sūtras include the Lotus Sutra , the Perfection of Wisdom Sutras , the Avatamsaka Sutra , the Lankavatara Sutra , the Pure Land Sutras , and the Nirvana Sutra . Mahāyāna Buddhists typically consider several major Mahāyāna sūtras to have been taught by Shakyamuni Buddha , committed to memory and recited by his disciples, in particular Ananda . However, other Mahāyāna sūtras are presented as being taught by other figures, such as bodhisattvas like Mañjuśrī and Avalokiteśvara . There are various reasons that Indian Mahāyāna Buddhists gave to explain

5655-591: The most likely origin of Mahāyāna is that it was "primarily a textual movement, focused on the revelation, preaching, and dissemination of Mahāyāna sūtras, that developed within, and never really departed from, traditional Buddhist social and institutional structures." The figures of this movement probably saw themselves as bodhisattvas entrusted with teaching and preserving the Mahāyāna sūtras. Scholars like Joseph Walser have also noted how Mahāyāna sūtras are heterogeneous and seem to have been composed in different communities with varying ideas. Walser writes that "Mahāyāna

5742-482: The most widely taught practices taught in Mahāyāna sūtras include: Another innovative "shortcut" to Buddhahood in Mahāyāna sutras are what are often called Pure Land practices. These involve the invocation of Buddhas such as Amitabha and Aksobhya , who are said to have created " Buddha fields " or "pure lands" especially so that those beings who wish to be reborn there can easily and quickly become Buddhas. Reciting certain sūtras, along with meditating on and reciting

5829-481: The names of these Buddhas can allow one to be reborn in these pure buddha-fields. One there, one can hear the Dharma directly from a Buddha and train in the bodhisattva path in a pure place without disturbances. The study of Mahāyāna sūtras is central to East Asian Buddhism , where they are widely read. In Tibetan Buddhism meanwhile, there is a greater emphasis on the study of Mahāyāna śāstras (philosophical treatises), which are seen as more systematic ways of studying

5916-477: The parts mean "lord who gazed down (at the world)". The word loka ("world") is absent from the name, but the phrase is implied. It does appear in the Cambodian form of the name, Lokesvarak . The earliest translation of the name Avalokiteśvara into Chinese by authors such as Xuanzang was as Guānzìzài ( Chinese : 觀自在 ; pinyin : Guān zìzài ), not the form used in East Asian Buddhism today, which

6003-457: The present-day figure of Nātha. Avalokiteśvara is popularly worshipped in Myanmar , where he is called Lokanat or lokabyuharnat, and Thailand , where he is called Lokesvara . The bodhisattva goes by many other names. In Indochina and Thailand, he is Lokesvara , "The Lord of the World". In Tibet, he is Chenrezig , also spelled Spyan-ras gzigs, "With a Pitying Look". In China, the bodhisattva takes

6090-402: The promotion of the bodhisattva ideal, including "expanded cosmologies and mythical histories, ideas of purelands and great, 'celestial' Buddhas and bodhisattvas , descriptions of powerful new religious practices, new ideas on the nature of the Buddha, and a range of new philosophical perspectives." Several Mahāyāna sūtras depict Buddhas or Bodhisattvas not found in earlier texts, such as

6177-485: The realm of the nāgas (serpent-like supernatural beings). Later, these sūtras were retrieved by Nāgārjuna . Other Mahāyāna sources state that they were preached or preserved by bodhisattvas like Mañjuśrī or Buddhas like Vajradhāra . Another Mahāyāna explanation for the later appearance of the Mahāyāna sūtras in the historical record is the idea that they are the revelations of certain Buddhas and bodhisattvas, transmitted through visions and meditative experiences to

6264-549: The same time, Avalokiteśvara is also the attendant of Amitabha Buddha, assisting Amitabha Buddha to teach the Dharma in his Pure Land. Veneration of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva has continued to the present day in Sri Lanka . In times past, both Tantrayana and Mahayana have been found in some of the Theravada countries, but today the Buddhism of Sri Lanka (formerly, Ceylon), Myanmar (formerly, Burma), Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia

6351-523: The seventh century, writes about how Mahāyāna monastics and non-Mahāyāna monastics lived together under the same Vinaya. The only difference among them was that Mahāyāna monks venerated the bodhisattvas and read the Mahāyāna sūtras. Some scholars like Richard Gombrich think that Mahāyāna Sūtras only arose after the practice of writing down religious texts became widespread in India and thus that they were always written documents. However, James Apple and David Drewes have drawn attention to these oral features of

6438-534: The substitute for the actual speaking presence of the Buddha. Much of the early extant evidence for the origins of Mahāyāna comes from early Chinese translations of Mahāyāna texts. These Mahāyāna teachings were first propagated into China by Lokakṣema , the first translator of Mahāyāna Sūtras into Chinese during the second century. The Mahāyāna movement remained quite small until the fifth century, with very few manuscripts having been found before then (the exceptions are from Bamiyan ). According to Joseph Walser,

