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45-405: Acclimatisation societies were voluntary associations , founded in the 19th and 20th centuries, that encouraged the introduction of non-native species in various places around the world, in the hope that they would acclimatise and adapt to their new environments. The societies formed during the colonial era, when Europeans began to settle in numbers in unfamiliar locations. One motivation for

90-490: A Rabbit Nuisance Act was passed in New Zealand in 1876. To make matters worse, there was a suggestion that weasels and stoats should be imported to control the rabbits. Despite warnings from Alfred Newton and others, the predators were introduced, and Herbert Guthrie-Smith declared it as an "attempt to correct a blunder by a crime." In 1893, T. S. Palmer of California wrote about the dangers of animal introduction. In 1906,

135-470: A bank account, enter into contracts (rent real estate, hire employees, take out an insurance policy), or sue or be sued. In France , all voluntary associations are non-profit. They may count as unincorporated ( association non-déclarée ) or incorporated ( association déclarée ) and are created in terms of and governed by the Waldeck-Rousseau Act 1901. This is why association loi (de) 1901

180-566: A branch in Algeria, as well as the Jardin d' Acclimatation in Paris in 1861, to showcase not just new animals and plants but also people from other lands. Rewards in the form of medals were offered for anyone in the colonies who established breeding animals. The rules were that at least six specimens had to be maintained, with at least two instances of breeding in captivity. After Saint-Hilaire's death in 1861,

225-577: A broad and original form of nonprofit organizations, and have existed since ancient history. In Ancient Greece , for example, there were various organizations ranging from elite clubs of wealthy men ( hetaireiai ) to private religious or professional associations. In preindustrial societies, governmental administrative duties were often handled by voluntary associations such as guilds . In medieval Europe, guilds often controlled towns. Merchant guilds enforced contracts through embargoes and sanctions on their members, and also adjudicated disputes. However, by

270-711: A common interest, although this term is not widely used or understood. Voluntary associations may be incorporated or unincorporated ; for example, in the US, unions gained additional powers by incorporating. In the UK, the terms voluntary association or voluntary organisation cover every type of group from a small local residents' association to large associations (often registered charities ) with multimillion- pound turnover that run large-scale business operations (often providing some kind of public service as subcontractors to government departments or local authorities). Voluntary association

315-508: A plan to introduce all the birds mentioned in Shakespeare . The appeal of acclimatisation societies in colonies, particularly Australia and New Zealand, was the belief that the local fauna was in some way deficient or impoverished. There was also an element of nostalgia in the desire of European colonists to see familiar species. An Australian settler, J. Martin, complained in 1830 that the "trees retained their leaves and shed their bark instead,

360-472: A transaction in the name of the association takes responsibility for that transaction, just as if it were that individual's personal transaction. There are many countries where the formation of truly independent voluntary associations is effectively proscribed by law or where they are theoretically legally permitted, but in practice are persecuted; for example, where membership brings unwelcome attention from police or other state agencies. Voluntary groups are

405-474: Is a co-operative which is usually founded on one person-one vote principle and distributes its profits according to the amount of goods produced or bought by the members. Associations may take the form of a non-profit organization or they may be not-for-profit corporations ; this does not mean that the association cannot make benefits from its activity, but all the benefits must be reinvested. Most associations have some kind of document or documents that regulate

450-422: Is also used to refer to political reforms, especially in the context of urbanization, granting individuals greater freedoms to associate in civil society as they wished, or not at all. In many jurisdictions no formalities are necessary to start an association. In some jurisdictions, there is a minimum for the number of persons starting an association. Some jurisdictions require that the association register with

495-511: Is in force in South Australia , allows for the creation of a legal entity able to buy and sell land and in general, enter into legally binding contracts. Many clubs and societies begin life as an unincorporated body and seek to attain incorporated status to protect its members from legal liability and in many cases to seek government financial assistance only available to an incorporated body. Clubs and societies wishing to incorporate must meet

