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The African Handball Confederation ( acronym CAHB , referring to French : Confédération Africaine de Handball ) is the administrative and controlling body for African team handball . Founded on 15 January 1973 after the 2nd All-Africa Games in Lagos ( Nigeria ), it represents the national handball associations of Africa under the supervision of the International Handball Federation (IHF).

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107-451: The CAHB headquarters is located in Abidjan , Ivory Coast . Its current president is Dr. Mansourou Aremou from Benin . The motto of the organisation is "Let's build African Handball together." The African Handball Confederation was the first such continental confederation and is tied to 53 national federations. It is also the continental confederation with the highest number of members within

214-671: A Level 2 alert (practice enhanced precautions.) A Bayesian analysis of genotypes I and II has shown that genotype I accounts for virtually all the current infections in Brazil , Colombia , Venezuela , and Trinidad and Tobago , while genotype II accounted for all cases in Peru . Genotype I originated in the northern Brazilian region around 1908 (95% highest posterior density interval [HPD]: 1870–1936). Genotype II originated in Peru in 1920 (95% HPD: 1867–1958). The estimated rate of mutation for both genotypes

321-413: A polyprotein . Host proteases cut this polyprotein into three structural (C, prM, E) and seven nonstructural proteins (NS1, NS2A, NS2B, NS3, NS4A, NS4B, NS5); the enumeration corresponds to the arrangement of the protein coding genes in the genome . Minimal YFV 3 ′ UTR region is required for stalling of the host 5 ′ -3 ′ exonuclease XRN1. The UTR contains PKS3 pseudoknot structure, which serves as

428-474: A tropical wet and dry climate , according to the Köppen climate classification ( Köppen climate classification : Aw ), closely bordering a tropical monsoon climate . Abidjan has nonconsecutive rainy seasons (precipitation above 60 millimetres (2.4 in) with a long rainy season from March to July and a short rainy season from September to December, and three dry months (January, February and August). Precipitation

535-758: A WHO-approved vaccination center is required. Although 32 of 44 countries where yellow fever occurs endemically do have vaccination programmes, in many of these countries, less than 50% of their population is vaccinated. Control of the yellow fever mosquito A. aegypti is of major importance, especially because the same mosquito can also transmit dengue fever and chikungunya disease. A. aegypti breeds preferentially in water, for example, in installations by inhabitants of areas with precarious drinking water supplies, or in domestic refuse, especially tires, cans, and plastic bottles. These conditions are common in urban areas in developing countries. Two main strategies are employed to reduce A. aegypti populations. One approach

642-570: A billion people live in an area of the world where the disease is common. It is common in tropical areas of the continents of South America and Africa, but not in Asia. Since the 1980s, the number of cases of yellow fever has been increasing. This is believed to be due to fewer people being immune, more people living in cities, people moving frequently, and changing climate increasing the habitat for mosquitoes. The disease originated in Africa and spread to

749-464: A biopsy is only advisable post mortem to confirm the cause of death. In a differential diagnosis , infections with yellow fever must be distinguished from other feverish illnesses such as malaria . Other viral hemorrhagic fevers , such as Ebola virus , Lassa virus , Marburg virus , and Junin virus , must be excluded as the cause. Personal prevention of yellow fever includes vaccination and avoidance of mosquito bites in areas where yellow fever

856-424: A day of improving the fever comes back, abdominal pain occurs, and liver damage begins causing yellow skin . If this occurs, the risk of bleeding and kidney problems is increased. The disease is caused by the yellow fever virus and is spread by the bite of an infected mosquito . It infects humans, other primates , and several types of mosquitoes. In cities, it is spread primarily by Aedes aegypti ,

963-840: A devastating war and was forced to close. The majority of Ivorian government institutions are still located in Abidjan and have not been transferred to the political capital, Yamoussoukro . The President's office is in Cocody , and the parliament, the Constitutional Council , the Supreme Court, and the Chancellery of the National Order are all in Le Plateau . Under the presidency of Laurent Gbagbo (2000–11), efforts were made to give effect to

1070-408: A hub for diplomats), and Adjamé , a slum on the north shore of the lagoon. Treichville and Marcory lie to the south, Attecoube , Locodjro, Abobo Doume and Yopougon to the west, and Île Boulay is located in the middle of the lagoon. Further south lies Port Bouët , home to the airport and main seaport . Abidjan is located at 5°25' North, 4°2' West (5.41667, –4.03333). Abidjan experiences

1177-442: A molecular signal to stall the exonuclease and is the only viral requirement for subgenomic flavivirus RNA (sfRNA) production. The sfRNAs are a result of incomplete degradation of the viral genome by the exonuclease and are important for viral pathogenicity. Yellow fever belongs to the group of hemorrhagic fevers . The viruses infect, amongst others, monocytes , macrophages , Schwann cells , and dendritic cells . They attach to

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1284-541: A municipality ( commune ) in 1956, divided into administrative areas by lagoons. Its first municipal council was elected on 18 November 1956, and the first mayor in the context of the Loi-Cadre of 1956 was president Félix Houphouët-Boigny . In 1980, the municipality of Abidjan ( commune d'Abidjan ) was transformed into the City of Abidjan ( Ville d'Abidjan ), and its territory was divided in 10 communes . A city council and mayor of

