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129-668: Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace ( née Byron ; 10 December 1815 – 27 November 1852), also known as Ada Lovelace , was an English mathematician and writer chiefly known for her work on Charles Babbage 's proposed mechanical general-purpose computer , the Analytical Engine . She was the first to recognise that the machine had applications beyond pure calculation. Lovelace was the only legitimate child of poet Lord Byron and reformer Anne Isabella Milbanke . All her half-siblings, Lord Byron's other children , were born out of wedlock to other women. Lord Byron separated from his wife
258-506: A Scottish estate on Loch Torridon in Ross-shire ; and a house in London. They spent their honeymoon at Ashley Combe near Porlock Weir , Somerset, which had been built as a hunting lodge in 1799 and was improved by King in preparation for their honeymoon. It later became their summer retreat and was further improved during this time. From 1845, the family's main house was Horsley Towers , built in
387-546: A broader syllabus and more interest in applications; but William Whewell found the programme unacceptable. A controversy Babbage had with Richard Jones lasted for six years. He never did give a lecture. It was during this period that Babbage tried to enter politics. Simon Schaffer writes that his views of the 1830s included disestablishment of the Church of England , a broader political franchise , and inclusion of manufacturers as stakeholders. He twice stood for Parliament as
516-531: A candidate for the borough of Finsbury . In 1832 he came in third among five candidates, missing out by some 500 votes in the two-member constituency when two other reformist candidates, Thomas Wakley and Christopher Temple, split the vote. In his memoirs Babbage related how this election brought him the friendship of Samuel Rogers : his brother Henry Rogers wished to support Babbage again, but died within days. In 1834 Babbage finished last among four. In 1832, Babbage, Herschel and Ivory were appointed Knights of
645-594: A computer and her notes as a description of a computer and software. In her notes, Ada Lovelace emphasised the difference between the Analytical Engine and previous calculating machines, particularly its ability to be programmed to solve problems of any complexity. She realised the potential of the device extended far beyond mere number crunching. In her notes, she wrote: [The Analytical Engine] might act upon other things besides number , were objects found whose mutual fundamental relations could be expressed by those of
774-438: A contract. However, this situation is different from the specific legal status of legal/judicial separation that exists in some other jurisdictions and requires filing the courts for. As such, a mensa et thoro separation does not exist in most provinces of Canada, but the term "legal separation" has gained widespread use to describe a contract that is created between two spouses at the time of their separation. This contract
903-700: A conventional resident don , and inattentive to his teaching responsibilities, he wrote three topical books during this period of his life. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1832. Babbage was out of sympathy with colleagues: George Biddell Airy , his predecessor as Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Trinity College, Cambridge, thought an issue should be made of his lack of interest in lecturing. Babbage planned to lecture in 1831 on political economy . Babbage's reforming direction looked to see university education more inclusive, universities doing more for research,
1032-466: A divine legislator. In this book, Babbage dealt with relating interpretations between science and religion; on the one hand, he insisted that "there exists no fatal collision between the words of Scripture and the facts of nature;" on the other hand, he wrote that the Book of Genesis was not meant to be read literally in relation to scientific terms. Against those who said these were in conflict, he wrote "that
1161-499: A fast and lifelong friendship with Herschel and with Babbage, who was then quite young. I would ask any fair-minded mathematician to read Babbage's Ninth Bridgewater Treatise and compare it with the works of his contemporaries in England; and then ask himself whence came the peculiar conception of the nature of miracle which underlies Babbage's ideas of Singular Points on Curves (Chap, viii) – from European Theology or Hindu Metaphysic? Oh! how
1290-413: A full and final divorce, but if the spouses are already separated a mensa et thoro for an extended period of time (for example, three years), the court may decide to grant a full and final divorce. When the requirements of burden of proof for a divorce are difficult to meet, in most jurisdictions, an a mensa et thoro ruling assures the couple a slot in the court's schedule whenever they file for
1419-490: A full divorce, by showing that they were both serious about their separation. Sometimes, an a mensa et thoro separation is used when one partner is claimed to be emotionally, verbally, or physically abusive, keeping the marriage in existence while the two spouses are physically separated. This physical separation may give the two of them a chance to work out the problems in their relationship while residing in legally sanctioned separate dwellings. Spouses may also request an
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#17328559379561548-635: A later visit to Piedmont . In April 1828 he was in Rome , and relying on Herschel to manage the difference engine project, when he heard that he had become a professor at Cambridge, a position he had three times failed to obtain (in 1820, 1823 and 1826). Babbage was instrumental in founding the Royal Astronomical Society in 1820, initially known as the Astronomical Society of London. Its original aims were to reduce astronomical calculations to
1677-403: A legal agreement. She bequeathed him the only heirlooms her father had personally left to her. During her final illness, she would panic at the idea of the younger Crosse being kept from visiting her. From 1832, when she was seventeen, her mathematical abilities began to emerge, and her interest in mathematics dominated the majority of her adult life. Her mother's obsession with rooting out any of
1806-495: A machine capable of expressing entities other than quantities. In his book, Idea Makers , Stephen Wolfram defends Lovelace's contributions. While acknowledging that Babbage wrote several unpublished algorithms for the Analytical Engine prior to Lovelace's notes, Wolfram argues that "there's nothing as sophisticated—or as clean—as Ada's computation of the Bernoulli numbers. Babbage certainly helped and commented on Ada's work, but she
1935-451: A machine for manipulating numbers, if those numbers represented other things, letters, musical notes, then the machine could manipulate symbols of which number was one instance, according to rules. It is this fundamental transition from a machine which is a number cruncher to a machine for manipulating symbols according to rules that is the fundamental transition from calculation to computation—to general-purpose computation—and looking back from
2064-444: A mathematical model for how the brain gives rise to thoughts and nerves to feelings ("a calculus of the nervous system"). She never achieved this, however. In part, her interest in the brain came from a long-running pre-occupation, inherited from her mother, about her "potential" madness. As part of her research into this project, she visited the electrical engineer Andrew Crosse in 1844 to learn how to carry out electrical experiments. In