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540-400: Is not necessarily voluntary in the sense that one's employment may effectively require it via occupational closure . For example, in order for particular associations to function effectively, they might need to be mandatory or at least strongly encouraged, as is true of trade unions . Because of this, some people prefer the term common-interest association to describe groups which form out of

585-504: Is often harmful to native species and to their ecosystems . For example, in Australia the environment was seriously harmed by overgrazing by rabbits . In North America house sparrows displaced and killed native birds . In New Zealand, introduced mammals such as possums and cats became threats to indigenous plants, birds and lizards. Around the world, salamander populations are threatened by introduced fungal infections . Consequently,

630-479: Is subjoined to their name, except in the Alsace - Moselle area, which is governed by local law in this regard (the area was German in 1901), and are therefore called association loi (de) 1908 . If the association responding to defined criteria, like social or medical help, for example, they can be declared "public utility association" ( association d'utilité publique ) by French authorities. Associations created under

675-522: Is to be treated under the laws. In the United States, voluntary associations which were incorporated were "pre-eminent" in collective action. In California , during the 1980s, then Los Angeles County district attorney Ira Reiner decided to use California's unincorporated associations law to attack street gangs and the habit of their members of tagging graffiti in public spaces, in an attempt to abate vandalism and to recover cleanup costs. He sued

720-611: The English trust law case Conservative and Unionist Central Office v Burrell (1981): "unincorporated association" [means] two or more persons bound together for one or more common purposes, not being business purposes, by mutual undertakings, each having mutual duties and obligations, in an organisation which has rules which identify in whom control of it and its funds rests and upon what terms and which can be joined or left at will. In most countries, an unincorporated association does not have separate legal personality , and few members of

765-473: The Ministry of Justice . Under English law , an unincorporated association consists of two or more members bound by the rules of a society which has, at some point in time, been founded. Several theories have been proposed as to the way that such associations hold rights. A transfer may be considered to have been made to the association's members directly as joint tenants or tenants in common . Alternatively,

810-463: The swans were black , the eagles white , the bees were stingless , some mammals had pockets , others laid eggs , it was warmest on the hills..." It was there that the desire to make the land feel more like England was strongest. The Acclimatisation Society of Victoria was established in 1861. Speaking to the Society, George Bennett pointed out how it was important to have such an organisation, citing

855-487: The 1800s, merchant guilds had largely disappeared. Economic historians have debated the precise role that merchant guilds played in premodern society and economic growth. In the United Kingdom, craft guilds were more successful than merchant guilds and formed livery companies which exerted significant influence on society. A standard definition of an unincorporated association was given by Lord Justice Lawton in

900-402: The 1901 act have a significant amount of freedom in their internal operation, such as management or authorized members. The German Civil Code sets out different rights and rules for an unincorporated association ( nicht eingetragener Verein ) with legal identity ( Vereine , art. 21–79 BGB ) versus an incorporated association ( eingetragener Verein ) with full legal personality , which

945-543: The Acclimatisation Society of Victoria, were involved in the transfer of many plant species out of Australia. In some cases, those movements were not direct but via Paris and Kew. The British acclimatisation society originated from an idea proposed by the management of The Field magazine. A meeting was held on 21 January 1859, at the London Tavern on Bishopsgate Street. The attendees included Richard Owen at

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990-786: The Associations Law, 1980. An amutah is a body corporate, though not a company. The amutah is successor to the Ottoman Association which predated the State of Israel, and was established by the now-superseded 1909 Ottoman Law on Associations, based on the French law of 1901. An amutah must register with the Rasham Ha’amutot ('Registrar of Amutot'), under the purview of the Rashut Hata’agidim ('Corporations Authority') of

1035-481: The Crown as bona vacantia . This conclusion has also been suggested where the association dissolves because only one member remains, although this has been doubted by some commentators who believe the last members should be entitled to the rights. Scots law on unincorporated associations is essentially the same as English law. Each state sets its own laws as to what constitutes an unincorporated association and how it