1391-493: A rearrangement of the 90 homo dimers to 60 homo trimers . After entering the host cell, the viral genome is replicated in the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and in the so-called vesicle packets. At first, an immature form of the virus particle is produced inside the ER, whose M-protein is not yet cleaved to its mature form, so is denoted as precursor M (prM) and forms a complex with protein E. The immature particles are processed in

1498-549: A reduced volume of vaccine dose, which has been reconstituted as per manufacturer recommendations. The first practical use of fractional dose yellow fever vaccination was in response to a large yellow fever outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in mid-2016. Available evidence shows that fractional dose yellow fever vaccination induces a level of immune response similar to that of the standard full dose. In March 2017,

1605-628: A result of negligence on the part of officials as well as corruption and general degradation. In 1983, the village of Yamoussoukro became the new political capital of Ivory Coast under the leadership of President Félix Houphouët-Boigny, who was born in Yamoussoukro. From 2002 to 2007 and especially from 2010 to 2011, Abidjan suffered from the consequences of the First and Second Ivorian Civil Wars . In November 2004, armed conflict broke out between French forces and Ivorian forces loyal to Laurent Gbagbo after

1712-494: A type of mosquito found throughout the tropics and subtropics . The virus is an RNA virus of the genus Flavivirus . The disease may be difficult to tell apart from other illnesses, especially in the early stages. To confirm a suspected case, blood-sample testing with a polymerase chain reaction is required. A safe and effective vaccine against yellow fever exists, and some countries require vaccinations for travelers. Other efforts to prevent infection include reducing

1819-421: Is common in tropical and subtropical areas of South America and Africa. Worldwide, about 600 million people live in endemic areas. The WHO estimates 200,000 cases of yellow fever worldwide each year. About 15% of people infected with yellow fever progress to a severe form of the illness, and up to half of those will die, as there is no cure for yellow fever. An estimated 90% of yellow fever infections occur on

1926-511: Is abundant during the summer months, except for August, due to activation of the Benguela Current , which reduces the precipitation total throughout the month. The Benguela Current also lowers the mean temperature during August, making it the coolest month of the year, averaging 24.5 °C (76.1 °F). Abidjan has two additional dry months (January and February). Abidjan is generally humid, with average relative humidity above 80% throughout

2033-431: Is caused by yellow fever virus (YFV), an enveloped RNA virus 40–50 nm in width, the type species and namesake of the family Flaviviridae . It was the first illness shown to be transmissible by filtered human serum and transmitted by mosquitoes, by American doctor Walter Reed around 1900. The positive- sense , single-stranded RNA is around 10,862 nucleotides long and has a single open reading frame encoding

2140-522: Is characterised by a high level of industrialisation and urbanisation. It is also the most populous Dioula-speaking and French-speaking city in Africa (Kinshasa being mainly Lingala -speaking). The city expanded quickly after the construction of a new wharf in 1931, followed by its designation as the capital city of the then-French colony in 1933. The completion of the Vridi Canal in 1951 enabled Abidjan to become an important sea port . Abidjan remained

2247-625: Is endemic. Institutional measures for prevention of yellow fever include vaccination programmes and measures to control mosquitoes. Programmes for distribution of mosquito nets for use in homes produce reductions in cases of both malaria and yellow fever. Use of EPA-registered insect repellent is recommended when outdoors. Exposure for even a short time is enough for a potential mosquito bite. Long-sleeved clothing, long pants, and socks are useful for prevention. The application of larvicides to water-storage containers can help eliminate potential mosquito breeding sites. EPA-registered insecticide spray decreases

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2354-643: Is fatal in 60% of cases. It is probably due to the genetic morphology of the immune system. Another possible side effect is an infection of the nervous system, which occurs in one in 200,000 to 300,000 cases, causing yellow fever vaccine-associated neurotropic disease, which can lead to meningoencephalitis and is fatal in less than 5% of cases. The Yellow Fever Initiative, launched by the WHO in 2006, vaccinated more than 105 million people in 14 countries in West Africa. No outbreaks were reported during 2015. The campaign

2461-399: Is home to the embassy of France, Hotel Ivoire (which for a long time, was the only African hotel to have a skating rink), and, since 2009, the largest U.S. embassy in West Africa. Construction on St. Paul's Cathedral , designed by Italian architect Aldo Spirito, began with the 1980 groundbreaking by Pope John Paul II and was completed in 1985. From the 1980s, Abidjan's fortunes declined as

2568-587: Is in Abidjan , Ivory Coast . Abidjan Abidjan ( / ˌ æ b ɪ ˈ dʒ ɑː n / AB -ih- JAHN , French: [abidʒɑ̃] ; N'ko : ߊߓߌߖߊ߲߬) is the largest city and the former capital of Côte d'Ivoire . As of the 2021 census , Abidjan's population was 6.3 million, which is 21.5 percent of overall population of the country, making it the sixth most populous city proper in Africa , after Lagos , Cairo , Kinshasa , Dar es Salaam , and Johannesburg . A cultural crossroads of West Africa , Abidjan

2675-458: Is inhabited by people from a wide array of different ethnicities , French is commonly spoken in the metropolitan area , which is the third largest French speaking metropolitan area in the world after Kinshasa and Paris . Colloquial Abidjan French has even appeared, which has a different pronunciation and some slang words different from standard French. Abidjan is recognized as one of the few areas in Africa where French (colloquial Abidjan French)