2193-498: A meeting hosted by John Chapman to campaign against the Booksellers Association, still a cartel . It has been written that "what Arthur Young was to agriculture, Charles Babbage was to the factory visit and machinery". Babbage's theories are said to have influenced the layout of the 1851 Great Exhibition , and his views had a strong effect on his contemporary George Julius Poulett Scrope . Karl Marx argued that
2322-400: A mensa et thoro separation to protect themselves from accusations of desertion or abandonment—such as in cases where one must depart from the other for an extended period of time. In most provinces of Canada, the terms "legal separation" or "judicial separation" are often used informally to describe a situation of separation where the couple has formalized certain agreements or entered into
2451-451: A month after Ada was born and left England forever. He died in Greece when she was eight. Lady Byron was anxious about her daughter's upbringing and promoted Lovelace's interest in mathematics and logic in an effort to prevent her from developing her father's perceived insanity . Despite this, Lovelace remained interested in her father, naming her two sons Byron and Gordon . Upon her death, she
2580-401: A more standard form, and to circulate data. These directions were closely connected with Babbage's ideas on computation, and in 1824 he won its Gold Medal , cited "for his invention of an engine for calculating mathematical and astronomical tables ". Babbage's motivation to overcome errors in tables by mechanisation had been a commonplace since Dionysius Lardner wrote about it in 1834 in
2709-477: A nephew wrote to say that Babbage was born one year earlier, in 1791. The parish register of St. Mary's , Newington , London, shows that Babbage was baptised on 6 January 1792, supporting a birth year of 1791. Babbage was one of four children of Benjamin Babbage and Betsy Plumleigh Teape. His father was a banking partner of William Praed in founding Praed's & Co. of Fleet Street , London, in 1801. In 1808,
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#17328559379562838-509: A principle openly borrowed from the Jacquard loom . Babbage had a broad range of interests in addition to his work on computers covered in his 1832 book Economy of Manufactures and Machinery . He was an important figure in the social scene in London, and is credited with importing the "scientific soirée" from France with his well-attended Saturday evening soirées . His varied work in other fields has led him to be described as "pre-eminent" among
2967-420: A reflection of the mathematical uncertainty of the author, the political purposes of the inventor, and, above all, of the social and cultural context in which it was written, than a blueprint for a scientific development". Doron Swade has said that Ada only published the first computer program instead of actually writing it, but agrees that she was the only person to see the potential of the analytical engine as
3096-433: A relationship with her father. He died in 1824 when she was eight years old. Her mother was the only significant parental figure in her life. Lovelace was not shown the family portrait of her father until her 20th birthday. Lovelace did not have a close relationship with her mother. She was often left in the care of her maternal grandmother Judith, Hon. Lady Milbanke, who doted on her. However, because of societal attitudes of
3225-473: A separation agreement is unenforceable unless it is made in writing, signed by the parties and witnessed. This written agreement usually resolves all issues arising from the separation, including custody and access, child support, spousal support and the division of property, except only a court can grant a divorce itself. Before the introduction of the Judicial Separation and Family Law Reform Act 1989 ,
3354-411: A syndicate with male friends, and an ambitious attempt in 1851 to create a mathematical model for successful large bets. This went disastrously wrong, leaving her thousands of pounds in debt to the syndicate, forcing her to admit it all to her husband. She had a shadowy relationship with Andrew Crosse's son John from 1844 onwards. John Crosse destroyed most of their correspondence after her death as part of
3483-402: A translation from French of the lectures of Sylvestre Lacroix , which was then the state-of-the-art calculus textbook. Reference to Lagrange in calculus terms marks out the application of what are now called formal power series . British mathematicians had used them from about 1730 to 1760. As re-introduced, they were not simply applied as notations in differential calculus . They opened up
3612-855: A uniform rate that was put into effect with the introduction of the Uniform Fourpenny Post supplanted by the Uniform Penny Post in 1839 and 1840. Colby was another of the founding group of the Society. He was also in charge of the Survey of Ireland . Herschel and Babbage were present at a celebrated operation of that survey, the remeasuring of the Lough Foyle baseline. The Analytical Society had initially been no more than an undergraduate provocation. During this period it had some more substantial achievements. In 1816, Babbage, Herschel and Peacock published
3741-527: A young Italian engineer and the future Prime Minister of Italy , transcribed Babbage's lecture into French, and this transcript was subsequently published in the Bibliothèque universelle de Genève in October 1842. Babbage's friend Charles Wheatstone commissioned Ada Lovelace to translate Menabrea's paper into English. She then augmented the paper with notes, which were added to the translation. Ada Lovelace spent
3870-402: Is a legal Latin phrase which means "from table and bed", often translated as "from bed and board", in which "board" is a word for "table". Separation a mensa et thoro is essentially a separation that is sanctioned by a court order , meaning that the spouses may legally live apart, but they are still legally married. The legitimacy of any future child born to the couple remains intact, and
3999-531: Is a Divine energy which overrides what we familiarly call the laws of nature." He alluded to the limits of human experience, expressing: "all that we see in a miracle is an effect which is new to our observation, and whose cause is concealed. The cause may be beyond the sphere of our observation, and would be thus beyond the familiar sphere of nature; but this does not make the event a violation of any law of nature. The limits of man's observation lie within very narrow boundaries, and it would be arrogance to suppose that
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4128-469: Is a further-education college in Tottenham Hale , London, focused on digital skills. Ada Lovelace Day is an annual event celebrated on the second Tuesday of October, which began in 2009. Its goal is to "... raise the profile of women in science, technology, engineering, and maths," and to "create new role models for girls and women" in these fields. Events have included Misplaced Pages edit-a-thons with
4257-521: Is an inherent assumption in Frederick Winslow Taylor 's scientific management . Mary Everest Boole claimed that there was profound influence – via her uncle George Everest – of Indian thought in general and Indian logic , in particular, on Babbage and on her husband George Boole , as well as on Augustus De Morgan : Think what must have been the effect of the intense Hinduizing of three such men as Babbage, De Morgan, and George Boole on
