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103-507: Station scientists study biological, economic, and social problems of food and agriculture and related industries in each state. They investigate such areas as crop variations , soil testing , livestock , processing and animal technology , and other advanced technology in food and agriculture. They also work with specialists called extension agents . These specialists help inform farmers about developments in agriculture. Most agricultural experiment station scientists are faculty members of

206-671: A bill was introduced into the House of Representatives and later the Senate by Senator George Felix Allen . In 2007 Boyd testified before the United States House Committee on the Judiciary about this legislation. As the organization was making headway by gathering Congressional supporters in 2007 it was revealed that some USDA Farm Services Agency employees were engaged in activities aimed at blocking Congressional legislation that would aid

309-669: A buildup of pathogens affecting a critical crop. The consequences of faulty rotation may take years to become apparent even to experienced soil scientists and can take just as long to correct. United States Department of Agriculture The United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) is an executive department of the United States federal government that aims to meet the needs of commercial farming and livestock food production, promotes agricultural trade and production, works to assure food safety , protects natural resources, fosters rural communities and works to end hunger in

412-571: A clerk to collect agricultural statistics, the preparation of statewide reports about crops in different regions, and the application of chemistry to agriculture. Ellsworth was called the "Father of the Department of Agriculture." In 1849, the Patent Office was transferred to the newly created Department of the Interior . In the ensuing years, agitation for a separate bureau within the department or

515-427: A crop rotation. Planning an effective rotation requires weighing fixed and fluctuating production circumstances: market, farm size, labor supply, climate, soil type, growing practices, etc. Moreover, a crop rotation must consider in what condition one crop will leave the soil for the succeeding crop and how one crop can be seeded with another crop. For example, a nitrogen-fixing crop, like a legume, should always precede

618-407: A great deal of planning, crop choice must respond to a number of fixed conditions (soil type, topography, climate, and irrigation) in addition to conditions that may change dramatically from year to the next (weather, market, labor supply). In this way, it is unwise to plan crops years in advance. Improper implementation of a crop rotation plan may lead to imbalances in the soil nutrient composition or

721-431: A greater diversity of fauna, insects, and beneficial microorganisms in the soil as found by McDaniel et al 2014 and Lori et al 2017. Some studies point to increased nutrient availability from crop rotation under organic systems compared to conventional practices as organic practices are less likely to inhibit of beneficial microbes in soil organic matter. While multiple cropping and intercropping benefit from many of

824-568: A higher standard of proof. In 2000, similar to Pigford v. Glickman , a class-action lawsuit was filed in the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia on behalf of Hispanic farmers alleging that the USDA discriminated against them in terms of credit transactions and disaster benefits, in direct violation of ECOA . As per the settlement, $ 1.33 billion is available for compensation in awards of up to $ 50,000 or $ 250,000, while an additional $ 160 million

927-544: A key development in the British Agricultural Revolution . George Washington Carver (1860s–1943) studied crop-rotation methods in the United States , teaching southern farmers to rotate soil-depleting crops like cotton with soil-enriching crops like peanuts and peas . In the Green Revolution of the mid-20th century, crop rotation gave way in the developed world to the practice of supplementing

1030-826: A less conducive environment for diversity and proliferation of microorganisms in the soil. These microorganisms are what make nutrients available to plants. So, where "active" soil organic matter is a key to productive soil, soil with low microbial activity provides significantly fewer nutrients to plants; this is true even though the quantity of biomass left in the soil may be the same. Soil microorganisms also decrease pathogen and pest activity through competition. In addition, plants produce root exudates and other chemicals which manipulate their soil environment as well as their weed environment. Thus rotation allows increased yields from nutrient availability but also alleviation of allelopathy and competitive weed environments. Crop rotations greatly increase soil organic carbon (SOC) content,

1133-488: A more flexible approach for soil cover by crop rotation is necessary. An opportunity cropping system promotes adequate soil cover under these erratic climate conditions. In an opportunity cropping system, crops are grown when soil water is adequate and there is a reliable sowing window. This form of cropping system is likely to produce better soil cover than a rigid crop rotation because crops are only sown under optimal conditions, whereas rigid systems are not necessarily sown in

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1236-534: A nitrogen depleting one; similarly, a low residue crop (i.e. a crop with low biomass) should be offset with a high biomass cover crop, like a mixture of grasses and legumes. There is no limit to the number of crops that can be used in a rotation, or the amount of time a rotation takes to complete. Decisions about rotations are made years prior, seasons prior, or even at the last minute when an opportunity to increase profits or soil quality presents itself. Crop rotation systems may be enriched by other practices such as

1339-482: A purely laboratory approach to agriculture. Unlike Liebig, Stöckhardt sought the integration of chemistry with agriculturists, rather than a specialization of chemists to come in and do the work. As a landowner who employed chemists, Crusius saw the value of chemical agriculture in economic terms to increase profit, while Reuning's support for Möckern Station represented the beginnings of governmental interest and funding of agricultural experimental stations. Under Crusius,