2782-504: Is known as acquired immunity . The virus, as well as the vector A. aegypti, were probably transferred to North and South America with the trafficking of slaves from Africa, part of the Columbian exchange following European exploration and colonization. However, some researchers have argued that yellow fever might have existed in the Americas during the pre-Columbian period as mosquitoes of

2889-470: Is not recommended by the WHO. Insecticide-treated mosquito nets are effective, just as they are against the Anopheles mosquito that carries malaria. As with other Flavivirus infections, no cure is known for yellow fever. Hospitalization is advisable and intensive care may be necessary because of rapid deterioration in some cases. Certain acute treatment methods lack efficacy: passive immunization after

2996-410: Is recommended as a chemical larvicide, mainly because it is safe for humans and effective in small doses. The second strategy is to reduce populations of the adult yellow fever mosquito. Lethal ovitraps can reduce Aedes populations, using lesser amounts of pesticide because it targets the pest directly. Curtains and lids of water tanks can be sprayed with insecticides, but application inside houses

3103-427: Is taken up by a female mosquito when it ingests the blood of an infected human or another primate. Viruses reach the stomach of the mosquito, and if the virus concentration is high enough, the virions can infect epithelial cells and replicate there. From there, they reach the haemocoel (the blood system of mosquitoes) and from there the salivary glands . When the mosquito next sucks blood, it injects its saliva into

3210-543: Is the absence of a slave trade to Asia on the scale of that to the Americas. The trans-Atlantic slave trade probably introduced yellow fever into the Western Hemisphere from Africa. The evolutionary origins of yellow fever most likely lie in Africa, with transmission of the disease from nonhuman primates to humans. The virus is thought to have originated in East or Central Africa and spread from there to West Africa. As it

3317-444: Is the continental part of Abidjan. The commune of Yopougon straddles the lagoon, with part lying north and part south of that body of water. The communes of Treichville , Koumassi , Marcory , and Port-Bouet in Abidjan are south of the lagoon. Blokosso  [ fr ] and Locodjro  [ fr ] villages are included within the city and maintain cultural identity in urban areas. The Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny

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3424-653: Is the current Treich-Laplénie Avenue, the bus station and water lagoon buses in Plateau, and the Avenue Charles de Gaulle (commonly called Rue du Commerce). The city was laid out like most colonial towns, on a grid plan . Le Plateau ("m'brato" in Tchaman) were inhabited by settlers. In the north, the city was inhabited by the colonized. The two zones were separated by the Gallieni Military Barracks, where now there

3531-556: Is the current courthouse. Near the port, originally named Boulevard de Marseille, settlers became defensive and stole a street sign of a famous street of Marseille renamed the street Canebière, a sand track. This is the legend behind the first Blohorn oil mills, in Cocody and a racetrack was built in the south of the city. In Le Plateau in the 1940s, the Bardon Park Hotel was built, the first air-conditioned hotel working in francophone Africa . Abidjan's lagoon became connected to

3638-507: Is to kill the developing larvae. Measures are taken to reduce the water accumulations in which the larvae develop. Larvicides are used, along with larvae-eating fish and copepods , which reduce the number of larvae. For many years, copepods of the genus Mesocyclops have been used in Vietnam for preventing dengue fever. This eradicated the mosquito vector in several areas. Similar efforts may prove effective against yellow fever. Pyriproxyfen

3745-502: Is truly a native tongue, along with Libreville , Gabon. The District of Abidjan's population was 6,321,017 at the 14 December 2021 census, up from 4,707,404 at the 15 May 2014 census. Yellow fever Yellow fever is a viral disease of typically short duration . In most cases, symptoms include fever , chills , loss of appetite , nausea , muscle pains—particularly in the back—and headaches . Symptoms typically improve within five days. In about 15% of people, within

3852-545: The Golgi apparatus by the host protein furin , which cleaves prM to M. This releases E from the complex, which can now take its place in the mature, infectious virion . Yellow fever virus is mainly transmitted through the bite of the yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti , but other mostly Aedes mosquitoes such as the tiger mosquito ( Aedes albopictus ) can also serve as a vector for this virus. Like other arboviruses , which are transmitted by mosquitoes, yellow fever virus

3959-677: The International Labour Organization , the International Monetary Fund , and the International Fund for Agricultural Development . Diplomatic missions in Ivory Coast are mostly located in Abidjan. The African Development Bank (ADB), the largest financial institution in Africa, is headquartered in Abidjan. Abidjan is sisters with: The 2021 census recorded Abidjan's population as 6,321,017. As Abidjan

4066-684: The Napoleonic Wars , the West Indies were known as a particularly dangerous posting for soldiers due to yellow fever being endemic in the area. The mortality rate in British garrisons in Jamaica was seven times that of garrisons in Canada, mostly because of yellow fever and other tropical diseases. Both English and French forces posted there were seriously affected by the "yellow jack." Wanting to regain control of

4173-746: The 43rd BIMA which is permanently in place in accordance with established defense agreements on 24 April 1961 linking the two countries. Abidjan is the regional headquarters of major international institutions, including UNICEF , the UN Development Programme , the World Health Organization , the World Food Programme , the United Nations Office for Project Services , the United Nations Population Fund ,

4280-506: The Abidjan airport. In 2007, Pierre Laba's comedy film Permanent Danger explored the laxity of the police against banditry in major African cities, specifically in Abidjan. Abidjan is divided into districts, each of which has a police station. The municipal police and national police are separate. All police are trained at the National Police Academy in the town of Cocody. They are recruited by competitive examination held by

