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66-560: Ken Silverman (born November 1, 1975) is an American game programmer , best known for writing the Build engine . It was most notably utilized by Duke Nukem 3D , Shadow Warrior , Blood , and more than a dozen other games in the mid- to late-1990s. Once considered the primary rival of John Carmack (later succeeded by Tim Sweeney ), Silverman started work on the Build engine sometime before his first semester at Brown University in 1993, under

132-495: A 3D model is formed from points called vertices that define the shape and form polygons . A polygon is an area formed from at least three vertices (a triangle). A polygon of n points is an n-gon. The overall integrity of the model and its suitability to use in animation depend on the structure of the polygons. Before rendering into an image, objects must be laid out in a 3D scene . This defines spatial relationships between objects, including location and size . Animation refers to

198-509: A Voxlap-powered tech demo was produced in cooperation with Tom Dobrowolski . Since 2003, development on the engine has been fairly static, the source code to the engine was released by Silverman in 2005, allowing commercial derivatives with permission. Ace of Spades , a 2011 online multiplayer shooter, was developed from the Voxlap engine. Other creations by Silverman include the ZIP file archiver KZIP,

264-456: A contract with Apogee Software . In the wake of Duke Nukem 3D and other Build engine games, Silverman left the commercial game industry. Silverman has been CTO and co-founder of Ardfry Imaging, LLC responsible for the PNG Compression tool PNGOUT . He is the founder and Chief Computer Scientist of VOXON , makers of the world's most advanced 3D volumetric display system. Ken's Labyrinth

330-452: A few aspects of real-world physics. For example, a space game may need simulated gravity , but would not have any need for simulating water viscosity . Since processing cycles are always at a premium, physics programmers may employ "shortcuts" that are computationally inexpensive, but look and act "good enough" for the game in question. In other cases, unrealistic physics are employed to allow easier gameplay or for dramatic effect. Sometimes,

396-419: A game from one platform to another has always been an important activity for game developers. Some programmers specialize in this activity, converting code from one operating system to work on another. Sometimes, the programmer is responsible for making the application work not for just one operating system, but on a variety of devices, such as mobile phones . Often, however, "porting" can involve re-writing

462-435: A game producer. As the job title implies, this position is extremely demanding from a technical perspective and requires intimate knowledge of the target platform hardware. Tasks cover a broad range of subjects including the practical implementation of algorithms described in research papers, very low-level assembly optimization and the ability to solve challenging issues pertaining to memory requirements and caching issues during

528-418: A graphics editor, tools programmers create tools with specific functions tailored to a specific game which are not available in commercial products. For example, an adventure game developer might need an editor for branching story dialogs , and a sport game developer could use a proprietary editor to manage players and team stats. These tools are usually not available to the consumers who buy the game. Porting

594-417: A great degree that contemporary games usually boast 3D graphics and full motion video using assets developed by professional graphic artists . Nowadays, the derogatory term " programmer art " has come to imply the kind of bright colors and blocky design that were typical of early video games. The desire for adding more depth and assets to games necessitated a division of labor . Initially, art production

660-525: A human face and a hand that had originally appeared in the 1971 experimental short A Computer Animated Hand , created by University of Utah students Edwin Catmull and Fred Parke . 3-D computer graphics software began appearing for home computers in the late 1970s. The earliest known example is 3D Art Graphics , a set of 3-D computer graphics effects, written by Kazumasa Mitazawa and released in June 1978 for

726-482: A job title, or even a full-time position on a particular game project, is still an important task. This programmer writes the code specifying how input devices such as a keyboard , mouse or joystick affect the game. These routines are typically developed early in production and are continually tweaked during development. Normally, one programmer does not need to dedicate his entire time to developing these systems. A real-time motion-controlled game utilizing devices such as

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792-564: A less painful experience. 3D computer graphics 3D computer graphics , sometimes called CGI , 3-D-CGI or three-dimensional computer graphics , are graphics that use a three-dimensional representation of geometric data (often Cartesian ) that is stored in the computer for the purposes of performing calculations and rendering digital images , usually 2D images but sometimes 3D images . The resulting images may be stored for viewing later (possibly as an animation ) or displayed in real time . 3-D computer graphics, contrary to what

