50-408: Ādi purāṇa is a 9th-century CE Sanskrit poem composed by Jinasena , a Digambara monk . It deals with the life of Rishabhanatha , the first Tirthankara . Adi Purana was composed by Jinasena (a Digambara monk ) as a Sanskrit poem praising the life of first Tirthankara , Rishabhanatha. According to Jain tradition, it was composed in 9th century CE. The work focusses in his own unique style
100-507: A Rashtrakuta feudatory, he is most known for his epics, Vikramarjuna Vijaya (Pampa Bharata) and Adipurana , both written in Champu style, which he created and served as the model for all future works in the Kannada. The works of Jain writers Adikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna and Ranna, collectively called the "three gems of Kannada literature ", heralded the age of classical Kannada in the 10th century,
150-675: A Vedic-era upanishad meaning "nourisher" and associates it with the creation of earth and production activities that nourishes the whole world, and the text calls this Pusan as Shudra. The term Pusan , in Hindu mythology, is the charioteer of the sun who knows the paths thereby bringing light, knowledge and life to all. The same word pusan is, however, associated in a Brahmana text to Vaishya . The ancient Hindu text Arthashastra states, according to Sharma, that Aryas were free men and could not be subject to slavery under any circumstances. The text contrasts Aryas with Shudra , but neither as
200-443: A caste nearly as rigid as its Hindu counterpart; membership became strictly hereditary, and the range of rituals requiring the "supervision" of one of these "specialists" was greatly expanded. Faithful Digambaras in the south even today regard Jaina-brahmans as descendants of those honored by Bharata at the beginning of human civilization; Hindu brahmans are of course labeled "renegades" or "apostates," brahmans who have "fallen away from
250-556: A hereditary slave nor as an economically closed social stratum in a manner that the term Shudra later was interpreted. According to Rangarajan, the law on labour and employment in Arthashastra has led to a variety of different interpretations by different translators and commentators, and "the accepted view is that slavery, in the form it was practised in contemporary Greece, did not exist in Kautilyan India". Kautilya argued for
300-521: A marker that the text is likely a medieval-era text. The traditional occupation of Shudra as described by Ghurye is agriculture, trade and crafts. However, this categorisation varies by scholar. As per Drekmeier state "Vaishya and Shudra actually shared many occupations and were frequently grouped together". The Arthashastra mentions Shudra as artisans while the Vishnusmriti (3rd century) states all arts to be their occupational domain. In contrast,
350-547: A revered text in the Digambara tradition. The name is shared by an earlier Acharya Jinasena (I), who was the author of Harivamsa Purana . Acharya Jinasena was a 9th-century CE Jain scholar who belonged to the Panchastupanvaya. He was a disciple of Virasena. He claimed that Rishabhanatha first taught humanity how to extract sugarcane juice and that the fire by itself was not divine. Rashtrakutan Emperor Amoghavarsha
400-402: Is based on the [seven building block] principles, life and the rest. Uncreated and indestructible, it endures under the compulsion of its own nature. [from Barbara Sproul, Primal Myths (San Francisco; Harper Row, 1979), 192]. He also wrote Dharmashastra , a lawbook for laymen. Shudra Traditional Shudra or Shoodra ( Sanskrit : Śūdra ) is one of the four varnas of
450-458: Is it found in any Vedanga literature such as the Shrauta-sutras or Grihya-sutras. The word is almost entirely missing, in any context, from ancient Sanskrit literature composed before the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE, and it scarcely appears in the dharmasutras. Increasing mentions of it appear in the dharmasastras of mid to late 1st millennium CE. The presence of the word dvija is
500-456: Is its shortest section. Sections–of the Manusmriti state eight rules for Vaishyas and two for Shudras. Though Manusmriti says Brahmins may seize property from sudra because Sudra owns nothing. Sudra shouldnt accumulate wealth as if he becomes wealthy he might harass brahmin. In sections 10.43 - 10.44, Manu lists Kshatriya tribes who, neglecting the priests and their rites, had fallen to
