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39-397: Adulteration is the a practice of secretly mixing a substance with another. The secretly added substance will not normally be present in any specification or declared substances due to accident or negligence rather than intent, and also for the introduction of unwanted substances after the product has been made. Adulteration, therefore, implies that the adulterant was introduced deliberately in

78-456: A 'man of letters' and associated with such figures as David Garrick , Laurence Sterne , Oliver Goldsmith , and Samuel Johnson , whom he famously nicknamed "that Great Cham of literature". In 1755 he published an English translation of Miguel de Cervantes ' novel Don Quixote , which he revised in 1761. In 1756, he became briefly editor of the 58-volume Universal History , and editor of The Critical Review , from which later he had

117-439: A complete avoidance of foods that are considered unnatural or foreign. These countries have also proven useful in case studies surrounding chemical preservatives, as they have been only recently introduced. In urban slums of highly populated countries, the knowledge about contents of food tends to be extremely low, despite consumption of these imported foods. Antimicrobial preservatives prevent degradation by bacteria. This method

156-618: A cure at Bath, he retired to Italy, where he died in September 1771 and was buried in the Old English Cemetery, Livorno . There is a monument to his memory beside Renton Primary School, Dunbartonshire , Scotland, on which there is a Latin inscription. The area around the monument was improved in 2002, with an explanatory plaque. After his death in Italy in 1771, his cousin Jane Smollett had

195-437: A little broad, but she may read anything now she's married, you know. I remember they made me laugh uncommonly – there's a droll bit about a postillion's breeches." In W. M. Thackeray 's novel Vanity Fair , Rebecca Sharp and Miss Rose Crawley read Humphry Clinker : "Once, when Mr. Crawley asked what the young people were reading, the governess replied 'Smollett'. 'Oh, Smollett,' said Mr. Crawley, quite satisfied. 'His history

234-567: A practice in Downing Street but his wife did not join him until 1747; they had a daughter Elizabeth, who died aged 15 years about 1762. His two native languages were English and Scots . He translated famous works of the Enlightenment from other European languages. Smollett's first published work in 1746 was a poem about the Battle of Culloden entitled " The Tears of Scotland ". However, it

273-469: A son who was in the military. Smollett attended Dumbarton Grammar School and then was educated at the University of Glasgow , where he studied medicine and eventually qualified as a surgeon. Some biographers assert that he then proceeded to the University of Edinburgh , but left without earning a degree. Others state that his career in medicine came second to his literary ambitions at the age of 18, and it

312-455: A successful libel case brought against him by Admiral Sir Charles Knowles , and a three-month prison sentence, and fine of £ 100. Smollett then began what he regarded as his major work, A Complete History of England (1757–1765) which helped recoup his finances, along with profits from his only performed play, a farce, The Reprisal; or the Tars of Old England . After his imprisonment, he used

351-417: A surgeon during the disastrous campaign to capture Cartagena . These experiences were later included in the narrative of his novels. He married a wealthy Jamaican heiress, Anne "Nancy" Lascelles (1721–1791). She was a daughter of William Lascelles, but was unable to access her inheritance as it was invested in land and slaves. On their return to Britain, at the end of his Navy commission, Smollett established

390-497: A variety of phenols, which are antioxidants. Natural preservatives include rosemary and oregano extract, hops , salt , sugar , vinegar , alcohol , diatomaceous earth and castor oil . Traditional preservatives, such as sodium benzoate have raised health concerns in the past. Benzoate was shown in a study to cause hypersensitivity in some asthma sufferers. This has caused reexamination of natural preservatives which occur in vegetables. Public awareness of food preservatives

429-496: Is added to products such as food products, beverages, pharmaceutical drugs , paints, biological samples, cosmetics, wood, and many other products to prevent decomposition by microbial growth or by undesirable chemical changes . In general, preservation is implemented in two modes, chemical and physical. Chemical preservation entails adding chemical compounds to the product. Physical preservation entails processes such as refrigeration or drying. Preservative food additives reduce

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468-532: Is buried. Laurence Sterne , in his A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy , refers to Smollett under the nickname of Smelfungus , due to the snarling abuse Smollett heaped on the institutions and customs of the countries he visited and described in his Travels Through France and Italy . Mr Brooke in George Eliot 's Middlemarch says to Mr Casaubon: "Or get Dorothea to read you light things, Smollett – Roderick Random, Humphry Clinker . They are

507-868: Is more dull, but by no means so dangerous as that of Mr. Hume . It is history you are reading?' 'Yes,' said Miss Rose; without, however, adding that it was the history of Mr. Humphry Clinker." Charles Dickens 's David Copperfield mentions that his young protagonist counted Smollett's works among his favourites as a child. John Bellairs referenced Smollett's works in his Johnny Dixon series, where Professor Roderick Random Childermass reveals that his late father Marcus, an English professor, had named all his sons after characters in Smollett's works: Roderick Random, Peregrine Pickle, Humphry Clinker, and even "Ferdinand Count Fathom", who usually signed his name F. C. F. Childermass. George Orwell praised him as "Scotland's best novelist". In Hugh Walpole 's fifth novel Fortitude ,