858-403: A specific subset of situations is specified and the physical outcome of such situations are stored in a record of some sort and are never computed at runtime at all. Some physics programmers may even delve into the difficult tasks of inverse kinematics and other motions attributed to game characters, but increasingly these motions are assigned via motion capture libraries so as not to overload

924-413: A team of scripters to implement these sorts of game content. Scripters usually are also game designers. It is often easier to find a qualified game designer who can be taught a script language as opposed to finding a qualified game designer who has mastered C++ . This programmer specializes in programming user interfaces (UIs) for games. Though some games have custom user interfaces, this programmer

990-414: Is a first-person shooter video game coded by Silverman. It was originally released in 1993 as shareware by Epic MegaGames . The source code to the project and even older versions can now be found on Silverman's website. The Build engine is a first-person shooter engine created by Ken Silverman for 3D Realms from 1993 to 1996. The engine was used in a number of popular games of the era, and its source code

1056-426: Is a class of 3-D computer graphics software used to produce 3-D models. Individual programs of this class are called modeling applications or modelers. 3-D modeling starts by describing 3 display models : Drawing Points, Drawing Lines and Drawing triangles and other Polygonal patches. 3-D modelers allow users to create and alter models via their 3-D mesh . Users can add, subtract, stretch and otherwise change

1122-621: Is aimed at cutting out as much of the redundancy in the development cycle as possible (for example, writing new animation systems for each game a studio produces), allowing programmers to focus on new content. Other tools are also essential to game developers: 2D and 3D packages (for example Blender , GIMP , Photoshop , Maya or 3D Studio Max ) enable programmers to view and modify assets generated by artists or other production personnel. Source control systems keep source code safe, secure and optimize merging. IDEs with debuggers (such as Visual Studio ) make writing code and tracking down bugs

1188-494: Is capable of generating points of light within a volume of space, and in doing so enables the creation of 3D multiplayer gaming experiences that can be viewed from any angle without special glasses. Game programmer In the early days of video games (from the early 1970s to mid-1980s), a game programmer also took on the job of a designer and artist . This was generally because the abilities of early computers were so limited that having specialized personnel for each function

1254-683: Is generally about the same for comparable jobs in the business sector. This is despite the fact that game programming is some of the most difficult of any type and usually requires longer hours than mainstream programming. Results of a 2010 survey in the United States indicate that the average salary for a game programmer is USD $ 95,300 annually. The least experienced programmers, with less than 3 years of experience, make an average annual salary of over $ 72,000. The most experienced programmers, with more than 6 years of experience, make an average annual salary of over $ 124,000. Generally, lead programmers are

1320-418: Is more likely to develop a library that can be used across multiple projects. Most UIs look 2D, though contemporary UIs usually use the same 3D technology as the rest of the game so some knowledge of 3D math and systems is helpful for this role. Advanced UI systems may allow scripting and special effects, such as transparency, animation or particle effects for the controls. Input programming, while usually not

1386-542: Is often considered one of the most technically challenging. Network latency , packet compression, and dropped or interrupted connections are just a few of the concerns one must consider. Although multi-player features can consume the entire production timeline and require the other engine systems to be designed with networking in mind, network systems are often put off until the last few months of development, adding additional difficulties to this role. Some titles have had their online features (often considered lower priority than

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1452-399: Is required to fix them. The lead programmer is ultimately in charge of all programming for the game. It is their job to make sure the various submodules of the game are being implemented properly and to keep track of development from a programming standpoint. A person in this role usually transitions from other aspects of game programming to this role after several years of experience. Despite

1518-1076: Is usually performed using 3-D computer graphics software or a 3-D graphics API . Altering the scene into a suitable form for rendering also involves 3-D projection , which displays a three-dimensional image in two dimensions. Although 3-D modeling and CAD software may perform 3-D rendering as well (e.g., Autodesk 3ds Max or Blender ), exclusive 3-D rendering software also exists (e.g., OTOY's Octane Rendering Engine , Maxon's Redshift) 3-D computer graphics software produces computer-generated imagery (CGI) through 3-D modeling and 3-D rendering or produces 3-D models for analytical, scientific and industrial purposes. There are many varieties of files supporting 3-D graphics, for example, Wavefront .obj files and .x DirectX files. Each file type generally tends to have its own unique data structure. Each file format can be accessed through their respective applications, such as DirectX files, and Quake . Alternatively, files can be accessed through third-party standalone programs, or via manual decompilation. 3-D modeling software