4386-541: Is considered to be the first published algorithm ever specifically tailored for implementation on a computer, and Ada Lovelace has often been cited as the first computer programmer for this reason. The engine was never completed and so her program was never tested. In 1953, more than a century after her death, Ada Lovelace's notes on Babbage's Analytical Engine were republished as an appendix to B. V. Bowden 's Faster than Thought: A Symposium on Digital Computing Machines . The engine has now been recognised as an early model for
4515-521: Is more properly referred to as a separation agreement, a legally binding written agreement voluntarily signed by two spouses (either married or common law) who have separated. However, the province of Saskatchewan does allow a legal separation under provincial law, which is distinct from a divorce under federal law. A legal separation in Saskatchewan can be granted by the Court of King's Bench. In Ontario,
4644-475: Is not a legal separation and therefore child support and custody are typically not allowed to be addressed. A separate maintenance agreement is often confused with a legal separation which is filed with a court. Separate maintenance agreements are contracts between spouses and not approved by a court. They are similar to prenuptial agreements. Under the law of some states, a separation can occur by judicial decree, or by an acknowledged (" notarized ") agreement of
4773-497: Is not known what she told him. She was buried, at her request, next to her father at the Church of St. Mary Magdalene in Hucknall, Nottinghamshire. Throughout her life, Lovelace was strongly interested in scientific developments and fads of the day, including phrenology and mesmerism . After her work with Babbage, Lovelace continued to work on other projects. In 1844, she commented to a friend Woronzow Greig about her desire to create
4902-585: Is now considered by many to be the first computer programmer and her method has been called the world's first computer program. Others dispute this because some of Charles Babbage's earlier writings could be considered computer programs. Note G also contains Lovelace's dismissal of artificial intelligence . She wrote that "The Analytical Engine has no pretensions whatever to originate anything. It can do whatever we know how to order it to perform. It can follow analysis; but it has no power of anticipating any analytical relations or truths." This objection has been
5031-493: Is that skilled workers typically spend parts of their time performing tasks that are below their skill level. If the labour process can be divided among several workers, labour costs may be cut by assigning only high-skill tasks to high-cost workers, restricting other tasks to lower-paid workers. He also pointed out that training or apprenticeship can be taken as fixed costs; but that returns to scale are available by his approach of standardisation of tasks, therefore again favouring
5160-464: The Edinburgh Review (under Babbage's guidance). The context of these developments is still debated. Babbage's own account of the origin of the difference engine begins with the Astronomical Society's wish to improve The Nautical Almanac . Babbage and Herschel were asked to oversee a trial project, to recalculate some part of those tables. With the results to hand, discrepancies were found. This
5289-809: The Department of Defense Military Standard for the language, MIL-STD-1815 , was given the number of the year of her birth. In 1981, the Association for Women in Computing inaugurated its Ada Lovelace Award . As of 1998, the British Computer Society (BCS) has awarded the Lovelace Medal , and in 2008 initiated an annual competition for women students. BCSWomen sponsors the Lovelace Colloquium, an annual conference for women undergraduates. Ada College
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5418-682: The Royal Guelphic Order , however they were not subsequently made knights bachelor to entitle them to the prefix Sir , which often came with appointments to that foreign order (though Herschel was later created a baronet ). Babbage now emerged as a polemicist . One of his biographers notes that all his books contain a "campaigning element". His Reflections on the Decline of Science and some of its Causes (1830) stands out, however, for its sharp attacks. It aimed to improve British science, and more particularly to oust Davies Gilbert as President of
5547-677: The Statistical Society followed. Babbage was its public face, backed by Richard Jones and Robert Malthus . Babbage published On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures (1832), on the organisation of industrial production . It was an influential early work of operational research . John Rennie the Younger in addressing the Institution of Civil Engineers on manufacturing in 1846 mentioned mostly surveys in encyclopaedias, and Babbage's book
5676-501: The Tudorbethan fashion by the architect of the Houses of Parliament, Charles Barry , and later greatly enlarged to Lovelace's own designs. They had three children: Byron (born 1836); Anne Isabella (called Annabella, born 1837); and Ralph Gordon (born 1839). Immediately after the birth of Annabella, Lady King experienced "a tedious and suffering illness, which took months to cure". Ada
5805-469: The University of Edinburgh , with the recommendation of Pierre Simon Laplace ; the post went to William Wallace . With Herschel, Babbage worked on the electrodynamics of Arago's rotations , publishing in 1825. Their explanations were only transitional, being picked up and broadened by Michael Faraday . The phenomena are now part of the theory of eddy currents , and Babbage and Herschel missed some of
5934-482: The exponential map ). But via Herschel he was influenced by Arbogast's ideas in the matter of iteration , i.e. composing a function with itself, possibly many times. Writing in a major paper on functional equations in the Philosophical Transactions (1815/6), Babbage said his starting point was work of Gaspard Monge . From 1828 to 1839, Babbage was Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge. Not
6063-444: The factory system . His view of human capital was restricted to minimising the time period for recovery of training costs. Another aspect of the work was its detailed breakdown of the cost structure of book publishing. Babbage took the unpopular line, from the publishers' perspective, of exposing the trade's profitability. He went as far as to name the organisers of the trade's restrictive practices. Twenty years later he attended
6192-448: The " numbers of Bernoulli " (that formed her celebrated algorithm for Babbage's Analytical Engine). In a letter to Lady Byron, De Morgan suggested that Ada's skill in mathematics might lead her to become "an original mathematical investigator, perhaps of first-rate eminence". Lovelace often questioned basic assumptions through integrating poetry and science. Whilst studying differential calculus , she wrote to De Morgan: I may remark that
6321-403: The "Furies" and later complained they exaggerated and invented stories about her. Lovelace was often ill, beginning in early childhood. At the age of eight, she experienced headaches that obscured her vision. In June 1829, she was paralyzed after a bout of measles . She was subjected to continuous bed rest for nearly a year, something which may have extended her period of disability. By 1831, she