550-502: Is no evidence in the Rigveda for an elaborate, much-subdivided and overarching caste system", and "the varna system seems to be embryonic in the Rigveda and, both then and later, a social ideal rather than a social reality". Historian Ram Sharan Sharma states that "the Rig Vedic society was neither organized on the basis of social division of labour nor on that of differences in wealth... [it]
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#1732851961454600-593: Is pointless. If he created in some kind of sport, it was the sport of a foolish child, leading to trouble. If he created because of the karma of embodied beings [acquired in a previous creation] He is not the Almighty Lord, but subordinate to something else. If out of love for living beings and need of them he made the world, why did he not take creation wholly blissful free from misfortune? If he were transcendent he would not create, for he would be free: Nor if involved in transmigration, for then he would not be almighty. Thus
650-434: Is rarely mentioned in the extensive medieval era records of Andhra Pradesh , for example. This has led Cynthia Talbot, a professor of history and Asian studies, to question whether varna was socially significant in the daily lives of this region. The mention of jati is even rarer, through the 13th century. Two rare temple donor records from warrior families of the 14th century claim to be Shudras. One states that Shudras are
700-543: The 7th century . Also, an "outcaste" who entered the profession of agriculture would be absorbed in the Shudra varna. The Shudra, states Marvin Davis, are not required to learn the Vedas . They were not dvija or "twice-born", and their occupational sphere stated as service ( seva ) of the other three varna. The word Dvija is neither found in any Vedas and Upanishads , nor
750-472: The Kashtha Sangha . He wrote the encyclopedic Adipurana . Mahapurana includes Ādi purāṇa and Uttarapurana, the project was completed by his pupil Gunabhadra . Mahapurana is the source of the famous quote, used by Carl Sagan and many others: Some foolish men declare that creator made the world. The doctrine that the world was created is ill advised and should be rejected. If God created
800-592: The Medieval Kannada literature . Jinasena Acharya Jinasena II (c. 9th century CE) was a monk and scholar in the Digambara tradition of Jainism . He was patronized by the Rashtrakuta Emperor Amoghavarsha I . He was the author of Adipurana and Mahapurana . Jinasena II was the disciple of Acharya Virasena and he completed the commentary Dhavala on Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama ,
850-470: The Parasarasmriti and other texts state that arts and crafts are the occupational domain of all four varnas. Other sources state that this statement of occupations of Shudra is a theoretical discussion found in select texts, it is not historical. Other Hindu texts such as the epics, states Naheem Jabbar, assert that Shudras played other roles such as kings and ministers. According to Ghurye, in reality,
900-521: The Rigveda was most likely compiled between c. 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE, John Muir in 1868 suggested that the verse that mentions the four varnas has "every character of modernness both in its diction and ideas". The Purusha Sukta verse is now generally considered to have been inserted at a later date into the Vedic text, possibly as a charter myth . According to Stephanie W. Jamison and Joel Brereton, "there
950-556: The Upanayana , an initiation ritual, by the Brahmins. This claim has been contested by historians such as R. S. Sharma . Sharma criticised Ambedkar for relying solely on translations of texts for his information, and stated Ambedkar wrote the book with the sole purpose to prove Shudras were of high caste origin, which was very popular among the highly educated parts of the lower castes during that time period. Sri Aurobindo states Shudra and
1000-454: The vaishya from his thighs and the shudra from his feet. According to historian Ram Sharan Sharma , the purpose of this verse may have been to show that shudras had the same lineage as the other varnas and hence were a section of society in the Vedic period . On the other hand, it could also represent an attempt to provide a common mythical origin for the heterogenous Brahminical society. While
1050-437: The 3 wives of king Dasharatha, was a Shudra. Some of them even worked their way up to throne. The famous Chandragupta is traditionally known to be a Shudra. Among the Hindu communities of Bali, Indonesia, the Shudra (locally spelled Soedra ) have typically been the temple priests, though depending on the demographics, a temple priest may also be a Brahmin (Brahmana), Kshatriya (Ksatrya) or Vaishya. In most regions, it has been