1584-687: The ActionScript language, and JavaScript are popular development tools for browser-based games. As games have grown in size and complexity, middleware is becoming increasingly popular within the industry. Middleware provides greater and higher level functionality and larger feature sets than the standard lower level APIs such as DirectX and OpenGL , such as skeletal animation . In addition to providing more complex technologies, some middleware also makes reasonable attempts to be platform independent , making common conversions from, for example, Microsoft Windows to PS4 much easier. Essentially, middleware

1650-605: The Apple II . 3-D computer graphics production workflow falls into three basic phases: The model describes the process of forming the shape of an object. The two most common sources of 3D models are those that an artist or engineer originates on the computer with some kind of 3D modeling tool , and models scanned into a computer from real-world objects (Polygonal Modeling, Patch Modeling and NURBS Modeling are some popular tools used in 3D modeling). Models can also be produced procedurally or via physical simulation . Basically,

1716-468: The CPU with complex calculations. Historically, this title usually belonged to a programmer who developed specialized blitter algorithms and clever optimizations for 2D graphics . Today, however, it is almost exclusively applied to programmers who specialize in developing and modifying complex 3D graphic renderers. Some 2D graphics skills have just recently become useful again, though, for developing games for

1782-758: The DirectX , OpenGL APIs or some wrapper library to interface with hardware devices. Various script languages , like Ruby , Lua and Python , are also used for the generation of content such as gameplay and especially AI. Scripts are generally parsed at load time (when the game or level is loaded into main memory) and then executed at runtime (via logic branches or other such mechanisms). They are generally not executed by an interpreter , which would result in much slower execution. Scripts tend to be used selectively, often for AI and high-level game logic. Some games are designed with high dependency on scripts and some scripts are compiled to binary format before game execution. In

1848-483: The Internet or over a LAN . Each aspect of the game can consume all of one programmer's time and, in many cases, several programmers. Some programmers may specialize in one area of game programming , but many are familiar with several aspects. The number of programmers needed for each feature depends somewhat on programmers' skills, but mostly are dictated by the type of game being developed. Game engine programmers create

1914-592: The Wii Remote or Kinect may need a very complex and low latency input system, while the HID requirements of a mouse-driven turn-based strategy game such as Heroes of Might and Magic are significantly simpler to implement. This programmer writes code that allows players to compete or cooperate, connected via a LAN or the Internet (or in rarer cases, directly connected via modem ). Programmers implementing these game features can spend all their time in this one role, which

1980-403: The 2001 game by Lionhead Studios Black & White features a unique AI approach to a user controlled creature who uses learning to model behaviors during game-play. In recent years, more effort has been directed towards intervening promising fields of AI research and game AI programming. Not always a separate discipline, sound programming has been a mainstay of game programming since

2046-667: The EVALDRAW programming environment, and the PNG file-size optimizer PNGOUT . In 2006, a GUI-driven version of PNGOUT known as PNGOUTWin was released by Ardfry Imaging, a small company Silverman co-founded in 2005. In early 2013, Silverman joined Voxon Photonics as Chief Computer Scientist. His role is primarily that of programming the volumetric graphics engine for the Voxiebox, a swept surface volumetric display being described by Voxon as "the world's first holographic arcade game system". The Voxiebox

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2112-412: The base engine of the game, including the simulated physics and graphics disciplines. Increasingly, video games use existing game engines , either commercial, open source or free . They are often customized for a particular game, and these programmers handle these modifications. A game's physics programmer is dedicated to developing the physics a game will employ. Typically, a game will only simulate