4387-653: The African continent. In 2016, a large outbreak originated in Angola and spread to neighboring countries before being contained by a massive vaccination campaign. In March and April 2016, 11 imported cases of the Angola genotype in unvaccinated Chinese nationals were reported in China, the first appearance of the disease in Asia in recorded history. Phylogenetic analysis has identified seven genotypes of yellow fever viruses, and they are assumed to be differently adapted to humans and to

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4494-521: The Americas starting in the 17th century with the European trafficking of enslaved Africans from sub-Saharan Africa. Since the 17th century, several major outbreaks of the disease have occurred in the Americas, Africa, and Europe. In the 18th and 19th centuries, yellow fever was considered one of the most dangerous infectious diseases ; numerous epidemics swept through major cities of the US and in other parts of

4601-459: The City of Abidjan elected by the population oversaw the entire city, whereas 10 municipal councils also elected by the population managed each commune. Dioulo Emmanuel was elected mayor of the City of Abidjan on 30 November 1980. In 2001, the City of Abidjan was disbanded and replaced by a larger Autonomous District of Abidjan. The autonomous district overlaps the Abidjan Department , which

4708-523: The Democratic Republic of Congo (2016), Uganda (2016), and more recently in Nigeria and Brazil in 2017 have further increased demand, while straining global vaccine supply. Therefore, to vaccinate susceptible populations in preventive mass immunization campaigns during outbreaks, fractional dosing of the vaccine is being considered as a dose-sparing strategy to maximize limited vaccine supplies. Fractional dose yellow fever vaccination refers to administration of

4815-790: The East African genotype, which had remained undetected in the previous 40 years. In South America, two genotypes have been identified (South American genotypes I and II). Based on phylogenetic analysis these two genotypes appear to have originated in West Africa and were first introduced into Brazil. The date of introduction of the predecessor African genotype which gave rise to the South American genotypes appears to be 1822 (95% confidence interval 1701 to 1911). The historical record shows an outbreak of yellow fever occurred in Recife, Brazil, between 1685 and 1690. The disease seems to have disappeared, with

4922-739: The French forces in Côte d'Ivoire from 2015 onward. In 2014, French defense minister Jean-Yves Le Drian announced that Abidjan would be reinforced as the entry point for France's military presence and counterterrorism operations in the Sahel region. After al-Qaeda militants targeted beachgoers at Grand-Bassam in March 2016, the French government announced it would increase its troop deployment in Côte d'Ivoire from 500 to 900. French soldiers are based in Port-Bouet as well as at

5029-624: The IHF. The founding congress took place on January 15, 1973, in Lagos , Nigeria , during the 2nd All-Africa Games . It was attended by Alberto de San Roman ( Spain ), the vice-president of the International Handball Federation. The committee, which had done all the preparation work, was awarded with executive functions within the confederation. Dr. Salem Nabil became president, and Babacar Fall became secretary general. Its headquarters

5136-666: The Ivorian Air Force attacked French peacekeepers in northern Côte d'Ivoire. After France destroyed Côte d'Ivoire's air capabilities in retaliation, pro-Gbagbo groups staged riots and looting in Abidjan and targeted French homes, schools, and businesses. French peacekeepers moved into the city to calm the situation. Other crises during the first civil war period include the case of the Probo Koala in 2006 , in which disposed products caused thousands of residents to seek medical attention. Côte d'Ivoire's civil conflicts seriously impacted

5243-580: The Lebanese community, which was increasing in importance. Henri de Fougères  [ fr ] became governor of French Sudan in 1924, and remained governor until his death in 1931. One of the main streets of Abidjan still bears his name. In 1931, Plateau and what would become Treichville were connected by a floating bridge, more or less where the Houphouët-Boigny Bridge stands today. The year 1931 also saw addresses begin to be assigned to

5350-695: The Lycée Classique d'Abidjan, the Lycée Sainte-Marie de Cocody, Lycée garçon de Bingerville, and Mami Adjoua the Lyceum. The Blaise Pascal Abidjan school is a French school – a school who has signed an agreement with the AEFE . Recently the Lycée International Jean-Mermoz re-opened which was initially called College International Jean-Mermoz, founded by Pierre Padovani. The Institution suffered from

5457-483: The Plateau. South of the Plateau district (the current central district of the city of Abidjan), the village of Dugbeo was moved across the lagoon to Anoumabo, "the forest of fruit bats", which became the neighborhood of Treichville (now known as Commikro, city of clerks). Treichville was renamed in 1934, in honour of Marcel Treich-Laplène (1860–1890), the first explorer of the Ivory Coast and its first colonial administrator, considered its founder. Instead of Dugbeyo,

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5564-514: The WHO launched a vaccination campaign in Brazil with 3.5 million doses from an emergency stockpile. In March 2017 the WHO recommended vaccination for travellers to certain parts of Brazil. In March 2018, Brazil shifted its policy and announced it planned to vaccinate all 77.5 million currently unvaccinated citizens by April 2019. Some countries in Asia are considered to be potentially in danger of yellow fever epidemics, as both mosquitoes with

5671-409: The WHO on 17 May 2013 advised that subsequent booster vaccinations are unnecessary, an older (than 10 years) certificate may not be acceptable at all border posts in all affected countries. A list of the countries that require yellow fever vaccination is published by the WHO. If the vaccination cannot be given for some reason, dispensation may be possible. In this case, an exemption certificate issued by