546-428: Is the most traditional and ancient type of preserving—ancient methods such as pickling and adding honey prevent microorganism growth by modifying the pH level. The most commonly used antimicrobial preservative is lactic acid . Common antimicrobial preservatives are presented in the table. Nitrates and nitrites are also antimicrobial. The detailed mechanism of these chemical compounds range from inhibiting growth of

585-485: Is uneven. Americans have a perception that food-borne illnesses happen more often in other countries. This may be true, but the occurrence of illnesses, hospitalizations, and deaths are still high. It is estimated by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) that each year there are 76 million illnesses, 325,000 hospitalizations, and 5,000 deaths linked to food-borne illness. Food suppliers are facing difficulties with regards to

624-402: Is whiter than the meal of corn [wheat]. Thus they sacrifice their taste and their health. . . to a most absurd gratification of a misjudged eye; and the miller or the baker is obliged to poison them and their families, in order to live by his profession." – Tobias Smollett , The Expedition of Humphry Clinker (1771) Food preservative A preservative is a substance or a chemical that

663-618: The New York Evening Post to parody: Mary had a little lamb, And when she saw it sicken, She shipped it off to Packingtown, And now it's labeled chicken. However, even in the 18th century, people complained about adulteration in food: "The bread I eat in London is a deleterious paste, mixed up with chalk, alum and bone ashes, insipid to the taste and destructive to the constitution. The good people are not ignorant of this adulteration; but they prefer it to wholesome bread, because it

702-641: The phenol derivatives BHA , BHT , TBHQ and propyl gallate . These agents suppress the formation of hydroperoxides. A variety of agents are added to sequester (deactivate) metal ions that otherwise catalyze the oxidation of fats. Common sequestering agents are disodium EDTA , citric acid (and citrates), tartaric acid , and lecithin . Citric and ascorbic acids target enzymes that degrade fruits and vegetables, e.g., mono/polyphenol oxidase which turns surfaces of cut apples and potatoes brown. Ascorbic acid and tocopherol , which are vitamins, are common preservatives. Smoking entails exposing food to

741-449: The People's Republic of China. In some African countries, it is not uncommon for thieves to break electric transformers to steal transformer oil , which is then sold to the operators of roadside food stalls to be used for deep frying . When used for frying, it is reported that transformer oil lasts much longer than regular cooking oil . The downside of this misuse of the transformer oil is

780-643: The Renton monument built in 1774. It comprises a tall Tuscan column topped by an urn. On the plinth is a Latin inscription written by Professor George Stuart of Edinburgh, John Ramsay of Ochtertyre and Dr Samuel Johnson . It is a category A listed building . There is also a plaque at his temporary residence in Edinburgh , just off the Royal Mile at the head of St John's Street, where his wife lived after his death until at least 1785. This states that he resided there in

819-545: The Seven Years' War in the guise of a tale from ancient Japan. In 1768, the year he moved to Italy, Smollett entrusted Robert Cunninghame Graham of Gartmore with selling off the slaves he still owned in Jamaica. A further visit to Scotland helped to inspire his last novel, The Expedition of Humphry Clinker (1771), published in the year of his death. He had for some time been suffering from an intestinal disorder. Having sought

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858-622: The United Kingdom up to the Victorian era , adulterants were common; for example, cheeses were sometimes colored with lead. Similar adulteration issues were seen in industries in the United States, during the 19th century. There is a dispute over whether these practices declined primarily due to government regulation or to increased public awareness and concern over the practices. In the early 21st century, cases of dangerous adulteration occurred in

897-425: The bacteria to the inhibition of specific enzymes. The oxidation process spoils most food, especially those with a high fat content. Fats quickly turn rancid when exposed to oxygen. Antioxidants prevent or inhibit the oxidation process. The most common antioxidant additives are ascorbic acid ( vitamin C ) and ascorbates. Thus, antioxidants are commonly added to oils, cheese, and chips. Other antioxidants include

936-450: The centuries and has been instrumental in increasing food security. The use of preservatives other than traditional oils, salts, paints, etc. in food began in the late 19th century, but was not widespread until the 20th century. The use of food preservatives varies greatly depending on the country. Many developing countries that do not have strong governments to regulate food additives face either harmful levels of preservatives in foods or

975-515: The early 1850s, which were published in The Lancet and led to the 1860 Food Adulteration Act and other legislation. John Postgate led a further campaign, leading to another Act of 1875, which forms the basis of the modern legislation and a system of public analysts who test for adulteration. At the turn of the 20th century, industrialization in the United States led to a rise in adulteration, which inspired some protest. Accounts of adulteration led

1014-507: The experience in producing another novel, The Life and Adventures of Sir Launcelot Greaves (1760). In 1763, Smollett was ill, perhaps with tuberculosis, and suffered the loss of his only child at the age of 15. He gave up his editorships and, with his wife Nancy, and relocated to Continental Europe , which led to the publication of Travels Through France and Italy (1766). He also published The History and Adventures of an Atom (1769), which gave his opinion of British politics during