2178-509: The content and experience that a game provides, a gameplay programmer focuses more on a game's strategy, implementation of the game's mechanics and logic, and the "feel" of a game. This is usually not a separate discipline, as what this programmer does usually differs from game to game, and they will inevitably be involved with more specialized areas of the game's development such as graphics or sound. This programmer may implement strategy tables, tweak input code, or adjust other factors that alter

2244-534: The core gameplay) cut months away from release due to concerns such as lack of management, design forethought, or scalability. Virtua Fighter 5 for the PS3 is a notable example of this trend. The tools programmer can assist the development of a game by writing custom tools for it. Game development Tools often contain features such as script compilation, importing or converting art assets, and level editing. While some tools used may be COTS products such as an IDE or

2310-399: The days of Pong . Most games make use of audio, and many have a full musical score. Computer audio games eschew graphics altogether and use sound as their primary feedback mechanism. Many games use advanced techniques such as 3D positional sound , making audio programming a non-trivial matter. With these games, one or two programmers may dedicate all their time to building and refining

2376-575: The effects of the fates of individual studios. Most commercial computer and video games are written primarily in C++ , C , and some assembly language . Many games, especially those with complex interactive gameplay mechanics, tax hardware to its limit. As such, highly optimized code is required for these games to run at an acceptable frame rate. Because of this, compiled code is typically used for performance-critical components, such as visual rendering and physics calculations. Almost all PC games also use either

2442-697: The entire game from scratch as proprietary languages , tools or hardware make converting source code a fruitless endeavour. This programmer must be familiar with both the original and target operating systems and languages (for example, converting a game originally written in C++ to Java ), convert assets, such as artwork and sounds or rewrite code for low memory phones. This programmer may also have to side-step buggy language implementations, some with little documentation, refactor code , oversee multiple branches of code, rewrite code to scale for wide variety of screen sizes and implement special operator guidelines. They may also have to fix bugs that were not discovered in

2508-465: The final form. Some graphic art software includes filters that can be applied to 2D vector graphics or 2D raster graphics on transparent layers. Visual artists may also copy or visualize 3D effects and manually render photo-realistic effects without the use of filters. Some video games use 2.5D graphics, involving restricted projections of three-dimensional environments, such as isometric graphics or virtual cameras with fixed angles , either as

2574-495: The game's sound engine, and sound programmers may be trained or have a formal background in digital signal processing . Scripting tools are often created or maintained by sound programmers for use by sound designers . These tools allow designers to associate sounds with characters, actions, objects and events while also assigning music or atmospheric sounds for game environments (levels or areas) and setting environmental variables such as reverberation. Though all programmers add to

2640-422: The game. Many of these aspects may be altered by programmers who specialize in these areas, however (for example, strategy tables may be implemented by AI programmers). In early video games, gameplay programmers would write code to create all the content in the game—if the player was supposed to shoot a particular enemy, and a red key was supposed to appear along with some text on the screen, then this functionality

2706-519: The language used to implement the game, and will often be used by the game or level designers to implement the world of the game. Many studios also make their games' scripting available to players, and it is often used extensively by third party mod developers . The AI technology used in games programming should not be confused with academic AI programming and research. Although both areas do borrow from each other, they are usually considered distinct disciplines, though there are exceptions. For example,

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2772-438: The large game publishers can go out of business (as when Hasbro Interactive was sold to Infogrames and several projects were cancelled; or when The 3DO Company went bankrupt in 2003 and ceased all operations). Some game programmers' resumes consist of short stints lasting no more than a year as they are forced to leap from one doomed studio to another. This is why some prefer to consult and are therefore somewhat shielded from

2838-402: The latter stages of a project. There is considerable amount of cross-over between this position and some of the others, particularly the graphics programmer. In smaller teams, one or more programmers will often be described as 'Generalists' who will take on the various other roles as needed. Generalists are often engaged in the task of tracking down bugs and determining which subsystem expertise

2904-888: The logic of time to simulate intelligence in enemies and opponents. It has recently evolved into a specialized discipline, as these tasks used to be implemented by programmers who specialized in other areas. An AI programmer may program pathfinding , strategy and enemy tactic systems. This is one of the most challenging aspects of game programming and its sophistication is developing rapidly. Contemporary games dedicate approximately 10 to 20 percent of their programming staff to AI. Some games, such as strategy games like Civilization III or role-playing video games such as The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion , use AI heavily, while others, such as puzzle games , use it sparingly or not at all. Many game developers have created entire languages that can be used to program their own AI for games via scripts . These languages are typically less technical than