1442-792: A recent study that lasted a decade, it was found that a common winter cover crop after potato harvest such as fall rye can reduce soil run-off by as much as 43%, and this is typically the most nutritional soil. Increasing the biodiversity of crops has beneficial effects on the surrounding ecosystem and can host a greater diversity of fauna, insects, and beneficial microorganisms in the soil as found by McDaniel et al 2014 and Lori et al 2017. Some studies point to increased nutrient availability from crop rotation under organic systems compared to conventional practices as organic practices are less likely to inhibit of beneficial microbes in soil organic matter, such as arbuscular mycorrhizae, which increase nutrient uptake in plants. Increasing biodiversity also increases

1545-640: A result, there is the branch of merinos called Rambouillet sheep . In 1836 Jean-Baptiste Boussingault established the first agricultural experiment station at Pechelbronn in Alsace. A precursor to the agricultural experiment station was the botanical garden . For example, Christian Gottfried Daniel Nees von Esenbeck founded the Botanische Gärten der Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn in 1818. With need for animal nutrition , scientists such as Karl Heinrich Ritthausen turned to biochemistry to investigate

1648-472: A separate department devoted to agriculture kept recurring. On May 15, 1862, Abraham Lincoln established the independent Department of Agriculture through the Morrill Act to be headed by a commissioner without Cabinet status. Staffed by only eight employees, the department was charged with conducting research and development related to "agriculture, rural development , aquaculture and human nutrition in

1751-538: A series of chemical reactions. While Liebig's work inspired a generation of analytical agricultural chemists interested in fundamental questions of plant nutrition, e.g., Wilhelm Knop and Julius von Sachs , founders of early German agricultural experiment stations did not solely seek to pursue questions of soil chemistry, but rather sought to bridge the gap between the two fields of agriculture and chemistry. The most well-known and earliest German experimental station, or Landwirtschaftliche Versuchsstationen , established

1854-502: A two-field rotation, half the land was planted in a year, while the other half lay fallow . Then, in the next year, the two fields were reversed. In China both the two- and three-field systems had been used since the Eastern Zhou period. From the 9th century to the 11th century, farmers in Europe transitioned from a two-field system to a three-field system . This system persisted until

1957-643: A variety of forms at the hands of the USDA. The majority of these discriminatory actions have occurred through the Farm Service Agency , which oversees loan and assistance programs to farmers. In response to the Supreme Court's ruling of unconstitutionality of the Agricultural Adjustment Act , Congress enacted the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act of 1936 , which established

2060-404: Is a crop that is mixed into the soil. Both nitrogen-fixing legumes and nutrient scavengers, like grasses, can be used as green manure. Green manure of legumes is an excellent source of nitrogen, especially for organic systems, however, legume biomass does not contribute to lasting soil organic matter like grasses do. There are numerous factors that must be taken into consideration when planning

2163-424: Is a mix of decaying material from biomass with active microorganisms . Crop rotation, by nature, increases exposure to biomass from sod, green manure, and various other plant debris. The reduced need for intensive tillage under crop rotation allows biomass aggregation to lead to greater nutrient retention and utilization, decreasing the need for added nutrients. With tillage, disruption and oxidation of soil creates

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2266-697: Is a required practice, in the United States, for farms seeking organic certification . The “Crop Rotation Practice Standard” for the National Organic Program under the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations , section §205.205, states that Farmers are required to implement a crop rotation that maintains or builds soil organic matter, works to control pests, manages and conserves nutrients, and protects against erosion. Producers of perennial crops that aren’t rotated may utilize other practices, such as cover crops, to maintain soil health . In addition to lowering

2369-653: Is committed to working with other agencies to ensure these mainstream benefits have been accessed by those experiencing homelessness. The USDA also is concerned with assisting farmers and food producers with the sale of crops and food on both the domestic and world markets. It plays a role in overseas aid programs by providing surplus foods to developing countries. This aid can go through USAID , foreign governments, international bodies such as World Food Program , or approved nonprofits. The Agricultural Act of 1949 , section 416 (b) and Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954 , also known as Food for Peace , provides

2472-440: Is essential to mitigating pests and pathogens. However, many farmers have success managing rotations by planning sequencing and cover crops around desirable cash crops. The following is a simplified classification based on crop quality and purpose. Many crops which are critical for the market, like vegetables , are row crops (that is, grown in tight rows). While often the most profitable for farmers, these crops are more taxing on

2575-510: Is maximized with rotation methods that leave the greatest mass of crop stubble (plant residue left after harvest) on top of the soil. Stubble cover in contact with the soil minimizes erosion from water by reducing overland flow velocity, stream power, and thus the ability of the water to detach and transport sediment. Soil erosion and seal prevent the disruption and detachment of soil aggregates that cause macropores to block, infiltration to decline, and runoff to increase. This significantly improves

2678-527: Is meant to inhibit growth of weeds by overturning the soil; however, this has a countering effect of exposing weed seeds that may have gotten buried and burying valuable crop seeds. Under crop rotation, the number of viable seeds in the soil is reduced through the reduction of the weed population. In addition to their negative impact on crop quality and yield, weeds can slow down the harvesting process. Weeds make farmers less efficient when harvesting, because weeds like bindweeds, and knotgrass, can become tangled in