1053-703: The house of his sister, Mrs. Telfer, for the summer of 1766. A second plaque (dating the building at 1758, making it relatively new at that time) states that he "stayed here occasionally," implying more than one visit. Smollett is one of the 16 Scottish writers and poets depicted on the lower section of the Scott Monument in Princes Street , Edinburgh. He appears on the far left side of the east face. There are streets named after him in Nice , France and in Livorno, Italy, where he

1092-411: The initial manufacturing process, or sometimes that it was present in the raw materials and should have been removed, but was not. An adulterant is distinct from, for example, permitted food preservatives . There can be a fine line between adulterant and additive ; chicory may be added to coffee to reduce the cost or achieve a desired flavor—this is adulteration if not declared, but may be stated on

1131-433: The label. Chalk was often added to bread flour ; this reduces the cost and increases whiteness, but the calcium confers health benefits, and in modern bread, a little chalk may be included as an additive for this reason. In wartime, adulterants have been added to make foodstuffs "go further" and prevent shortages. The German word ersatz is widely recognised for such practices during World War II . Such adulteration

1170-511: The risk of foodborne infections , decrease microbial spoilage, and preserve fresh attributes and nutritional quality. Some physical techniques for food preservation include dehydration, UV-C radiation, freeze-drying, and refrigeration. Chemical preservation and physical preservation techniques are sometimes combined. Preservatives have been used since prehistoric times. Smoked meat for example has phenols and other chemicals that delay spoilage. The preservation of foods has evolved greatly over

1209-579: The safety and quality of their products as a result of the rising demand for ready-to-eat fresh food products. Artificial preservatives meet some of these challenges by preserving freshness for longer periods of time, but these preservatives can cause negative side-effects as well. Water-based home and personal care products use broad-spectrum preservatives, such as isothiazolinones and formaldehyde releasers , which may cause sensitization, leading to allergic skin. Tobias Smollett Tobias George Smollett (bapt. 19 March 1721 – 17 September 1771)

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1248-555: The threat to the health of the consumers, due to the presence of PCBs . Adulterant use was first investigated in 1820 by the German chemist Frederick Accum , who identified many toxic metal colorings in food and drink. His work antagonized food suppliers, and he was ultimately discredited by a scandal over his alleged mutilation of books in the Royal Institution library. The physician Arthur Hill Hassall conducted extensive studies in

1287-493: Was The Adventures of Roderick Random , a semi-autobiographical story of a 'north Britain on the make' which made his name. His poetry was described as "delicate, sweet and murmurs as a stream". The Adventures of Roderick Random was modelled on Le Sage 's Gil Blas and despite its scandalous content covering 'snobbery, prostitution, debt and hinting at homosexuality', it was published in 1748. After that, Smollett finally had his tragedy The Regicide published, although it

1326-415: Was a Scottish writer and surgeon. He was best known for writing picaresque novels such as The Adventures of Roderick Random (1748), The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle (1751) and The Expedition of Humphry Clinker (1771), which influenced later generations of British novelists, including Charles Dickens . His novels were liberally altered by contemporary printers; an authoritative edition of each

1365-461: Was edited by Dr O. M. Brack Jr and others. Smollett was born at Dalquhurn, now part of Renton in present-day West Dunbartonshire , Scotland, and baptised on 19 March 1721 (his birth date is estimated as 3 days previously). He was the fourth son of Archibald Smollett of Bonhill , a judge and landowner, laird of Bonhill , living at Dalquhurn on the River Leven , who died about 1726, when Smollett

1404-564: Was just five years old. His mother Barbara Smollett née Cunningham brought the family up there, until she died about 1766. He had a brother, Captain James Smollett, and a sister, Jean Smollett, who married Alexander Telfair of Symington, Ayrshire. Jean succeeded to Bonhill after the death of her cousin-german , Mr Commissary Smollett, and resumed her maiden name of Smollett in 1780. They lived in St John Street off Canongate, Edinburgh, and had

1443-500: Was never performed. In 1750, he travelled to France , where he obtained material for his second novel, The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle , another success. Having lived for a brief time in Bath , he returned to London and published The Adventures of Ferdinand Count Fathom in 1753, but this did not sell well and he went into debt. His novels were published by the well-known London bookseller Andrew Millar . Smollett became considered as

1482-413: Was not until 1750, that Smollett was granted his MD degree at the University of Aberdeen . In 1739 he went to London having written a play The Regicide , about the murder of King James I of Scotland. Unsuccessful at getting this on stage, he obtained a commission as a naval surgeon on HMS  Chichester and travelled to Jamaica , where he settled down for several years. In 1742 he served as

1521-472: Was sometimes deliberately hidden from the population to prevent loss of morale and propaganda reasons. Some goods considered luxurious in the Soviet Bloc such as coffee were adulterated to make them affordable to the general population. Past and present examples of adulterated food, some dangerous, include: Historically, the use of adulterants has been common; sometimes dangerous substances have been used. In

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