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#17328519614541100-582: The Buddhist texts as few exceptions, but states Bronkhorst, only in the context of abstract divisions of society and it seems to "have remained a theoretical concept without any parallel in actual practice". Historian R. S. Sharma, after discussing several examples concludes that the dharmaśāstras did not allow the Shudras access to literacy but allowed them to learn arts and crafts such as elephant training, etc. He also adds that texts denied them Vedic education as it
1150-490: The Hindu class and social system in ancient India . Some sources translate it into English as a caste , or as a social class. Theoretically, Shudras constituted a class like workers. According to Richard Gombrich 's study of Buddhist texts , particularly relating to castes in Sri Lankan Buddhist and Tamil Hindu society, also "The terms Vaisya and Sudra did not correspond to any clear-cut social units, even in
1200-721: The Hindu community of Maharashtra , but also in the Sikh community. Sixty of his compositions were included by the Sikh Gurus of Punjab region as they compiled the Sikhism scripture the Guru Granth Sahib . Dr Bhim Rao Ambedkar , a social reformer, believed that there were initially only three varnas: the Brahmin , Kshatriya and Vaishya , and that the Shudras were the Kshatriyas who were denied
1250-447: The Shudra as a peasant. Shudras were described as the giver of grain and ancient texts describe a Shudra's mode of earning as being "by the sickle and ears of corn". The ancient precept, "Vedas are destroyer of agriculture and agriculture is destroyer of Vedas", is shown as one of the reasons as to why the Shudras were not allowed to learn Vedas. The fact that peasants were held as Shudras is also documented by Chinese traveller Xuanzang in
1300-481: The Shudra who typically make offerings to the gods on behalf of the Hindu devotees, chant prayers, recite meweda (Vedas), and set the course of Balinese temple festivals. Scholars have tried to locate historical evidence for the existence and nature of varna and jati in documents and inscriptions of medieval India. Supporting evidence for the existence of varna and jati systems in medieval India has been elusive, and contradicting evidence has emerged. Varna
1350-632: The Vedas. Yajnavalkya Smriti in contrast, mentions Shudra students, and the Mahabharata states that all four varnas, including the Shudras, may hear the Vedas. Other Hindu texts go further and state that the three varnas – Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya – may acquire knowledge from Shudra teachers, and the yajna sacrifices may be performed by Shudras. These rights and social mobility for Shudras may have arisen in times of lower societal stress and greater economic prosperity, periods that also saw improvement in
1400-536: The Vedic text's mention of Shudra and other varnas has been seen as its origin, and that "in the varna ordering of society, notions of purity and pollution were central and activities were worked out in this context" and it is "formulaic and orderly, dividing society into four groups arranged in a hierarchy". According to Sharma, the Shudra class originated from Indo-Aryans and non-Indo-Aryans who were relegated to that position due "partly through external and partly through internal conflicts". The word pusan appears in
1450-534: The ancient period, but various groups were subsumed under each term [...]; In medieval times (say AD 500–1500) though society was still said to consist of the four classes, this classification seems to have become irrelevant[.]" The word Shudra appears in the Rigveda and it is found in other Hindu texts such as the Manusmriti , Arthashastra , dharmaśāstras and jyotiḥśāstras . In some cases, Shudras participated in
1500-412: The bravest, the other states that Shudras are the purest. Richard Eaton, a professor of history, writes, "anyone could become a warrior regardless of social origins, nor do the jati appear as features of people's identity. Occupations were fluid." Evidence shows, according to Eaton, that Shudras were part of the nobility, and many "father and sons had different professions, suggesting that social status
1550-425: The conflicting stances within the Hindu texts, non-Hindu texts present a different picture about the Shudras. A Buddhist text, states Patton, "refers to Shudras who know the Vedas, grammar, Mimamsa , Samkhya , Vaisheshika and lagna ". According to Johannes Bronkhorst , a professor of Indology specialising in early Buddhism and Hinduism, the ancient Buddhist canon is predominantly devoid of varna discussions, and