5778-521: The additional accounting for the "low-probability, high-damage events" may increase aggregate risks to US$ 187 billion for the "moderate" RCP4.5, US$ 206 billion for RCP8.5 and US$ 397 billion under the high-end ice sheet instability scenario. Since sea level rise would continue for about 10,000 years under every scenario of climate change, future costs of sea level rise would only increase, especially without adaptation measures. The Autonomous District of Abidjan ( District Autonome d'Abidjan ), which superseded

5885-534: The beaches, became the heart of European and middle-class Abidjan. The city saw considerable population growth in the decades following independence, expanding from 180,000 inhabitants in 1960 to 1,269,000 in 1978. Abidjan's skyline dates back to the economic prosperity of this period. New districts such as the upmarket Cocody were founded during this period; built to a large extent in a colonial style, Cocody has since become home to Côte d'Ivoire's wealthy classes as well as expatriates and foreign diplomats. The district

5992-407: The capability to transmit yellow fever as well as susceptible monkeys are present. The disease does not yet occur in Asia. To prevent introduction of the virus, some countries demand previous vaccination of foreign visitors who have passed through yellow fever areas. Vaccination has to be proved by a vaccination certificate, which is valid 10 days after the vaccination and lasts for 10 years. Although

6099-502: The capital of Côte d'Ivoire after its independence from France in 1960. In 1983, the city of Yamoussoukro was designated as the official political capital of Côte d'Ivoire. However, Abidjan has officially been designated as the "economic capital" of the country, because it is the largest city in the country and the centre of its economic activity. Many political institutions and all foreign embassies continue to be located in Abidjan as well. The Abidjan Autonomous District , which encompasses

6206-399: The cell surfaces via specific receptors and are taken up by an endosomal vesicle . Inside the endosome , the decreased pH induces the fusion of the endosomal membrane with the virus envelope . The capsid enters the cytosol , decays, and releases the genome. Receptor binding, as well as membrane fusion, are catalyzed by the protein E, which changes its conformation at low pH, causing

6313-535: The city and some of its suburbs, is one of the 14 districts of Côte d'Ivoire . According to oral tradition of the Tchaman as reported in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Côte d'Ivoire, the name "Abidjan" results from a misunderstanding. Legend states that an old man carrying branches to repair the roof of his house met a European explorer who asked him the name of the nearest village. The old man did not speak

6420-446: The city. Towns near Abidjan include Jacqueville , Grand-Lahou and Dabou in the west; Sikensi , Tiassalé , Agboville , Adzopé and Alépé in the north; and Grand-Bassam to the east. The towns (or sub-prefectures ) of Anyama , Bingerville , Brofodoumé and Songon are within the Abidjan Department , which is co-extensive with the autonomous district. Formerly managed by the French colonial administration, Abidjan became

6527-585: The crisis came with Gbagbo's capture in Abidjan in April 2011, following a major offensive by forces loyal to election winner Alassane Ouattara with support from France and the UN. Abidjan lies on the south-east coast of the country, on the Gulf of Guinea . The city is located on the Ébrié Lagoon . The business district, Le Plateau , is the center of the city, along with Cocody , Deux Plateaux (the city's wealthiest neighborhood and

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6634-531: The current location of Abidjan. In 1903 it officially became a town. The settlers were followed by the colonial government, created in 1899. But then nearby Bingerville became the capital of the French colony , from 1900 until 1934. The future Abidjan, situated on the edge of the lagoon n'doupé ("the lagoon in hot water"), offered more land and greater opportunities for trade expansion. The wharf in Petit Bassam (now Port-Bouët ) south of town quickly overtook

6741-472: The detection of IgM or a four-fold increase in IgG titer is considered sufficient indication for yellow fever. As these tests can cross-react with other flaviviruses, such as dengue virus , these indirect methods cannot conclusively prove yellow fever infection. Liver biopsy can verify inflammation and necrosis of hepatocytes and detect viral antigens . Because of the bleeding tendency of yellow fever patients,

6848-562: The disease by the name "yellow fever" occurred in 1744. However, Dr. Mitchell misdiagnosed the disease that he observed and treated, and the disease was probably Weil's disease or hepatitis. McNeill argues that the environmental and ecological disruption caused by the introduction of sugar plantations created the conditions for mosquito and viral reproduction, and subsequent outbreaks of yellow fever. Deforestation reduced populations of insectivorous birds and other creatures that fed on mosquitoes and their eggs. In Colonial times and during

6955-498: The disease can only be confirmed virologically. Since mild cases of yellow fever can also contribute significantly to regional outbreaks, every suspected case of yellow fever (involving symptoms of fever, pain, nausea, and vomiting 6–10 days after leaving the affected area) is treated seriously. If yellow fever is suspected, the virus cannot be confirmed until 6–10 days following the illness. A direct confirmation can be obtained by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction , where

7062-467: The disease characterized by recurring fever, this time accompanied by jaundice due to liver damage , as well as abdominal pain . Bleeding in the mouth, nose, eyes, and the gastrointestinal tract cause vomit containing blood , hence one of the names in Spanish for yellow fever, vómito negro ("black vomit"). There may also be kidney failure, hiccups, and delirium. Among those who develop jaundice,