2781-746: Is of particular value to weed management . These crops crowd out weeds through competition. In addition, the sod and compost from cover crops and green manure slows the growth of what weeds are still able to make it through the soil, giving the crops further competitive advantage. By slowing the growth and proliferation of weeds while cover crops are cultivated, farmers greatly reduce the presence of weeds for future crops, including shallow rooted and row crops, which are less resistant to weeds. Cover crops are, therefore, considered conservation crops because they protect otherwise fallow land from becoming overrun with weeds. This system has advantages over other common practices for weeds management, such as tillage . Tillage

2884-517: Is often related to the goal the farmer is looking to achieve with the rotation, which could be weed management , increasing available nitrogen in the soil, controlling for erosion, or increasing soil structure and biomass, to name a few. When discussing crop rotations, crops are classified in different ways depending on what quality is being assessed: by family, by nutrient needs/benefits, and/or by profitability (i.e. cash crop versus cover crop ). For example, giving adequate attention to plant family

2987-551: Is placed on purchased inputs and over time crops can maintain production goals with fewer inputs. This in tandem with greater short and long term yields makes rotation a powerful tool for improving agricultural systems. The use of different species in rotation allows for increased soil organic matter (SOM), greater soil structure, and improvement of the chemical and biological soil environment for crops. With more SOM, water infiltration and retention improves, providing increased drought tolerance and decreased erosion. Soil organic matter

3090-804: The American Farm Bureau Federation . It represented the largest commercial growers before Congress. As late as the Great Depression , farm work occupied a fourth of Americans. Indeed, many young people who moved to the cities in the prosperous 1920s returned to the family farm after the depression caused unemployment after 1929. The USDA helped ensure that food continued to be produced and distributed to those who needed it, assisted with loans for small landowners, and provided technical advice. Its Bureau of Home Economics , established in 1923, published shopping advice and recipes to stretch family budgets and make food go farther. On August 27, 2018,

3193-523: The Congress and local agricultural societies. In 1839, Congress established the Agricultural Division within the Patent Office and allotted $ 1,000 for "the collection of agricultural statistics and other agricultural purposes." Ellsworth's interest in aiding agriculture was evident in his annual reports that called for a public depository to preserve and distribute the various new seeds and plants,

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3296-661: The ECOA and the APA . This case relied heavily on its predecessor, Pigford v. Glickman , in terms of the reasoning it set forth in the lawsuit. Eventually, a settlement was reached between the plaintiffs and the USDA to the amount of up to $ 760 million, awardable through individual damages claims. These claims could be used for monetary relief, debt relief, and/or tax relief. The filing period began June 29, 2011 and lasted 180 days. Track A claimants would be eligible for up to $ 50,000, whereas Track B claimants would be eligible for up to $ 250,000 with

3399-681: The House of Representatives and Senate passed separate bills giving Cabinet status to the Department of Agriculture and Labor, but the bill was defeated in conference committee after farm interests objected to the addition of labor. Finally, in 1889 the Department of Agriculture was given cabinet-level status. In 1887, the Hatch Act provided for the federal funding of agricultural experiment stations in each state. The Smith-Lever Act of 1914 then funded cooperative extension services in each state to teach agriculture, home economics , and other subjects to

3502-498: The National Agricultural Library . The U.S. experiment stations are state institutions. However, the federal and state governments cooperate in funding the research done at the stations. The states provide about 60 percent (1988) of the government money. Additional income comes from grants , contracts , and the sale of products. The stations receive a total income of more than $ 1 billion a year. The University of

3605-515: The National Mall between 12th Street and 14th SW, the department had offices for its staff and the entire width of the Mall up to B Street NW to plant and experiment with plants. In the 1880s, varied advocacy groups were lobbying for Cabinet representation. Business interests sought a Department of Commerce and Industry , and farmers tried to raise the Department of Agriculture to Cabinet rank. In 1887,

3708-504: The Purnell Act (1925). The provisions of the original Hatch Act and of later legislation providing increasing funds were combined in the Hatch Act of 1955. The McIntire–Stennis Act of 1962 authorized forestry research studies at experiment stations. Crop variation Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of different types of crops in the same area across a sequence of growing seasons . This practice reduces

3811-582: The Soil Conservation Service (SCS) which provided service to private landowners and encouraged subsidies that would relieve soil from excessive farming. The SCS in its early days were hesitant, especially in Southern jurisdictions, to hire Black conservationists. Rather than reaching out to Black students in universities for interviews and job opportunities, students had to reach out for the few opportunities granted to Black conservationists. As part of

3914-613: The United States and providing nourishment as well as nutrition education to those in need are run by the Food and Nutrition Service . Activities in this program include the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program , which provides healthy food to over 40 million low-income and homeless people each month. USDA is a member of the United States Interagency Council on Homelessness , where it