6450-575: The 19th century, the success of the finished engine indicated that Babbage's machine would have worked. Babbage's birthplace is disputed, but according to the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography he was most likely born at 44 Crosby Row, Walworth Road , London, England. A blue plaque on the junction of Larcom Street and Walworth Road commemorates the event. His date of birth was given in his obituary in The Times as 26 December 1792; but then
6579-819: The Almighty which afterwards so much disgusted me in my youthful years. Rejecting the Athanasian Creed as a "direct contradiction in terms", in his youth he looked to Samuel Clarke 's works on religion, of which Being and Attributes of God (1704) exerted a particularly strong influence on him. Later in life, Babbage concluded that "the true value of the Christian religion rested, not on speculative [theology] ... but ... upon those doctrines of kindness and benevolence which that religion claims and enforces, not merely in favour of man himself but of every creature susceptible of pain or of happiness." In his autobiography Passages from
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#17328559379566708-576: The Analytical Engine (as shown in her notes), examining how individuals and society relate to technology as a collaborative tool. The programming language Ada is named after her. Lord Byron expected his child to be a "glorious boy" and was disappointed when Lady Byron gave birth to a girl. The child was named after Byron's half-sister, Augusta Leigh , and was called "Ada" by Byron himself. On 16 January 1816, at Lord Byron's command, Lady Byron left for her parents' home at Kirkby Mallory , taking their five-week-old daughter with her. Although English law at
6837-599: The Analytical Engine differed from the original Difference Engine. Her work was well received at the time; the scientist Michael Faraday described himself as a supporter of her writing. The notes are around three times longer than the article itself and include (in Note G ), in complete detail, a method for calculating a sequence of Bernoulli numbers using the Analytical Engine, which might have run correctly had it ever been built (only Babbage's Difference Engine has been built, completed in London in 2002). Based on this work, Lovelace
6966-499: The Analytical Engine. Lovelace first met him on 5 June 1833, when she and her mother attended one of Charles Babbage's Saturday night soirées with their mutual friend, and Lovelace's private tutor, Mary Somerville . Between 1842 and 1843, Lovelace translated an article by the military engineer Luigi Menabrea (later Prime Minister of Italy ) about the Analytical Engine, supplementing it with an elaborate set of seven notes, simply called "Notes" . Lovelace's notes are important in
7095-671: The Babbage family moved into the old Rowdens house in East Teignmouth . Around the age of eight, Babbage was sent to a country school in Alphington near Exeter to recover from a life-threatening fever. For a short time, he attended King Edward VI Grammar School in Totnes , South Devon, but his health forced him back to private tutors for a time. Babbage then joined the 30-student Holmwood Academy , in Baker Street, Enfield , Middlesex , under
7224-637: The Creator ever open to our examination, we possess a firm basis on which to raise the superstructure of an enlightened creed. The more man inquires into the laws which regulate the material universe, the more he is convinced that all its varied forms arise from the action of a few simple principles ... The works of the Creator, ever present to our senses, give a living and perpetual testimony of his power and goodness far surpassing any evidence transmitted through human testimony. The testimony of man becomes fainter at every stage of transmission, whilst each new inquiry into
7353-622: The Enchantress of Number. During a nine-month period in 1842–43, Lovelace translated the Italian mathematician Luigi Menabrea 's article on Babbage's newest proposed machine, the Analytical Engine . With the article, she appended a set of notes. Explaining the Analytical Engine's function was a difficult task; many other scientists did not grasp the concept and the British establishment had shown little interest in it. Lovelace's notes even had to explain how
7482-556: The English clergy of that day hated Babbage's book! Babbage was raised in the Protestant form of the Christian faith, his family having inculcated in him an orthodox form of worship. He explained: My excellent mother taught me the usual forms of my daily and nightly prayer; and neither in my father nor my mother was there any mixture of bigotry and intolerance on the one hand, nor on the other of that unbecoming and familiar mode of addressing
7611-451: The Life of a Philosopher (1864), Babbage wrote a whole chapter on the topic of religion, where he identified three sources of divine knowledge: He stated, on the basis of the design argument , that studying the works of nature had been the more appealing evidence, and the one which led him to actively profess the existence of God . Advocating for natural theology, he wrote: In the works of
7740-539: The Reverend Stephen Freeman. The academy had a library that prompted Babbage's love of mathematics. He studied with two more private tutors after leaving the academy. The first was a clergyman near Cambridge ; through him Babbage encountered Charles Simeon and his evangelical followers, but the tuition was not what he needed. He was brought home, to study at the Totnes school: this was at age 16 or 17. The second
7869-591: The Royal Society, which Babbage wished to reform. It was written out of pique, when Babbage hoped to become the junior secretary of the Royal Society, as Herschel was the senior, but failed because of his antagonism to Humphry Davy . Michael Faraday had a reply written, by Gerrit Moll , as On the Alleged Decline of Science in England (1831). On the front of the Royal Society Babbage had no impact, with
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#17328559379567998-515: The Whitmore sisters. He made a home in Marylebone in London and established a large family. On his father's death in 1827, Babbage inherited a large estate (value around £100,000, equivalent to £10.9 million or $ 15 million today), making him independently wealthy. After his wife's death in the same year he spent time travelling. In Italy he met Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany , foreshadowing
8127-457: The abstract science of operations, and which should be also susceptible of adaptations to the action of the operating notation and mechanism of the engine...Supposing, for instance, that the fundamental relations of pitched sounds in the science of harmony and of musical composition were susceptible of such expression and adaptations, the engine might compose elaborate and scientific pieces of music of any degree of complexity or extent. This analysis
8256-475: The age of 36 on 27 November 1852, from uterine cancer . The illness lasted several months, in which time Annabella took command over whom Ada saw, and excluded all of her friends and confidants. Under her mother's influence, Ada had a religious transformation and was coaxed into repenting of her previous conduct and making Annabella her executor. She lost contact with her husband after confessing something to him on 30 August which caused him to abandon her bedside. It