7169-579: The district of Abidjan. A report by the Office of the UN says West Africa plays an increasingly important role in the transit of cocaine between Latin America and Europe. In May 2007, seven drug houses were dismantled and 191 people arrested including a military officer. Abidjan is home to Port-Bouet , one of the six French military bases that still exist in Africa ( Dakar , Libreville , Bouar CAR, N'Djamena and Djibouti ). Thousands of people live there, around

7276-493: The emergence of symptoms is probably without effect; ribavirin and other antiviral drugs , as well as treatment with interferons , are ineffective in yellow fever patients. Symptomatic treatment includes rehydration and pain relief with drugs such as paracetamol (acetaminophen). However, aspirin and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are often avoided because of an increased risk of gastrointestinal bleeding due to their anticoagulant effects. Yellow fever

7383-500: The fatality rate is 20 to 50%, while the overall fatality rate is about 3 to 7.5%. Severe cases may have a mortality rate greater than 50%. Surviving the infection provides lifelong immunity , and normally results in no permanent organ damage. Yellow fever can lead to death for 20% to 50% of those who develop severe disease. Jaundice, fatigue, heart rhythm problems, seizures and internal bleeding may also appear as complications of yellow fever during recovery time. Yellow fever

7490-402: The former City of Abidjan ( Ville d'Abidjan ) in 2001, is made up of 10 central communes , whose territory corresponds to the former City of Abidjan, and 4 outlying sub-prefectures: Anyama , Bingerville , Brofodoumé , and Songon . The 10 communes of the former City of Abidjan are traditionally divided into northern Abidjan and southern Abidjan, with the Ébrié Lagoon separating both halves of

7597-482: The former Hotel Sebroko in Attécoubé. While the size of the force has been reduced since the end of the 2011 crisis, UNOCI's mandate was extended in 2013 and again in 2015. The force remains authorized to maintain up to 5,245 troops, 192 observers, 1,500 police and eight customs officers in the country. France's peacekeeping operations in Côte d'Ivoire continued under the aegis of Operation Unicorn until 2015 and then as

7704-533: The gendarmerie is at Agban (commonly Adjamé). There are others in Abobo and Koumassi . A training school is in Cocody and the city . Since 2000, Côte d'Ivoire has experienced a sharp rise in drug trafficking. Drug dens arise mainly in informal settlements and there has been a recent spike in demand among unemployed youth and Ivorian vagrants. The Ivorian police increasingly focus on the fight against trafficking and drug use in

7811-441: The genome of the virus is amplified. Another direct approach is the isolation of the virus and its growth in cell culture using blood plasma ; this can take 1–4 weeks. Serologically, an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay during the acute phase of the disease using specific IgM against yellow fever or an increase in specific IgG titer (compared to an earlier sample) can confirm yellow fever. Together with clinical symptoms,

7918-607: The genus Haemagogus , which is indigenous to the Americas, have been known to carry the disease. The first definitive outbreak of yellow fever in the New World was in 1647 on the island of Barbados . An outbreak was recorded by Spanish colonists in 1648 in the Yucatán Peninsula , where the indigenous Mayan people called the illness xekik ("blood vomit"). In 1685, Brazil suffered its first epidemic in Recife . The first mention of

8025-441: The jungle and urban cycles. Different mosquitoes of the genus Aedes are involved. In recent years, this has been the most common form of transmission of yellow fever in Africa. Concern exists about yellow fever spreading to southeast Asia, where its vector A. aegypti already occurs. After transmission from a mosquito, the viruses replicate in the lymph nodes and infect dendritic cells in particular. From there, they reach

8132-449: The language of the explorer, and thought that he was being asked to justify his presence in that place. Terrified by this unexpected meeting, he fled shouting " min-chan m'bidjan ", which means in the Ebrié language : "I just cut the leaves." The explorer, thinking that his question had been answered, recorded the name of the locale as Abidjan . A slightly different and less elaborate version of

8239-458: The legend: When the first colonists asked a native man the name of the place, the man misunderstood and replied " M'bi min djan ": "I've just been cutting leaves". Abidjan was originally a small Atchan fishing village. In 1896, following a series of deadly yellow fever epidemics , French colonists who had initially settled in Grand-Bassam decided to move to a safer place and in 1898 chose

8346-468: The liver and infect hepatocytes (probably indirectly via Kupffer cells ), which leads to eosinophilic degradation of these cells and to the release of cytokines . Apoptotic masses known as Councilman bodies appear in the cytoplasm of hepatocytes. Fatality may occur when cytokine storm , shock , and multiple organ failure follow. Yellow fever is most frequently a clinical diagnosis , based on symptomatology and travel history. Mild cases of

8453-475: The lucrative sugar trade in Saint-Domingue (Hispaniola), and with an eye on regaining France's New World empire, Napoleon sent an army under the command of his brother-in-law General Charles Leclerc to Saint-Domingue to seize control after a slave revolt. The historian J. R. McNeill asserts that yellow fever accounted for about 35,000 to 45,000 casualties of these forces during the fighting. Only one-third of

8560-412: The most severely affected by the future sea level rise . It estimates that they would collectively sustain cumulative damages of US$ 65 billion under RCP 4.5 and US$ 86.5 billion for the high-emission scenario RCP 8.5 by the year 2050. Additionally, RCP 8.5 combined with the hypothetical impact from marine ice sheet instability at high levels of warming would involve up to US$ 137.5 billion in damages, while