2970-404: The mesh to their desire. Models can be viewed from a variety of angles, usually simultaneously. Models can be rotated and the view can be zoomed in and out. 3-D modelers can export their models to files , which can then be imported into other applications as long as the metadata are compatible. Many modelers allow importers and exporters to be plugged-in , so they can read and write data in

3036-539: The mid-level, or Autodesk Combustion , Digital Fusion , Shake at the high-end. Match moving software is commonly used to match live video with computer-generated video, keeping the two in sync as the camera moves. Use of real-time computer graphics engines to create a cinematic production is called machinima . Not all computer graphics that appear 3D are based on a wireframe model . 2D computer graphics with 3D photorealistic effects are often achieved without wire-frame modeling and are sometimes indistinguishable in

3102-448: The most common type of video game developers , depend upon a steady influx of funds from the video game publisher . If a milestone or deadline is not met (or for a host of other reasons, like the game is cancelled), funds may become short and the developer may be forced to retrench employees or declare bankruptcy and go out of business. Game programmers who work for large publishers are somewhat insulated from these circumstances, but even

3168-459: The most well compensated, though some 3D graphics programmers may challenge or surpass their salaries. According to the same survey above, lead programmers on average earn $ 127,900 annually. Though sales of video games rival other forms of entertainment such as movies , the video game industry is extremely volatile. Game programmers are not insulated from this instability as their employers experience financial difficulty. Third-party developers,

3234-456: The name suggests, are most often displayed on two-dimensional displays. Unlike 3D film and similar techniques, the result is two-dimensional, without visual depth . More often, 3-D graphics are being displayed on 3-D displays , like in virtual reality systems. 3-D graphics stand in contrast to 2-D computer graphics which typically use completely different methods and formats for creation and rendering. 3-D computer graphics rely on many of

3300-402: The native formats of other applications. Most 3-D modelers contain a number of related features, such as ray tracers and other rendering alternatives and texture mapping facilities. Some also contain features that support or allow animation of models. Some may be able to generate full-motion video of a series of rendered scenes (i.e. animation ). Computer aided design software may employ

3366-438: The new generation of cell phones and handheld game consoles . A 3D graphics programmer must have a firm grasp of advanced mathematical concepts such as vector and matrix math, quaternions and linear algebra . Skilled programmers specializing in this area of game development can demand high wages and are usually a scarce commodity. Their skills can be used for video games on any platform . An AI programmer develops

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3432-412: The optimization phase of development, some script functions will often be rewritten in a compiled language. Java is used for many web browser based games because it is cross-platform , does not usually require installation by the user, and poses fewer security risks, compared to a downloaded executable program. Java is also a popular language for mobile phone based games. Adobe Flash , which uses

3498-421: The original release of a game. The technology programmer is more likely to be found in larger development studios with specific departments dedicated solely to R&D . Unlike other members of the programming team, the technology programmer usually isn't tied to a specific project or type of development for an extended length of time, and they will typically report directly to a CTO or department head rather than

3564-494: The physical model can match the virtual model. William Fetter was credited with coining the term computer graphics in 1961 to describe his work at Boeing . An early example of interactive 3-D computer graphics was explored in 1963 by the Sketchpad program at Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Lincoln Laboratory . One of the first displays of computer animation was Futureworld (1976), which included an animation of

3630-628: The render engine how to treat light when it hits the surface. Textures are used to give the material color using a color or albedo map, or give the surface features using a bump map or normal map . It can be also used to deform the model itself using a displacement map . Rendering converts a model into an image either by simulating light transport to get photo-realistic images, or by applying an art style as in non-photorealistic rendering . The two basic operations in realistic rendering are transport (how much light gets from one place to another) and scattering (how surfaces interact with light). This step