6525-658: The sutra itself is placed or recited, it makes the ground a caitya (a sacred space, shrine, sanctuary). According to Jacob Kinnard, Prajñāpāramitā sutras even present their physical form (as books, manuscripts, etc) as being akin to the Buddha's rūpakāya (physical form to be worshiped, like his relics) as well as being his dharmakāya (which contains the Dharma , the Buddha's teachings). The Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā further states: One might hear this deep perfection of wisdom being spoken, being taught, being explained, being pointed out, and having heard it here he might bring forth

6612-466: The texts themselves, the texts were considered to have a mystic power within, which is the source of all the merit in the other religious objects, like Buddha relics. Furthermore, Mahayana sutras like the Aṣṭasāhasrikā often claim that the Buddha is present in the text. For example the Aṣṭasāhasrikā says that "when a pūja is done to the Prajñāpāramitā, it is a pūja to the venerable past, present, and future Buddhas." This sutra also states that wherever

6699-426: The time of the great king Aśoka in the third century BCE, it became a holy place also for Buddhists, who gradually became dominant as a number of their hermits settled there. The local people, though, mainly remained followers of the Tamil animist religion. The mixed Tamil-Buddhist cult culminated in the formation of the figure of Avalokiteśvara. The name Lokeśvara should not be confused with that of Lokeśvararāja ,

6786-413: The time of their authors by up to two millennia, they are effectively an anonymous literature. It is widely accepted that Mahayana sutras constitute a body of literature that began to appear from as early as the 1st century BCE, although the evidence for this date is circumstantial. The concrete evidence for dating any part of this literature is to be found in dated Chinese translations, amongst which we find

6873-441: The times by developing new teachings and texts, while at the same time maintaining the core "spirit" of the Buddha. The teachings as contained in the Mahāyāna sūtras as a whole have been described as a loosely bound bundle of many teachings, which was able to contain the various contradictions. Because of these contradictory elements, there are "very few things that can be said with certainty about Mahāyāna Buddhism". Central to

6960-546: The vicinity of the practitioner. The connection between this famous mantra and Avalokiteśvara is documented for the first time in the Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra . This text is dated to around the late 4th century CE to the early 5th century CE. In this sūtra, a bodhisattva is told by the Buddha that recitation of this mantra while focusing on the sound can lead to the attainment of eight hundred samādhis . Another mantra for Avalokiteśvara commonly recited in East Asian Buddhism

7047-420: Was a borrowing or absorption by Mahayana Buddhism of one or more deities from Hinduism , in particular Shiva or Vishnu . This seems to be based on the name Avalokiteśvara. On the basis of the study of Buddhist scriptures and ancient Tamil literary sources as well as a field survey, Japanese scholar Shu Hikosaka proposes the hypothesis that ancient Mount Potalaka, the residence of Avalokiteśvara described in

7134-690: Was also known as being strongly opposed to the Mahayana sutras as noted by the Tibetan historian Tāranātha . Xuanzang reports that a Saṃmitīya known as Prajñāgupta composed a treatise which argued against the Mahāyāna. Various Mahāyāna sūtras warn against the charge that they are not word of the Buddha and defend their authenticity in different ways. Some Mahāyāna sūtras such as the Gaṇḍavyūha often criticize early Buddhist figures, such as Sariputra for lacking knowledge and goodness, and thus, these elders or śrāvaka are seen as not intelligent enough to receive

7221-441: Was depicted as male in India, in East Asian Buddhism , Avalokiteśvara is most often depicted as a female figure known as Guanyin , Kannon , Gwaneum , and Quan Am in Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese, respectively. Guanyin is also an important figure in other East Asian religions , particularly Chinese folk religion and Daoism . Avalokiteśvara is also known for his popular mantra , oṃ maṇi padme hūṃ , which

7308-412: Was favored by the tendency of some Chinese translators, notably Kumārajīva , to use the variant Guānshìyīn Chinese : 觀世音 ; pinyin : Guānshìyīn "who perceives the world's lamentations"—wherein lok was read as simultaneously meaning both "to look" and "world" (Sanskrit loka ; Chinese : 世 ; pinyin : shì ). The original form of Guanyin's name appears in Sanskrit fragments from

7395-599: Was lively debate over their authenticity throughout the Buddhist world. Buddhist communities such as the Mahāsāṃghika school and the Theravada tradition of Sri Lanka became divided into groups which accepted or did not accept these texts. Theravāda commentaries of the Mahavihara sub-school mention these texts (which they call Vedalla/Vetulla ) as not being the Buddha word and being counterfeit scriptures. The Saṃmitīya school

7482-636: Was probably never unitary, but differed from region to region.". Likewise, Hajime Nakamura states: Unlike the various recensions of the Hīnayāna canon, which were virtually closed by the early centuries of the common era and which shared, at least ideally, a common structure . . . the Mahāyāna scriptures were composed in a variety of disparate social and religious environments over the course of several centuries, diverge widely from each other in content and outlook, and were in many cases meant to stand as individual works representing (it has been conjectured) rivals to

7569-626: Was usually connected to the Hindu notion of Vishnu (in Vaishnavism ) or Shiva (in Shaivism ) as the Supreme Lord , Creator, and Ruler of the world. Some attributes of such a god were transmitted to the bodhisattva, but the mainstream of those who venerated Avalokiteśvara upheld the Buddhist rejection of the doctrine of any creator god. In Sanskrit, Avalokiteśvara is also referred to as Lokeśvara ("Lord of

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