8667-425: The municipal councils of the communes making up the district. Each of the ten communes of Abidjan has its own municipal council, headed by a mayor. The last municipal elections were held in 2018. The sub-prefectures of the autonomous district also have their own mayors and councils. The communes of Abobo, Adjamé, Attécoubé, Cocody, and Plateau are located north of the Ébrié Lagoon (hence the name "Abidjan North"). This

8774-469: The next outbreak occurring in 1849. It was likely introduced with the trafficking of slaves through the slave trade from Africa. Genotype I has been divided into five subclades, A through E. In late 2016, a large outbreak began in Minas Gerais state of Brazil that was characterized as a sylvatic or jungle epizootic . Real-time phylogenetic investigations at the epicentre of the outbreak revealed that

8881-481: The only way unvaccinated humans can become infected, which explains the low incidence of yellow fever cases on the continent. People who become infected in the jungle can carry the virus to urban areas, where A. aegypti acts as a vector. Because of this sylvatic cycle, yellow fever cannot be eradicated except by completely eradicating the mosquitoes that serve as vectors. In Africa, a third infectious cycle known as "savannah cycle" or intermediate cycle, occurs between

8988-478: The outbreak was caused by the introduction of a virus lineage from the Amazon region into the southeast region around July 2016, spreading rapidly across several neotropical monkey species, including brown howler monkeys, which serve as a sentinel species for yellow fever. No cases had been transmitted between humans by the A. aegypti mosquito, which can sustain urban outbreaks that can spread rapidly. In April 2017,

9095-675: The police administration. The police include several sections, such as the BAE (Anti Riot Squad), whose base is located in Yopougon north of the city, the CRS (Republican Security Company), whose main base is located in Williamsville (Adjame) and also includes a secondary base called CRS2, which is located in Zone 4 in the town of Marcory in the central capital. The Force and CECOS accompany the police. The main base of

9202-588: The population of the transmitting mosquitoes. In areas where yellow fever is common, early diagnosis of cases and immunization of large parts of the population are important to prevent outbreaks . Once a person is infected, management is symptomatic; no specific measures are effective against the virus. Death occurs in up to half of those who get severe disease. In 2013, yellow fever was estimated to have caused 130,000 severe infections and 78,000 deaths in Africa. Approximately 90 percent of an estimated 200,000 cases of yellow fever per year occur in Africa. Nearly

9309-494: The post of Mayor of City of Abidjan was replaced by that of District Governor, appointed by the head of state. The position has been occupied by Robert Beugré Mambé since 2011. The District Governor manages Abidjan along with an assembly, the Autonomous District Council ( Conseil du District Autonome ), one-third of whose members are appointed by the government of Côte d'Ivoire, and two-third are representatives from

9416-709: The project of making the political capital Yamoussoukro in Côte d'Ivoire. This goal continues to be the consensus of the country's political leaders. Government offices are located in Le Plateau in the administrative district of Abidjan, Boulevard Carde or Angoulvant Boulevard (near the Cathedral of St. Paul of Abidjan), or elsewhere in the great buildings of the town. The instability of the 2002–2007 civil war and 2010–2011 crisis saw foreign peacekeeping forces stationed in Abidjan. The United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire ( UNOCI ), established in April 2004, has its headquarters at

9523-400: The sea once the 15m-deep Vridi Canal was completed in 1950. Soon Abidjan became the financial center of West Africa. In 1958, the first bridge to connect Petit-Bassam Island with the mainland was completed. When Côte d'Ivoire became independent in 1960, Abidjan became the new country's administrative and economic center. The axis south of Treichville, towards the international airport and

9630-469: The security situation in Abidjan. Amidst the anti-French riots in November 2004, 4,000 prisoners in Abidjan escaped from the country's largest prison. Abidjan was one of the main theaters of the 2010–2011 Ivorian crisis and the site of major demonstrations against incumbent president Gbagbo, including one on International Women's Day in 2011 that saw several demonstrators killed by Gbagbo's forces. The end of

9737-555: The streets of Abidjan for the first time. The addressing project was temporarily concluded in 1964, under the leadership of Mayor Konan Kanga, then badly redone American-style in 1993. Abidjan became the third capital of Ivory Coast by a 1934 decree, following Grand-Bassam and Bingerville . Several villages in Tchaman were then deserted. The leader of the Tchaman community can still be found in Adjame ("center" or "meeting" in Tchaman), north of

9844-562: The sylvatic outbreak continued moving toward the Brazilian coast, where most people were unvaccinated. By the end of May the outbreak appeared to be declining after more than 3,000 suspected cases, 758 confirmed and 264 deaths confirmed to be yellow fever. The Health Ministry launched a vaccination campaign and was concerned about spread during the Carnival season in February and March. The CDC issued

9951-566: The temperature of the coldest month by 1.9 °C (3.4 °F), but the temperature of the warmest month would be 3.4 °C (6.1 °F) higher. According to Climate Action Tracker , the current warming trajectory appears consistent with 2.7 °C (4.9 °F), which closely matches RCP 4.5. Moreover, according to the 2022 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report , Abidjan is one of 12 major African cities (Abidjan, Alexandria , Algiers , Cape Town , Casablanca , Dakar , Dar es Salaam , Durban , Lagos , Lomé , Luanda and Maputo ) which would be