8385-441: The age of five. Lovelace did have some contact with Elizabeth Medora Leigh , the daughter of Byron's half-sister Augusta Leigh, who purposely avoided Lovelace as much as possible when introduced at court. Lovelace became close friends with her tutor Mary Somerville , who introduced her to Charles Babbage in 1833. She had a strong respect and affection for Somerville, and they corresponded for many years. Other acquaintances included
8514-739: The aim of improving the representation of women on Misplaced Pages in terms of articles and editors to reduce unintended gender bias on Misplaced Pages . The Ada Initiative was a non-profit organisation dedicated to increasing the involvement of women in the free culture and open source movements . A specialist technical college , for pupils 16–19, in England is named "Ada, the National College for Digital Skills", it has campuses in Whitechapel , Tottenham Hale and Manchester . Charles Babbage Charles Babbage KH FRS ( / ˈ b æ b ɪ dʒ / ; 26 December 1791 – 18 October 1871)
8643-443: The author Charles Dickens , contacts which she used to further her education. Lovelace described her approach as "poetical science" and herself as an "Analyst (& Metaphysician)". When she was eighteen, Lovelace's mathematical talents led her to a long working relationship and friendship with fellow British mathematician Charles Babbage, who is known as "the father of computers". She was in particular interested in Babbage's work on
8772-463: The barb that both Babbage and Brewster had received public money. In the debate of the period on statistics ( qua data collection) and what is now statistical inference , the BAAS in its Statistical Section (which owed something also to Whewell ) opted for data collection. This Section was the sixth, established in 1833 with Babbage as chairman and John Elliot Drinkwater as secretary. The foundation of
8901-465: The better part of a year doing this, assisted with input from Babbage. These notes, which are more extensive than Menabrea's paper, were then published in the September 1843 edition of Taylor's Scientific Memoirs under the initialism AAL . Ada Lovelace's notes were labelled alphabetically from A to G. In Note G, she describes an algorithm for the Analytical Engine to compute Bernoulli numbers . It
9030-664: The bland election of the Duke of Sussex to succeed Gilbert the same year. As a broad manifesto, on the other hand, his Decline led promptly to the formation in 1831 of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS). The Mechanics' Magazine in 1831 identified as Declinarians the followers of Babbage. In an unsympathetic tone it pointed out David Brewster writing in the Quarterly Review as another leader; with
9159-899: The clues to unification of electromagnetic theory , staying close to Ampère's force law . Babbage purchased the actuarial tables of George Barrett , who died in 1821 leaving unpublished work, and surveyed the field in 1826 in Comparative View of the Various Institutions for the Assurance of Lives . This interest followed a project to set up an insurance company, prompted by Francis Baily and mooted in 1824, but not carried out. Babbage did calculate actuarial tables for that scheme, using Equitable Society mortality data from 1762 onwards. During this whole period, Babbage depended awkwardly on his father's support, given his father's attitude to his early marriage, of 1814: he and Edward Ryan wedded
9288-420: The concept of a trade . John Ruskin went further, to oppose completely what manufacturing in Babbage's sense stood for. Babbage also affected the economic thinking of John Stuart Mill . George Holyoake saw Babbage's detailed discussion of profit sharing as substantive, in the tradition of Robert Owen and Charles Fourier , if requiring the attentions of a benevolent captain of industry , and ignored at
9417-507: The contradiction they have imagined can have no real existence, and that whilst the testimony of Moses remains unimpeached, we may also be permitted to confide in the testimony of our senses." The Ninth Bridgewater Treatise was quoted extensively in Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation . The parallel with Babbage's computing machines is made explicit, as allowing plausibility to
9546-668: The curious transformations many formulae can undergo, the unsuspected and to a beginner apparently impossible identity of forms exceedingly dissimilar at first sight, is I think one of the chief difficulties in the early part of mathematical studies. I am often reminded of certain sprites and fairies one reads of, who are at one's elbows in one shape now, and the next minute in a form most dissimilar. Lovelace believed that intuition and imagination were critical to effectively applying mathematical and scientific concepts. She valued metaphysics as much as mathematics, viewing both as tools for exploring "the unseen worlds around us". Lovelace died at
9675-455: The design or theory of it in any way". Eugene Eric Kim and Betty Alexandra Toole consider it "incorrect" to regard Lovelace as the first computer programmer, as Babbage wrote the initial programs for his Analytical Engine, although the majority were never published. Bromley notes several dozen sample programs prepared by Babbage between 1837 and 1840, all substantially predating Lovelace's notes. Dorothy K. Stein regards Lovelace's notes as "more
9804-594: The early history of computers , especially since the seventh one contained what many consider to be the first computer program—that is, an algorithm designed to be carried out by a machine. Other historians reject this perspective and point out that Babbage's personal notes from 1837 to 1840 contain the first programs for the engine. She also developed a vision of the capability of computers to go beyond mere calculating or number-crunching, while many others, including Babbage himself, focused only on those capabilities. Her mindset of "poetical science" led her to ask questions about
9933-460: The fields of functional equations (including the difference equations fundamental to the difference engine) and operator ( D-module ) methods for differential equations . The analogy of difference and differential equations was notationally changing Δ to D, as a "finite" difference becomes "infinitesimal". These symbolic directions became popular, as operational calculus , and pushed to the point of diminishing returns. The Cauchy concept of limit
10062-577: The first part of the book. The second part considered the "domestic and political economy" of manufactures. The book sold well, and quickly went to a fourth edition (1836). Babbage represented his work as largely a result of actual observations in factories, British and abroad. It was not, in its first edition, intended to address deeper questions of political economy; the second (late 1832) did, with three further chapters including one on piece rate . The book also contained ideas on rational design in factories, and profit sharing . In Economy of Machinery
10191-541: The form of a court order . In cases where children are involved, a court order of legal separation often makes child custody arrangements, specifying sole custody or shared parenting , as well as child support . Some couples obtain a legal separation as an alternative to a divorce , based on moral or religious objections to divorce. Legal separation does not automatically lead to divorce. The couple might reconcile , in which case they do not have to do anything in order to continue their marriage. A mensa et thoro