4017-470: The 1964 Civil Rights Act , the USDA formally ended racial segregation among its staff. In the 1999 Pigford v. Glickman class-action lawsuit brought by African American farmers, the USDA agreed to a billion-dollar settlement due to its patterns of discrimination in the granting of loans and subsidies to black farmers. In 2011, a second round of payouts, Pigford II, was appropriated by Congress for $ 1.25 billion, although this payout, far too late to support

4120-424: The 20th century. Available land was divided into three sections. One section was planted in the autumn with rye or winter wheat , followed by spring oats or barley ; the second section grew crops such as one of the legumes , namely peas, lentils, or beans; and the third field was left fallow. The three fields were rotated in this manner so that every three years, one of the fields would rest and lie fallow. Under

4223-548: The British potato industry, including confidential contract research and development. Syngenta 's largest R&D center is at Jealott's Hill in Berkshire. Before its current incarnation it belonged to Imperial Chemical Industries . The Hatch Act of 1887 authorized the establishment of agricultural experiment stations, to be affiliated with the land grant college of agriculture, in each state (7 U.S.C. 361a et seq.). The mission of

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4326-520: The FNS budget is the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (formerly known as the 'Food Stamp' program), which is the cornerstone of USDA's nutrition assistance. The United States Forest Service is the largest agency within the department, which administers national forests and national grasslands that together comprise about 25% of federal lands . The USDA is divided into eight distinct mission areas, each of which have at least one agency dedicated to

4429-548: The Möckern Station submitted a Letter of Purpose in a government application. It specified that the Möckern Station belonging to the Leipzig Economic Society would devote itself to the advancement of agriculture via scientific investigation, through cooperation between practical farmers and scientific professionals. They listed six main research objectives, summarized below: Hokkaido Development Commission founded

4532-634: The NBFA would later call the agreement incomplete because more than 70,000 were excluded. Nevertheless, the settlement was deemed to be the largest-ever civil rights class action settlement in American history. Lawyers estimated the value of the settlement to be more than $ 2 billion. Some farmers would have their debts forgiven. Judge Friedman appointed a monitor to oversee the settlement. Farmers in Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, and Georgia were among those affected by

4635-536: The USDA announced it would be providing U.S. farmers with a farm aid package totaling $ 4.7 billion in direct payments to American farmers. This package is meant to offset the losses farmers are expected to incur from retaliatory tariffs placed on American exports during the Trump tariffs . On 7 February 2022, the USDA announced the Partnerships for Climate-Smart Commodities, a $ 1 billion program that will test and verify

4738-492: The USDA are divided into 5 geographic areas across the United States, each with a centrally located station. Including: Pacific West at Albany, CA , Plains Area at Ft. Collins, CO , Southeast Area at Stoneville, MS , Midwest Area at Peoria, IL , and Northeast Area at Beltsville, MD . Henry A. Wallace Beltsville Agricultural Research Center in Beltsville, is the largest of USDA's research locations at 6,500 acres and contains

4841-456: The USDA filed in federal court in 1997. An attorney called it "the most organized, largest civil rights case in the history of the country." Also in 1997, black farmers from at least five states held protests in front of the USDA headquarters in Washington, D.C. Protests in front of the USDA were a strategy employed in later years as the black farmers sought to keep national attention focused on

4944-545: The USDA loan process was unfair to minority farmers, had claimed it was hard to determine the effect on such farmers. In 2006 the Government Accountability Office (GAO) issued a report highly critical of the USDA in its handling of the black farmers cases. NBFA continued to lobby Congress to provide relief. NBFA's John Boyd (farmer) secured congressional support for legislation that would provide $ 100 million in funds to settle late-filer cases. In 2006

5047-449: The USDA] to present documentary evidence that they had been unfairly treated or had even tried to farm." Lack of documentation is an issue complicated by the USDA practice of discarding denied applications after three years. In 1999, Native American farmers , discriminated in a similar fashion to black farmers, filed a class-action lawsuit against the USDA alleging loan discrimination under

5150-457: The United States and internationally. It is headed by the secretary of agriculture , who reports directly to the president of the United States and is a member of the president's Cabinet . The current secretary is Tom Vilsack , who has served since February 24, 2021. Approximately 71% of the USDA's $ 213 billion budget goes towards nutrition assistance programs administered by the Food and Nutrition Service (FNS). The largest component of

5253-554: The United States. In 1829, by request of James Smithson out of a desire to further promulgate and diffuse scientific knowledge amongst the American people, the Smithsonian Institution was established, though it did not incorporate agriculture. In 1837, Henry Leavitt Ellsworth became Commissioner of Patents in the Department of State . He began collecting and distributing new varieties of seeds and plants through members of

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5356-495: The Virgin Islands maintains an experiment station on the island of St. Croix , working on agroforestry , aquaponics , biotechnology , forage agronomy, and tilapia farming, among other areas of research. In 1786, Comte d'Angiviller , acting for Louis XVI of France , acquired 366 merino sheep from Spain and began an experimental program of adapting the species to France at the farm attached to Château de Rambouillet . As