10058-505: The transmission of yellow fever. Vaccination is recommended for those traveling to affected areas, because non-native people tend to develop more severe illness when infected. Protection begins by the 10th day after vaccine administration in 95% of people, and had been reported to last for at least 10 years. The World Health Organization (WHO) now states that a single dose of vaccine is sufficient to confer lifelong immunity against yellow fever disease. The attenuated live vaccine stem 17D

10165-516: The urban cycle, both in Africa and South America, a sylvatic cycle (forest or jungle cycle) is present, where Aedes africanus (in Africa) or mosquitoes of the genus Haemagogus and Sabethes (in South America) serve as vectors. In the jungle, the mosquitoes infect mainly nonhuman primates; the disease is mostly asymptomatic in African primates. In South America, the sylvatic cycle is currently

10272-587: The vector A. aegypti . Five genotypes (Angola, Central/East Africa, East Africa, West Africa I, and West Africa II) occur only in Africa. West Africa genotype I is found in Nigeria and the surrounding region. West Africa genotype I appears to be especially infectious, as it is often associated with major outbreaks. The three genotypes found outside of Nigeria and Angola occur in areas where outbreaks are rare. Two outbreaks, in Kenya (1992–1993) and Sudan (2003 and 2005), involved

10379-587: The virus is transmitted from mosquitoes to humans or other primates. In the "urban cycle", only the yellow fever mosquito A. aegypti is involved. It is well adapted to urban areas, and can also transmit other diseases, including Zika fever , dengue fever , and chikungunya . The urban cycle is responsible for the major outbreaks of yellow fever that occur in Africa. Except for an outbreak in Bolivia in 1999, this urban cycle no longer exists in South America. Besides

10486-452: The wharf of Grand-Bassam in importance, and became the main point of economic access to the colony. In 1904, the rail terminus was located in the Port-Bouët area of Abidjan. Starting in 1904, when Bingerville was not yet complete, Abidjan became the main economic hub of the colony of Ivory Coast and a prime channel for distributing products to the European hinterland , particularly through

10593-423: The world. In 1927, yellow fever virus became the first human virus to be isolated. Yellow fever begins after an incubation period of three to six days. Most cases cause only mild infection with fever, headache, chills, back pain, fatigue, loss of appetite, muscle pain, nausea, and vomiting. In these cases, the infection lasts only three to six days. But in 15% of cases, people enter a second, toxic phase of

10700-461: The wound, and the virus reaches the bloodstream of the bitten person. Transovarial transmissionial and transstadial transmission of yellow fever virus within A. aegypti , that is, the transmission from a female mosquito to its eggs and then larvae, are indicated. This infection of vectors without a previous blood meal seems to play a role in single, sudden breakouts of the disease. Three epidemiologically different infectious cycles occur in which

10807-523: The year. A 2019 paper published in PLOS One estimates that under Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5 , a "moderate" scenario of climate change where global warming reaches ~2.5–3 °C (4.5–5.4 °F) by 2100, the climate of Abidjan in the year 2050 would most closely resemble the current climate of Manila in the Philippines . The annual temperature would increase by 1.8 °C (3.2 °F), and

10914-487: Was about 5 × 10  substitutions/site/year, similar to that of other RNA viruses. The main vector ( A. aegypti ) also occurs in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, the Pacific, and Australia, but yellow fever had never occurred there until jet travel introduced 11 cases from the 2016 Angola and DR Congo yellow fever outbreak in Africa. Proposed explanations include: But none is considered satisfactory. Another proposal

11021-411: Was developed in 1937 by Max Theiler . The WHO recommends routine vaccination for people living in affected areas between the 9th and 12th month after birth. Up to one in four people experience fever, aches, and local soreness and redness at the site of injection. In rare cases (less than one in 200,000 to 300,000), the vaccination can cause yellow fever vaccine-associated viscerotropic disease, which

11128-407: Was endemic in Africa, local populations had developed some immunity to it. When an outbreak of yellow fever would occur in an African community where colonists resided, most Europeans died, while the indigenous Africans usually developed nonlethal symptoms resembling influenza . This phenomenon, in which certain populations develop immunity to yellow fever due to prolonged exposure in their childhood,

11235-483: Was established in 1969 and has had its current boundaries since 1998. The district is made up of the 10 communes of the former City of Abidjan, and of 4 outlying sub-prefectures: Anyama , Bingerville , Brofodoumé , and Songon . Since the 2000s, the built-up area of Abidjan has largely expanded into these 4 formerly rural sub-prefectures. As a result of the creation of the Autonomous District of Abidjan in 2001,

11342-421: Was founded in 1964. In Côte d'Ivoire, the enrollment rate is 74% and access to secondary education is limited by an entrance assessment at the 6th stage after which one-third of students are allowed to continue their studies. 24% of the student population resides in Abidjan, which comprises 20% of the total population. Abidjan is the location of the main educational institutions in the Côte d'Ivoire. These include

11449-657: Was supported by the GAVI alliance and governmental organizations in Europe and Africa. According to the WHO, mass vaccination cannot eliminate yellow fever because of the vast number of infected mosquitoes in urban areas of the target countries, but it will significantly reduce the number of people infected. Demand for yellow fever vaccine has continued to increase due to the growing number of countries implementing yellow fever vaccination as part of their routine immunization programmes. Recent upsurges in yellow fever outbreaks in Angola (2015),

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