10320-724: The government's treatment of his Engine) as an unsigned preface, which could have been mistakenly interpreted as a joint declaration. When Taylor 's Scientific Memoirs ruled that the statement should be signed, Babbage wrote to Lovelace asking her to withdraw the paper. This was the first that she knew he was leaving it unsigned, and she wrote back refusing to withdraw the paper. The historian Benjamin Woolley theorised that "His actions suggested he had so enthusiastically sought Ada's involvement, and so happily indulged her ... because of her 'celebrated name'." Their friendship recovered, and they continued to correspond. On 12 August 1851, when she
10449-422: The incestuous relationship on Byron, but instead blamed Augusta Leigh: "I fear she is more inherently wicked than he ever was." In the 1840s, Ada flirted with scandals: firstly, from a relaxed approach to extra-marital relationships with men, leading to rumours of affairs; and secondly, from her love of gambling. She apparently lost more than £3,000 on the horses during the later 1840s. The gambling led to her forming
10578-441: The insanity of which she accused Byron was one of the reasons that Ada was taught mathematics from an early age. She was privately educated in mathematics and science by William Frend , William King , and Mary Somerville, the noted 19th-century researcher and scientific author. In the 1840s, the mathematician Augustus De Morgan extended her "much help in her mathematical studies" including study of advanced calculus topics including
10707-477: The latter forms the basis of the vast majority of judicial separation decrees. A "normal marital relationship" is not defined. The court must only be satisfied that there has been the loss of an "essential ingredient of the marriage". In the United States of America , a legal separation may address the division of assets, division of debts, child custody, child support, and alimony. A separate maintenance agreement
10836-404: The manner in which analytical laws can be so arranged and combined as to bring every branch of that vast subject within the grasp of the assumed powers of mechanism. It is obvious that, in the invention of a calculating engine, these two branches of the subject are equally essential fields of investigation... They are indissolubly connected, though so different in their intrinsic nature, that perhaps
10965-494: The many polymaths of his century. Babbage, who died before the complete successful engineering of many of his designs, including his Difference Engine and Analytical Engine, remained a prominent figure in the ideating of computing. Parts of his incomplete mechanisms are on display in the Science Museum in London. In 1991, a functioning difference engine was constructed from the original plans. Built to tolerances achievable in
11094-585: The mathematical atmosphere of 1830–65. What share had it in generating the Vector Analysis and the mathematics by which investigations in physical science are now conducted? In 1837, responding to the series of eight Bridgewater Treatises , Babbage published his Ninth Bridgewater Treatise , under the title On the Power, Wisdom and Goodness of God, as manifested in the Creation . In this work Babbage weighed in on
11223-477: The mathematical principles of which that engine is the representative, but giving, in considerable length, many details of the mechanism and contrivances by means of which it tabulates the various orders of differences. M. Menabrea, on the contrary, exclusively developes the analytical view; taking it for granted that mechanism is able to perform certain processes, but without attempting to explain how; and devoting his whole attention to explanations and illustrations of
11352-423: The mouth". This description followed their meeting on 24 February 1834 in which Ada made it clear to Hobhouse that she did not like him, probably due to her mother's influence, which led her to dislike all of her father's friends. This first impression was not to last, and they later became friends. On 8 July 1835, she married William, 8th Baron King , becoming Lady King. They had three homes: Ockham Park , Surrey;
11481-460: The only means of judicial separation available in the Republic of Ireland was to seek a decree of divorce a mensa et thoro . This could only be obtained on the grounds of adultery, cruelty, or "unnatural practices" (a concept never defined by the legislature or the courts). Post-1989 judicial separation is possible on one of six grounds, proven on the balance of probabilities : Of the six grounds,
11610-453: The parties, accompanied with satisfactory evidence of their reconciliation ... by the court which rendered it, subject to such regulations and restrictions as the court thinks fit to impose." In the Philippines, a legal separation may only be had through a valid judicial decree. In addition, actions for legal separation shall not be tried "before six months have elapsed since the filing of
11739-404: The parties. In some states, there must be grounds or a cause of action to get a judicial decree of separation, such as "cruel and inhuman treatment ... abandonment ... neglect or refusal [to] support ... adultery by the defendant, [or] confinement of the defendant in prison ...." Reconciliation is allowed. So, therefore, separation is revocable; state laws may require "the joint application of
11868-567: The petition." During this six-month "cooling-off" period, the spouses are encouraged to find forgiveness. Under the Civil Code , there were only two grounds for legal separation: The grounds were later expanded under Article 55 of the Family Code : (Note that the term "child" includes a child by nature or by adoption) Article 63 of the Family Code enumerates the following concrete effects of
11997-633: The present high ground of modern computing, if we are looking and sifting history for that transition, then that transition was made explicitly by Ada in that 1843 paper. Lovelace recognized the difference between the details of the computing mechanism, as covered in an 1834 article on the Difference Engine, and the logical structure of the Analytical Engine, on which the article she was reviewing dwelt. She noted that different specialists might be required in each area. The [1834 article] chiefly treats it under its mechanical aspect, entering but slightly into
12126-410: The prototype for his difference engine . She became fascinated with the machine and used her relationship with Somerville to visit Babbage as often as she could. Babbage was impressed by Lovelace's intellect and analytic skills. He called her "The Enchantress of Number". In 1843, he wrote to her: Forget this world and all its troubles and if possible its multitudinous Charlatans—every thing in short but
12255-401: The reach of man's power is to form the limits of the natural world." Deed of separation Legal separation (sometimes judicial separation , separate maintenance , divorce a mensa et thoro , or divorce from bed-and-board ) is a legal process by which a married couple may formalize a de facto separation while remaining legally married. A legal separation is granted in
12384-446: The same mind might not be likely to prove equally profound or successful in both. Though Lovelace is often referred to as the first computer programmer, some biographers, computer scientists and historians of computing suggest otherwise. Allan G. Bromley , in the 1990 article Difference and Analytical Engines : All but one of the programs cited in her notes had been prepared by Babbage from three to seven years earlier. The exception