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1600-473: The coronation of kings, or were amatya "ministers" and rajas "kings" according to early Indian texts. The term śūdra appears only once in the Rigveda . This mention is found in the mythical story of creation embodied in the Puruṣasuktam . It describes the formation of the four varnas from the body of a primeval man . It states that the brahmin emerged from his mouth, the kshatriya from his arms,
1650-417: The doctrine that the world was created by God makes no sense at all, And God commits great sin in slaying the children whom he himself created. If you say that he slays only to destroy evil beings, why did he create such beings in the first place? Good men should combat the believer in divine creation, maddened by an evil doctrine. Know that the world is uncreated, as time itself is, without beginning or end, and
1700-530: The hereditary occupation aspect of Shudra and other varnas was missing from large parts of India, and all four varnas (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras) were agriculturalists, traders or became warriors in large numbers depending on economic opportunity and circumstantial necessities. According to Ghurye: Though theoretically the position of the Shudras was very low, there is evidence to show that many of them were well-to-do. Some of them succeeded in marrying their daughters in royal families. Sumitra, one of
1750-522: The pilgrimage of a soul to perfection and attainment of mukti . In the work, the struggle for power and control over the entire world of two brothers Bharata and Bahubali , sons of Rishabhadeva. While Bahubali wins, he renounces the worldly pursuits in favor of his brother. Many Jaina Puranas of the Middle Ages found a role model in this work. A famous quote from Adi Purana is- By birth are all men equal unto one another; but they differ in respect of
1800-422: The progress they might make on the spiritual path. A 10th-century Kannada text written in Champu style, a mix of prose and verse, dealing with the ten lives of the first tirthankara , Adinatha in sixteen cantos. This work is known to be the first work of Kannada poet Adikavi Pampa (941 CE). It is based on the original Sanskrit version by Jinasena acharya. A court poet of Chalukya king Arikesari II ,
1850-479: The rights of Shudras and all classes to participate as warriors. Roger Borsche says that this is so because it is in the self-interest of the ruler to "have a people's army fiercely loyal to him precisely because the people had been treated justly". The Manusmriti predominantly discusses the code of conduct (dharma rules) for the Brahmins (priestly class) and the Kshatriyas (king, administration and warrior class). The text mentions Shudras and Vaishyas, but this part
1900-549: The social conditions of women. Medieval era texts such as Vajrasuchi Upanishad discuss varna and include the term Shudra. According to Ashwani Peetush, a professor of philosophy at the Wilfrid Laurier University, the Vajrasuchi Upanishad is a significant text because it assumes and asserts that any human being from any social background can achieve the highest spiritual state of existence. Outside of
1950-415: The status of Shudras. These are: Pundrakas , Codas, Dravidas , Kambojas , Yavanas , Sakas , Paradas , Pahlavas , Chinas , Kiratas , Daradas and Khasas . According to Laurie Patton , a professor of religion specialising in early Indian religions, the rights and status of Shudra vary widely across early Indian texts. The Apastamba Grhysutra excludes the Shudra students from hearing or learning
2000-593: The supposed supremacy of the traditional brahman caste. He prohibited the use of sacred thread by artisans, dancers and shudras but allowed them to wear dhoti . He preached the importance of Dāna (charity) for Jain households. Jinasena's lineage started with Chandrasena who initiated Aryanandi. Aryanandi initiated Virasena and Jayasena. Virasena initiated six disciples who were Dasharayguru, Jinasena, Vinayasena, Shripal, Padmasena and Devasena. Dasharayguru and Jinasena initiated Gunabhadra who later initiated Lokasena. Vinayasena initiated Kumarasena who started