5459-413: The addition of livestock and manure, and by growing more than one crop at a time in a field. A monoculture is a crop grown by itself in a field. A polyculture involves two or more crops growing in the same place at the same time. Crop rotations can be applied to both monocultures and polycultures, resulting in multiple ways of increasing agricultural biodiversity (table). Introducing livestock makes

5562-475: The agency's history its personnel have discriminated against farmers of various backgrounds, denying them loans and access to other programs well into the 1990s. The effect of this discrimination caused a reduction in the number of African American farmers in the United States. Though African American farmers have been the most hit by discriminatory actions by the USDA, women, Native Americans , Hispanics , and other minorities have experienced discrimination in

5665-465: The agricultural experiment stations as set out in the Hatch Act is to conduct original research, investigation, and experiments which contributing to the establishment and maintenance of the agricultural industry in the United States. Including research pertaining to agriculture in its broadest sense as well as improvement of the rural home and rural life, and the contribution by agriculture to the welfare of

5768-416: The agricultural experiment stations varies state-to-state in order to meet the unique needs of each state. Factors such as size of the land grant university, and size and type of agriculture in a state will affect the organization and research conducted by the station. The United States Department of Agriculture also maintains over 90 research locations, including locations abroad. The research stations of

5871-607: The air. Rotations can add nutrients to the soil. Legumes , plants of the family Fabaceae , have nodules on their roots which contain nitrogen-fixing bacteria called rhizobia . During a process called nodulation, the rhizobia bacteria use nutrients and water provided by the plant to convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia, which is then converted into an organic compound that the plant can use as its nitrogen source. It therefore makes good sense agriculturally to alternate them with cereals (family Poaceae ) and other plants that require nitrates . How much nitrogen made available to

5974-449: The animals provide manure for replenishing crop nutrients and draft power. These processes promote internal nutrient cycling and minimize the need for synthetic fertilizers and large-scale machinery. As an additional benefit, the cattle, sheep and/or goat provide milk and can act as a cash crop in the times of economic hardship. Polyculture systems, such as intercropping or companion planting , offer more diversity and complexity within

6077-539: The benefits of climate-friendly agricultural practices. In October 2022, the USDA announced a $ 1.3 billion debt relief program for about 36,000 farmers who had fallen behind on loan payments or facing foreclosures. The provisions in the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 set aside $ 3.1 billion to help such farmers with high-risk operations caused by USDA-backed loans. USDA's offices and agencies are listed below, with full-time equivalent staff levels according to

6180-645: The best conditions available. Crop rotations also affect the timing and length of when a field is subject to fallow. This is very important because depending on a particular region's climate, a field could be the most vulnerable to erosion when it is under fallow. Efficient fallow management is an essential part of reducing erosion in a crop rotation system. Zero tillage is a fundamental management practice that promotes crop stubble retention under longer unplanned fallows when crops cannot be planted. Such management practices that succeed in retaining suitable soil cover in areas under fallow will ultimately reduce soil loss. In

6283-576: The black farmers. Barack Obama , then a U.S. Senator, lent his support to the black farmers' issues in 2007. A bill co-sponsored by Obama passed the Senate in 2007. In early June 2008 hundreds of black farmers, denied a chance to have their cases heard in the Pigford settlement, filed a new lawsuit against USDA. The Senate and House versions of the black farmers bill, reopening black farmers discrimination cases, became law in June 2008. Some news reports said that

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6386-435: The chemical inputs to the soil through topdressing with fertilizers , adding (for example) ammonium nitrate or urea and restoring soil pH with lime . Such practices aimed to increase yields, to prepare soil for specialist crops, and to reduce waste and inefficiency by simplifying planting , harvesting , and irrigation . A preliminary assessment of crop interrelationships can be found in how each crop: Crop choice

6489-468: The colleges conducted equivalent work. Federal aid for state experiment stations began with the Hatch Act of 1887 . The Hatch Act authorized direct payment of federal grant funds to each state to establish an agricultural experiment station "under direction of" its land-grant college . Land-grant colleges had been established under the Morrill Act of 1862. The aid was increased by the Adams Act (1906) and

6592-722: The comparative nutrition from grains and pulses . Following the footsteps of the enlightenment rationalism and experimentalism, Germany began to see the rise of agricultural experiment stations, indicating the beginnings of an attempt to merge traditional agronomy with analytical chemistry. In 1840, Justus von Liebig , an influential German chemist and professor at the University of Giessen , published his book Organic Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology . Liebig theorized that nitrogen and trace minerals from soil erosion were essential to plant nutrition, and, from this analytical chemistry perspective, simplified agriculture to

6695-552: The consumer. Research done at these stations underpins the curriculum of the colleges, as well as the programs of the Cooperative Extension System . The United States of America has more than 600 main experiment stations and branch stations, run by about 13,000 scientists. In some states, agricultural experiment stations are integrated into the agriculture colleges of Land Grant Universities ; while in others they are administratively unique institutions. The structure of