12513-550: The same year, she wrote a review of a paper by Baron Karl von Reichenbach , Researches on Magnetism , but this was not published and does not appear to have progressed past the first draft. In 1851, the year before her cancer struck, she wrote to her mother mentioning "certain productions" she was working on regarding the relation of maths and music. Lovelace first met Charles Babbage in June 1833, through their mutual friend Mary Somerville. Later that month, Babbage invited Lovelace to see
12642-592: The scientists Andrew Crosse , Sir David Brewster , Charles Wheatstone , Michael Faraday and the author Charles Dickens . She was presented at Court at the age of seventeen "and became a popular belle of the season" in part because of her "brilliant mind". By 1834 Ada was a regular at Court and started attending various events. She danced often and was able to charm many people, and was described by most people as being dainty, although John Hobhouse , Byron's friend, described her as "a large, coarse-skinned young woman but with something of my friend's features, particularly
12771-408: The side of uniformitarianism in a current debate. He preferred the conception of creation in which a God-given natural law dominated, removing the need for continuous "contrivance". The book is a work of natural theology , and incorporates extracts from related correspondence of Herschel with Charles Lyell . Babbage put forward the thesis that God had the omnipotence and foresight to create as
12900-415: The source of the productivity of the factory system was exactly the combination of the division of labour with machinery, building on Adam Smith , Babbage and Ure. Where Marx picked up on Babbage and disagreed with Smith was on the motivation for division of labour by the manufacturer: as Babbage did, he wrote that it was for the sake of profitability , rather than productivity, and identified an impact on
13029-406: The spouses may not legally remarry. This type of separation allows the couple to live apart without concerns about being taken to court for " desertion ". (In some jurisdictions, provable "desertion" is legal grounds for a divorce.) There are several reasons why a couple might seek a mensa et thoro separation. In some legal jurisdictions, including certain countries, it can be difficult to get
13158-424: The subject of much debate and rebuttal, for example by Alan Turing in his paper " Computing Machinery and Intelligence ". Most modern computer scientists argue that this view is outdated and that computer software can develop in ways that cannot necessarily be anticipated by programmers. Lovelace and Babbage had a minor falling out when the papers were published, when he tried to leave his own statement (criticising
13287-432: The theory that transmutation of species could be pre-programmed. Jonar Ganeri, author of Indian Logic , believes Babbage may have been influenced by Indian thought; one possible route would be through Henry Thomas Colebrooke . Mary Everest Boole argues that Babbage was introduced to Indian thought in the 1820s by her uncle George Everest: Some time about 1825, [Everest] came to England for two or three years, and made
13416-605: The time granted full custody of children to the father in cases of separation, Lord Byron made no attempt to claim his parental rights, but did request that his sister keep him informed of Ada's welfare. On 21 April, Lord Byron signed the deed of separation , although very reluctantly, and left England for good a few days later. Aside from an acrimonious separation, Lady Byron continued throughout her life to make allegations about her husband's immoral behaviour. This set of events made Lovelace infamous in Victorian society. Ada did not have
13545-447: The time. Charles Babbage's Saturday night soirées , held from 1828 into the 1840s, were important gathering places for prominent scientists, authors and aristocracy. Babbage is credited with importing the "scientific soirée" from France with his well-attended Saturday evening soirées . Works by Babbage and Ure were published in French translation in 1830; On the Economy of Machinery
13674-670: The time—which favoured the husband in any separation, with the welfare of any child acting as mitigation—Lady Byron had to present herself as a loving mother to the rest of society. This included writing anxious letters to Lady Milbanke about her daughter's welfare, with a cover note saying to retain the letters in case she had to use them to show maternal concern. In one letter to Lady Milbanke, she referred to her daughter as "it": "I talk to it for your satisfaction, not my own, and shall be very glad when you have it under your own." Lady Byron had her teenage daughter watched by close friends for any sign of moral deviation. Lovelace dubbed these observers
13803-602: The university. Babbage, John Herschel , George Peacock , and several other friends formed the Analytical Society in 1812; they were also close to Edward Ryan . As a student, Babbage was also a member of other societies such as The Ghost Club , concerned with investigating supernatural phenomena, and the Extractors Club, dedicated to liberating its members from the madhouse, should any be committed to one. In 1812, Babbage transferred to Peterhouse, Cambridge . He
13932-638: The weaving of beautiful patterns , it reminded her of how Babbage's engine used punched cards to make calculations." This insight is seen as significant by writers such as Betty Toole and Benjamin Woolley, as well as the programmer John Graham-Cumming , whose project Plan 28 has the aim of constructing the first complete Analytical Engine. According to the historian of computing and Babbage specialist Doron Swade : Ada saw something that Babbage in some sense failed to see. In Babbage's world his engines were bound by number...What Lovelace saw...was that number could represent entities other than quantity. So once you had
14061-433: The wings: paper, oilsilk, wires, and feathers. She examined the anatomy of birds to determine the right proportion between the wings and the body. She decided to write a book, Flyology, illustrating, with plates, some of her findings. She decided what equipment she would need; for example, a compass, to "cut across the country by the most direct road", so that she could surmount mountains, rivers, and valleys. Her final step
14190-433: The works of the Almighty gives to us more exalted views of his wisdom, his goodness, and his power. Like Samuel Vince , Babbage also wrote a defence of the belief in divine miracles . Against objections previously posed by David Hume , Babbage advocated for the belief of divine agency, stating "we must not measure the credibility or incredibility of an event by the narrow sphere of our own experience, nor forget that there
14319-598: Was a descendant of the extinct Barons Lovelace and in 1838, her husband was made Earl of Lovelace and Viscount Ockham, meaning Ada became the Countess of Lovelace. In 1843–44, Ada's mother assigned William Benjamin Carpenter to teach Ada's children and to act as a "moral" instructor for Ada. He quickly fell for her and encouraged her to express any frustrated affections, claiming that his marriage meant he would never act in an "unbecoming" manner. When it became clear that Carpenter
14448-527: Was able to walk with crutches. Despite the illnesses, she developed her mathematical and technological skills. When Ada was twelve years old, this future "Lady Fairy", as Charles Babbage affectionately called her, decided she wanted to fly. Ada Byron went about the project methodically, thoughtfully, with imagination and passion. Her first step, in February 1828, was to construct wings. She investigated different material and sizes. She considered various materials for