2050-543: The temples and the performance of elaborate rituals, was noted earlier, in Chapter VII. Whether this class originated, as Jinasena suggests, with a group of ordinary laymen who were on the basis of great merit or spiritual advancement appointed to such positions-or perhaps with a group of traditional brahmans who were converted to Jainism-we cannot be sure. It is clear, however, that the Jaina-brahmans eventually developed into
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2100-517: The true path." Thus the Jainas converted the varņa system into what was for them an acceptable form. The role of theistic crea- tion was eliminated, and the existence of a class of "spiritually superior laymen" analogous to the Hindu brahmans was justified on the basis of conduct, rather than of some irrevocable cosmic order. This second accomplishment was perhaps most important, for it allowed the community to have its own secular "priests" while still rejecting
2150-407: The universe than a potter could. If he is form-less, action-less and all-embracing, how could he have created the world? Such a soul, devoid of all modality, would have no desire to create anything. If he is perfect, he does not strive for the three aims of man, so what advantage would he gain by creating the universe? If you say that he created to no purpose because it was his nature to do so, then God
2200-543: The varnas are rarely referred to in its ancient discourses. The Buddhist texts do not describe the Indian society as divided into the four varṇas of "Brahmins, Ksạtriyas, Vaiśyas and Śūdras". Instead, states Bronkhorst, the bulk of society is described as consisting of "householders" (Pāli: gahapati ), without internal distinctions. Even where the Brahmins are mentioned in such a context, they too are referred to as householders, or Brāhmaṇa-gahapati . The term vaṇṇa does appear in
2250-404: The whole universe might thus have been its own creator, and have arisen quite naturally. If God created the world by an act of his own will, without any raw material, then it is just his will and nothing else — and who will believe this silly nonsense? If he is ever perfect and complete, how could the will to create have arisen in him? If, on the other hand, he is not perfect, he could no more create
2300-479: The world, where was he before the creation? If you say he was transcendent then and needed no support, where is he now? No single being had the skill to make the world - for how can an immaterial god create that which is material? How could God have made this world without any raw material? If you say that he made this first, and then the world, you are faced with an endless regression. If you declare that this raw material arose naturally you fall into another fallacy, For
2350-622: Was believed to impede agriculture and vice versa. While the other varnas showed varying degrees of literacy, the Shudras were generally illiterate. The social reformer Jyotirao Phule blamed the deterioration of the Shudras on illiteracy and emphasised education for them. Phule stated: For want of education intellect deteriorated, for want of intellect morality decayed, for want of morality progress stopped, for want of progress wealth vanished, for want of wealth Shudra perished and all these sorrows sprang from illiteracy Traditionally, Shudras were peasants and artisans . The ancient texts designate
2400-600: Was earned, not inherited" in the Hindu Kakatiya population in the Deccan region between the 11th and 14th centuries. According to Johannes Bronkhorst, none of Ashoka's inscriptions mention the terms Kshatriyas, Vaishyas or Shudras, and only mention Brahmins and Śramaṇas . Several popular medieval era Bhakti movement poet-saints and religious leaders were born in a Shudra family. Examples include Tukaram and Namdev . The compositions of Namdev have been popular not only in
2450-455: Was his disciple. Jinasena had prohibited the use of meat, honey and other similar materials in Jain rituals due to their connection with violence. He is said to have introduced a conduct-based counterpart to the birth-based dvijas (twice-born) found in traditional Brahmanism. Padmanabh Jaini claims: The rise among Digambaras of a class of "Jaina brahmans," individuals entrusted with care of
2500-488: Was primarily organised based on kin, tribe and lineage." According to Sharma, nowhere in the Ṛgveda or Atharvaveda "is there any evidence of restrictions regarding food and marriage either between the Dasa and Aryan, or between the Shudra and the higher varnas". Further, adds Sharma, in late Atharva Veda, "Shudra does not come in for notice, probably because his varna did not exist at that stage". According to Romila Thapar ,
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