6798-523: The country. New Zealand has agricultural research stations at Ruakura , Winchmore and Invermay. Sutton Bridge Crop Storage Research in Sutton Bridge , Lincolnshire , is a leading UK agricultural experiment station owned by the Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board and operated by its Potato Council division, it engages in a wide range of research disciplines impacting upon crop storage for

6901-448: The equipment, resulting in a stop-and-go type of harvest. Crop rotation can significantly reduce the amount of soil lost from erosion by water. In areas that are highly susceptible to erosion, farm management practices such as zero and reduced tillage can be supplemented with specific crop rotation methods to reduce raindrop impact, sediment detachment, sediment transport , surface runoff , and soil loss. Protection against soil loss

7004-584: The estimated FY2023 appropriation, as reported in USDA's FY2024 Congressional Budget Justification. Secretary of Agriculture Deputy Secretary of Agriculture Under Secretary for Farm Production and Conservation Under Secretary for Rural Development Under Secretary for Food, Nutrition, and Consumer Services Under Secretary for Food Safety Under Secretary for Natural Resources and Environment Under Secretary for Marketing and Regulatory Programs Under Secretary for Research, Education, and Economics Allegations have been made that throughout

7107-431: The expertise by introducing sampling techniques. Professional economists ran a strong Bureau of Agricultural Economics. Most important was the agricultural experiment station system, a network of state partners in the land-grant colleges, which in turn operated a large field service in direct contact with farmers in practically every rural county. The department worked smoothly with a nationwide, well-organized pressure group,

7210-414: The farm, they are nutrient depleting. Crop rotation practices exist to strike a balance between short-term profitability and long-term productivity. A great advantage of crop rotation comes from the interrelationship of nitrogen-fixing crops with nitrogen-demanding crops. Legumes, like alfalfa and clover, collect available nitrogen from the atmosphere and store it in nodules on their root structure. When

7313-464: The help of Joseph Henry Gilbert , established one of the oldest agricultural experiment stations in the world: Rothamsted Experimental Station , located at Harpenden in Hertfordshire , England , was founded in 1843. This establishment was where Ronald Fisher was inspired to important advances in the theory of statistical inference and genetics . Another important agricultural experiment station

7416-674: The land-grant universities. In Canada , about 50 per cent (1988) of the experiment stations are controlled by the Canadian government. The Central Experimental Farm in Ottawa is the headquarters of the federal system. Private industries, universities, and agricultural colleges control the remainder of the stations. Each province has a number of provincial stations. The University of Saskatchewan has extensive agricultural experimental land. The Benaki Phytopathological Institute conducts experiments pertaining to plant health in many locations throughout

7519-641: The legal basis of such actions. The USDA is a partner of the World Cocoa Foundation . The standard history is Gladys L. Baker, ed., Century of Service: The first 100 years of the United States Department of Agriculture (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1963). Early in its history, the American economy was largely agrarian . Officials in the federal government had long sought new and improved varieties of seeds, plants and animals for import into

7622-709: The main constituent of soil organic matter . Carbon, along with hydrogen and oxygen, is a macronutrient for plants. Highly diverse rotations spanning long periods of time have shown to be even more effective in increasing SOC, while soil disturbances (e.g. from tillage) are responsible for exponential decline in SOC levels. In Brazil, conversion to no-till methods combined with intensive crop rotations has been shown an SOC sequestration rate of 0.41 tonnes per hectare per year. In addition to enhancing crop productivity, sequestration of atmospheric carbon has great implications in reducing rates of climate change by removing carbon dioxide from

7725-923: The mainland, as well as in Crete and on other Greek islands. The Agricultural University of Iceland maintains several experiment stations throughout the country. Israel host multiple agricultural stations, including the Yair Agricultural Research and Development Station in the Arava desert, the Volcani center and others. Israel is considered a global hub of water and sustainable agricultural technology. The Regional Agricultural Research Station at Lam of Guntur . Japan has five agricultural experiment stations of Independent Administrative Institution of National Agriculture and Food Research Organization , former national stations, and many other prefectural stations all over

7828-539: The many who desperately needed financial assistance during 1999 lawsuit, only comes out to around $ 250,000 per farmer. A March 17, 2006 letter from the GAO about the Pigford Settlement indicated that "the court noted that USDA disbanded its Office of Civil Rights in 1983, and stopped responding to claims of discrimination." Following long-standing concerns, black farmers joined a class action discrimination suit against

7931-417: The most efficient use of critical sod and cover crops ; livestock (through manure ) are able to distribute the nutrients in these crops throughout the soil rather than removing nutrients from the farm through the sale of hay. Mixed farming or the practice of crop cultivation with the incorporation of livestock can help manage crops in a rotation and cycle nutrients. Crop residues provide animal feed, while

8034-505: The most general and comprehensive sense of those terms". Agriculturalist Isaac Newton was appointed to be the first commissioner. Lincoln called it the "people's department", since over half of the nation, at the time, was directly or indirectly involved in agriculture or agribusiness . In 1868, the department moved into the new Department of Agriculture Building in Washington, designed by famed D.C. architect Adolf Cluss . Located on