3696-546: The rendered image, a model's data is contained within a graphical data file. A 3-D model is a mathematical representation of any three-dimensional object; a model is not technically a graphic until it is displayed. A model can be displayed visually as a two-dimensional image through a process called 3-D rendering , or it can be used in non-graphical computer simulations and calculations. With 3-D printing , models are rendered into an actual 3-D physical representation of themselves, with some limitations as to how accurately

3762-825: The role of technical director and lead programmer, such that the jobs are often covered by one person. Game programmers can specialize on one platform or another, such as the Wii U or Windows . So, in addition to specializing in one game programming discipline, a programmer may also specialize in development on a certain platform. Therefore, one game programmer's title might be "PlayStation 3 3D Graphics Programmer." Some disciplines, such as AI, are transferable to various platforms and needn't be tailored to one system or another. Also, general game development principles such as 3D graphics programming concepts, sound engineering and user interface design are transferable between platforms. Notably, there are many game programmers with no formal education in

3828-400: The same algorithms as 2-D computer vector graphics in the wire-frame model and 2-D computer raster graphics in the final rendered display. In computer graphics software, 2-D applications may use 3-D techniques to achieve effects such as lighting , and similarly, 3-D may use some 2-D rendering techniques. The objects in 3-D computer graphics are often referred to as 3-D models . Unlike

3894-432: The same fundamental 3-D modeling techniques that 3-D modeling software use but their goal differs. They are used in computer-aided engineering , computer-aided manufacturing , Finite element analysis , product lifecycle management , 3D printing and computer-aided architectural design . After producing a video, studios then edit or composite the video using programs such as Adobe Premiere Pro or Final Cut Pro at

3960-668: The subject, having started out as hobbyists and doing a great deal of programming on their own, for fun, and eventually succeeding because of their aptitude and homegrown experience. However, most job solicitations for game programmers specify a bachelor's degree (in mathematics, physics, computer science, "or equivalent experience"). Increasingly, universities are starting to offer courses and degrees in game programming. Any such degrees have considerable overlap with computer science and software engineering degrees. Salaries for game programmers vary from company to company and country to country. In general, however, pay for game programming

4026-405: The temporal description of an object (i.e., how it moves and deforms over time. Popular methods include keyframing , inverse kinematics , and motion-capture ). These techniques are often used in combination. As with animation, physical simulation also specifies motion. Materials and textures are properties that the render engine uses to render the model. One can give the model materials to tell

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4092-404: The title, this person usually has less time for writing code than other programmers on the project as they are required to attend meetings and interface with the client or other leads on the game. However, the lead programmer is still expected to program at least some of the time and is also expected to be knowledgeable in most technical areas of the game. There is often considerable common ground in

4158-437: Was all written as part of the core program in C or assembly language by a gameplay programmer. More often today the core game engine is usually separated from gameplay programming. This has several development advantages. The game engine deals with graphics rendering, sound, physics and so on while a scripting language deals with things like cinematic events, enemy behavior and game objectives. Large game projects can have

4224-501: Was released on June 20, 2000. Shortly after the Duke Nukem 3D source code was released in 2003, Silverman added the Polymost renderer to the Build engine. From 2006 to 2011 he prototyped a successor to the engine, titled Build2 . He released his drafts for the engine on March 7, 2018. In 2000, Silverman started work on Voxlap, a voxel -driven graphics engine . In addition to the engine,

4290-683: Was relegated to full-time artists . Next game programming became a separate discipline from game design . Now, only some games, such as the puzzle game Bejeweled , are simple enough to require just one full-time programmer. Despite this division, however, most game developers (artists, programmers and even producers ) have some say in the final design of contemporary games. A contemporary video game may include advanced physics, artificial intelligence, 3D graphics, digitised sound, an original musical score, complex strategy and may use several input devices (such as mice , keyboards , gamepads and joysticks ) and may be playable against other people via

4356-532: Was unnecessary. Game concepts were generally light and games were only meant to be played for a few minutes at a time, but more importantly, art content and variations in gameplay were constrained by computers' limited power. Later, as specialized arcade hardware and home systems became more powerful, game developers could develop deeper storylines and could include such features as high-resolution and full color graphics, physics , advanced artificial intelligence and digital sound . Technology has advanced to such

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