14577-543: Was an Oxford tutor, under whom Babbage reached a level in Classics sufficient to be accepted by the University of Cambridge. Babbage arrived at Trinity College, Cambridge , in October 1810. He was already self-taught in some parts of contemporary mathematics; he had read Robert Woodhouse , Joseph Louis Lagrange , and Maria Gaetana Agnesi . As a result, he was disappointed in the standard mathematical instruction available at
14706-544: Was an English polymath . A mathematician, philosopher, inventor and mechanical engineer, Babbage originated the concept of a digital programmable computer. Babbage is considered by some to be " father of the computer ". He is credited with inventing the first mechanical computer , the Difference Engine , that eventually led to more complex electronic designs, though all the essential ideas of modern computers are to be found in his Analytical Engine , programmed using
14835-417: Was an important development from previous ideas about the capabilities of computing devices and anticipated the implications of modern computing one hundred years before they were realised. Walter Isaacson ascribes Ada's insight regarding the application of computing to any process based on logical symbols to an observation about textiles: "When she saw some mechanical looms that used punchcards to direct
14964-443: Was buried next to her father at her request. Although often ill in her childhood, Lovelace pursued her studies assiduously. She married William King in 1835. King was made Earl of Lovelace in 1838, Ada thereby becoming Countess of Lovelace. Lovelace's educational and social exploits brought her into contact with scientists such as Andrew Crosse , Charles Babbage, Sir David Brewster , Charles Wheatstone and Michael Faraday , and
15093-492: Was definitely the driver of it." Wolfram then suggests that Lovelace's main achievement was to distill from Babbage's correspondence "a clear exposition of the abstract operation of the machine—something which Babbage never did". The computer language Ada , created on behalf of the United States Department of Defense , was named after Lovelace. The reference manual for the language was approved on 10 December 1980 and
15222-435: Was described what is now called the "Babbage principle". It pointed out commercial advantages available with more careful division of labour . As Babbage himself noted, it had already appeared in the work of Melchiorre Gioia in 1815. The term was introduced in 1974 by Harry Braverman . Related formulations are the "principle of multiples" of Philip Sargant Florence , and the "balance of processes". What Babbage remarked
15351-445: Was dying of cancer, Lovelace wrote to him asking him to be her executor, though this letter did not give him the necessary legal authority. Part of the terrace at Worthy Manor was known as Philosopher's Walk; it was there that Lovelace and Babbage were reputed to have walked while discussing mathematical principles. In 1840, Babbage was invited to give a seminar at the University of Turin about his Analytical Engine. Luigi Menabrea ,
15480-560: Was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1816. After graduation, on the other hand, he applied for positions unsuccessfully, and had little in the way of a career. In 1816 he was a candidate for a teaching job at Haileybury College ; he had recommendations from James Ivory and John Playfair , but lost out to Henry Walter . In 1819, Babbage and Herschel visited Paris and the Society of Arcueil , meeting leading French mathematicians and physicists. That year Babbage applied to be professor at
15609-625: Was first an article in the Encyclopædia Metropolitana , the form in which Rennie noted it, in the company of related works by John Farey Jr. , Peter Barlow and Andrew Ure . From An essay on the general principles which regulate the application of machinery to manufactures and the mechanical arts (1827), which became the Encyclopædia Metropolitana article of 1829, Babbage developed the schematic classification of machines that, combined with discussion of factories, made up
15738-476: Was in 1821 or 1822, and was the occasion on which Babbage formulated his idea for mechanical computation. The issue of the Nautical Almanac is now described as a legacy of a polarisation in British science caused by attitudes to Sir Joseph Banks , who had died in 1820. Babbage studied the requirements to establish a modern postal system , with his friend Thomas Frederick Colby , concluding there should be
15867-437: Was kept at bay. Woodhouse had already founded this second "British Lagrangian School" with its treatment of Taylor series as formal. In this context function composition is complicated to express, because the chain rule is not simply applied to second and higher derivatives. This matter was known to Woodhouse by 1803, who took from Louis François Antoine Arbogast what is now called Faà di Bruno's formula . In essence it
15996-405: Was known to Abraham De Moivre (1697). Herschel found the method impressive, Babbage knew of it, and it was later noted by Ada Lovelace as compatible with the analytical engine. In the period to 1820 Babbage worked intensively on functional equations in general, and resisted both conventional finite differences and Arbogast's approach (in which Δ and D were related by the simple additive case of
16125-399: Was prepared by Babbage for her, although she did detect a "bug" in it. Not only is there no evidence that Ada ever prepared a program for the Analytical Engine, but her correspondence with Babbage shows that she did not have the knowledge to do so. Bruce Collier wrote that Lovelace "made a considerable contribution to publicizing the Analytical Engine, but there is no evidence that she advanced
16254-492: Was the top mathematician there, but did not graduate with honours. He instead received a degree without examination in 1814. He had defended a thesis that was considered blasphemous in the preliminary public disputation, but it is not known whether this fact is related to his not sitting the examination. Considering his reputation, Babbage quickly made progress. He lectured to the Royal Institution on astronomy in 1815, and
16383-428: Was to integrate steam with the "art of flying". Ada Byron had an affair with a tutor in early 1833. She tried to elope with him after she was caught, but the tutor's relatives recognised her and contacted her mother. Lady Byron and her friends covered the incident up to prevent a public scandal. Lovelace never met her younger half-sister, Allegra , the daughter of Lord Byron and Claire Clairmont . Allegra died in 1822 at
16512-423: Was translated in 1833 into French by Édouard Biot , and into German the same year by Gottfried Friedenberg. The French engineer and writer on industrial organisation Léon Lalanne was influenced by Babbage, but also by the economist Claude Lucien Bergery , in reducing the issues to "technology". William Jevons connected Babbage's "economy of labour" with his own labour experiments of 1870. The Babbage principle
16641-501: Was trying to start an affair, Ada cut it off. In 1841, Lovelace and Medora Leigh (the daughter of Lord Byron's half-sister Augusta Leigh) were told by Ada's mother that Ada's father was also Medora's father. On 27 February 1841, Ada wrote to her mother: "I am not in the least astonished . In fact, you merely confirm what I have for years and years felt scarcely a doubt about, but should have considered it most improper in me to hint to you that I in any way suspected." She did not blame
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