8137-419: The need for inputs (by controlling for pests and weeds and increasing available nutrients), crop rotation helps organic growers increase the amount of biodiversity their farms. Biodiversity is also a requirement of organic certification, however, there are no rules in place to regulate or reinforce this standard. Increasing the biodiversity of crops has beneficial effects on the surrounding ecosystem and can host

8240-487: The new law could affect up to 74,000 black farmers. In October 2008, the GAO issued a report criticizing the USDA's handling of discrimination complaints. The GAO recommended an oversight review board to examine civil rights complaints. After numerous public rallies and an intensive NBFA member lobbying effort, Congress approved and Obama signed into law in December 2010 legislation that set aside $ 1.15 billion to resolve

8343-545: The outstanding black farmers' cases. NBFA's John W. Boyd Jr., attended the bill-signing ceremony at the White House. As of 2013, 90,000 African-American, Hispanic, female and Native American farmers had filed claims. It was reported that some had been found fraudulent, or transparently bogus. In Maple Hill , North Carolina by 2013, the number of successful claimants was four times the number of farms with 1 out of 9 African-Americans being paid, while "claimants were not required [by

8446-508: The people of Europe. Farmers in the region of Waasland (in present-day northern Belgium) pioneered a four-field rotation in the early 16th century, and the British agriculturist Charles Townshend (1674–1738) popularised this system in the 18th century. The sequence of four crops ( wheat , turnips , barley and clover ), included a fodder crop and a grazing crop, allowing livestock to be bred year-round. The four-field crop rotation became

8549-519: The plant is harvested, the biomass of uncollected roots breaks down, making the stored nitrogen available to future crops. Cereal and grasses are frequent cover crops because of the many advantages they supply to soil quality and structure. The dense and far-reaching root systems give ample structure to surrounding soil and provide significant biomass for soil organic matter . Grasses and cereals are key in weed management as they compete with undesired plants for soil space and nutrients. Green manure

8652-447: The plants depends on factors such as the kind of legume, the effectiveness of rhizobia bacteria, soil conditions, and the availability of elements necessary for plant food. Crop rotation is also used to control pests and diseases that can become established in the soil over time. The changing of crops in a sequence decreases the population level of pests by (1) interrupting pest life cycles and (2) interrupting pest habitat. Plants within

8755-624: The plight of the black farmers. Representatives of the National Black Farmers Association met with President Bill Clinton and other administration officials at the White House . And NBFA's president testified before the United States House Committee on Agriculture . In Pigford v. Glickman , U.S. Federal District Court Judge Paul L. Friedman approved the settlement and consent decree on April 14, 1999. The settlement recognized discrimination against 22,363 black farmers, but

8858-756: The productivity of monocultures is highly dependent on external inputs that may be harmful to the soil's fertility. Conversely, a well-designed crop rotation can reduce the need for synthetic fertilizers and herbicides by better using ecosystem services from a diverse set of crops. Additionally, crop rotations can improve soil structure and organic matter , which reduces erosion and increases farm system resilience. Farmers have long recognized that suitable rotations such as planting spring crops for livestock in place of grains for human consumption make it possible to restore or to maintain productive soils. Ancient Near Eastern farmers practiced crop rotation in 6000 BC, alternately planting legumes and cereals . Under

8961-480: The public. With these and similar provisions, the USDA reached out to every county of every state. By the year 1933, the department was well established in Washington and very well known in rural America. In the agricultural field the picture was different. Statisticians created a comprehensive data-gathering arm in the Division of Crop and Livestock Estimates. Secretary Henry Wallace, a statistician, further strengthened

9064-425: The reliance of crops on one set of nutrients, pest and weed pressure, along with the probability of developing resistant pests and weeds. Growing the same crop in the same place for many years in a row, known as monocropping , gradually depletes the soil of certain nutrients and selects for both a highly competitive pest and weed community. Without balancing nutrient use and diversifying pest and weed communities,

9167-404: The resilience of agro-ecological systems. Crop rotation contributes to increased yields through improved soil nutrition. By requiring planting and harvesting of different crops at different times, more land can be farmed with the same amount of machinery and labour. Different crops in the rotation can reduce the risks of adverse weather for the individual farmer. While crop rotation requires

9270-880: The resilience of soils when subjected to periods of erosion and stress. When a forage crop breaks down, binding products are formed that act like an adhesive on the soil, which makes particles stick together, and form aggregates. The formation of soil aggregates is important for erosion control, as they are better able to resist raindrop impact, and water erosion. Soil aggregates also reduce wind erosion, because they are larger particles, and are more resistant to abrasion through tillage practices. The effect of crop rotation on erosion control varies by climate. In regions under relatively consistent climate conditions, where annual rainfall and temperature levels are assumed, rigid crop rotations can produce sufficient plant growth and soil cover. In regions where climate conditions are less predictable, and unexpected periods of rain and drought may occur,

9373-417: The same taxonomic family tend to have similar pests and pathogens. By regularly changing crops and keeping the soil occupied by cover crops instead of lying fallow, pest cycles can be broken or limited, especially cycles that benefit from overwintering in residue. For example, root-knot nematode is a serious problem for some plants in warm climates and sandy soils, where it slowly builds up to high levels in

9476-425: The same growing season, or where one crop (e.g. vegetable) is grown continuously with a cover crop (e.g. wheat). This is advantageous for small farms, which often cannot afford to leave cover crops to replenish the soil for extended periods of time, as larger farms can. When multiple cropping is implemented on small farms, these systems can maximize benefits of crop rotation on available land resources. Crop rotation

9579-749: The same principals as crop rotation, they do not satisfy the requirement under the NOP . Agronomists describe the benefits to yield in rotated crops as "The Rotation Effect". There are many benefits of rotation systems. The factors related to the increase are broadly due to alleviation of the negative factors of monoculture cropping systems. Specifically, improved nutrition; pest, pathogen, and weed stress reduction; and improved soil structure have been found in some cases to be correlated to beneficial rotation effects. Other benefits include reduced production cost. Overall financial risks are more widely distributed over more diverse production of crops and/or livestock. Less reliance

9682-522: The same season or rotation. An example is the Three Sisters , the inter-planting of corn with pole beans and vining squash or pumpkins. In this system, the beans provide nitrogen; the corn provides support for the beans and a "screen" against squash vine borer; the vining squash provides a weed suppressive canopy and a discouragement for corn-hungry raccoons. Double-cropping is common where two crops, typically of different species, are grown sequentially in

9785-493: The settlement. The NBFA's president was invited to testify before congress on this matter numerous times following the settlement, including before the United States Senate Committee on Agriculture on September 12, 2000, when he testified that many farmers had not yet received payments and others were left out of the settlement. It was later revealed that one DoJ staff "general attorney" was unlicensed while she

9888-539: The soil, and can severely damage plant productivity by cutting off circulation from the plant roots. Growing a crop that is not a host for root-knot nematode for one season greatly reduces the level of the nematode in the soil, thus making it possible to grow a susceptible crop the following season without needing soil fumigation . This principle is of particular use in organic farming , where pest control must be achieved without synthetic pesticides. Integrating certain crops, especially cover crops , into crop rotations

9991-438: The soil. Row crops typically have low biomass and shallow roots: this means the plant contributes low residue to the surrounding soil and has limited effects on structure. With much of the soil around the plant exposed to disruption by rainfall and traffic, fields with row crops experience faster break down of organic matter by microbes, leaving fewer nutrients for future plants. In short, while these crops may be profitable for

10094-490: The theme of the mission area: Farm Production and Conservation (FPAC) Food, Nutrition, and Consumer Services (FNCS) Food Safety (FS) Marketing and Regulatory Programs (MRP) Natural Resources and the Environment (NRE) Research, Education, and Economics (REE) Rural Development (RD) Trade and Foreign Agriculture Affairs (TFAA) Many of the programs concerned with the distribution of food and nutrition to people of

10197-418: The two-field system, only half the land was planted in any year. Under the new three-field rotation system, two thirds of the land was planted, potentially yielding a larger harvest. But the additional crops had a more significant effect than mere quantitative productivity. Since the spring crops were mostly legumes, which fix nitrogen needed for plants to make proteins , they increased the overall nutrition of

10300-663: The very first agricultural experiment station of the country in Sapporo in 1871, under the advice of O-yatoi gaikokujin (hired foreign experts). The first national agricultural experiment station was founded in 1893 in Tokyo , Sendai , Kanazawa , Osaka , Hiroshima , Tokushima , and Kumamoto under the Edict No.18. And, 1899 act for prefectural agricultural experiment stations supported prefectural movement to establish agricultural experiment stations all over Japan. John Bennet Lawes , with

10403-620: Was founded in 1903 and closed in 2003: Long Ashton Research Station . The movement to establish agricultural experiment stations in the US can be credited to Samuel William Johnson who taught the first course in biochemistry . The development was recounted by William Cumming Rose : The Bussey Institution at Harvard University (since 1871) and the Houghton Farm at Cornwall, New York (1876–88), were privately endowed stations. By 1887 fourteen states had definite organizations and in thirteen others

10506-421: Was handling black farmers' cases. NBFA called for all those cases to be reheard. The Chicago Tribune reported in 2004 that the result of such longstanding USDA discrimination was that black farmers had been forced out of business at a rate three times faster than white farmers. In 1920, 1 in 7 U.S. farmers was African-American, and by 2004 the number was 1 in 100. USDA spokesman Ed Loyd, when acknowledging that

10609-779: Was the Möckern Agricultural Experiment Station , located near the city of Leipzig . Created on September 28, 1850, the Möckern project was spearheaded by three Saxon men: Julius Adolph Stöckhardt , a professor of agricultural chemistry; Wilhelm Crusius, German estate owner interested in scientific agriculture; and Theodor Reuning, the German agricultural minister at the time. Though all three men took interest in Liebig's scientific approach to soil chemistry, they maintained distinct agricultural and economic focus at Möckern, and rejected

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