1080-668: The Society was headed by Édouard Drouyn de Lhuys , foreign minister to Napoleon III , and many of the functionaries were diplomats who established ties with officers in the colonies both French and foreign. Franco-British as well as Franco-Australian ties were involved in the movements of plants and animals. Australian acacias, for instance, were introduced in Algeria by the French, and by the British in South Africa. François Laporte , naturalist and consul in Melbourne, and Ferdinand von Mueller of

1125-454: The activities of the acclimatisation societies was that introducing new species of plants and animals (mainly from Europe) would enrich the flora and fauna of target regions. The movement also sought to establish plants and animals that were familiar to Europeans, while also bringing exotic and useful foreign plants and animals to centres of European settlement. It is now widely understood that introducing species to foreign environments

1170-627: The association more protection against liability than that given to either stockholders of corporations or members of limited liability companies . This was noted in the case of International News Service vs Associated Press , because the members of the AP are not liable for damages for the organization's actions unless the association as a whole approved it. In Texas , state law has statutes concerning unincorporated non-profit associations that allow unincorporated associations that meet certain criteria to operate as entities independent of their members, with

1215-560: The association usually enjoy limited liability . However, in some countries they are treated as having separate legal personality for tax purposes: for example, in the United Kingdom an unincorporated association is assessable to corporation tax . However, because of their lack of legal personality, legacies to unincorporated associations are sometimes subject to general common law prohibitions against purpose trusts . Associations that are organized for profit or financial gain are usually called partnerships . A special kind of partnership

1260-411: The contributors, unless they can be shown to have renounced their right to such a trust in their favour. If the rights are held subject to contract, then they will be divided among the surviving membership upon dissolution, according to the terms of the contracts inter se or an implied term according to contribution. If, as a result of this contract or statute, no member can claim, the rights will pass to

1305-525: The deliberate introduction of new species is now illegal in some countries. Alfred Russel Wallace attempted to define acclimatisation in his contribution on the subject in the Encyclopædia Britannica , 11th edition (1911). Wallace tried to differentiate the concept from other terms, such as "domestication" and "naturalisation". He noted that a domesticated animal could live in environments controlled by humans. Naturalisation, he suggested, included

1350-625: The editors of the Avicultural Magazine were decidedly against the idea of bird introductions. The emergence of the field of ecology transformed expert and public opinion on introductions and gave way to new rules. Quarantine regulations began to be set up instead. Beginning in New Zealand, some of the acclimatisation societies transformed themselves into fish and game organisations. Voluntary association All such associations reflect freedom of association in ultimate terms (members may choose whether to join or leave), although membership

1395-562: The example of the Earl of Knowsley, who had been conducting successful experiments in private, the results of which had been lost with his death. A major proponent of importing and exporting trees and plants was Ferdinand von Mueller . Introductions of commercially valuable species or game species were also made. In some instances, the results were disastrous, such as the economic and ecological disaster of introducing rabbits to Australia or possums to New Zealand . The dire effects were rapidly felt and

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1440-406: The funds transferred may be considered to have been under the terms of a private purpose trust . Many purpose trusts fail for want of a beneficiary and this may therefore result in the gift failing. However, some purpose trusts are valid, and, accordingly, some cases have decided that the rights associated with unincorporated associations are held on this basis. The dominant theory, however, is that

1485-403: The head of the table, and the servings included a large pike , American partridges , a young bean goose and an African eland . At the meeting, Mitchell and others suggested that many of those exotic animals could live in the British wilderness. A few days later, Owen wrote to The Times , praising the taste of the eland and advocating animal introductions. On 26 June 1860, another meeting

1530-570: The law treats as partnerships ( Gesellschaften , art. 705–740 BGB ). Associations can be for-profit ( wirtschaftlicher Verein ) or non-for-profit ( Idealverein ). Associations which pursue a public purpose can apply for tax exemptions ( gemeinnütziger Verein ). The freedom of association stands in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights : Article 20 Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights also protects

1575-492: The police or other official body to inform the public of the association's existence. This could be a tool of political control or intimidation, and also a way of protecting the economy from fraud . In many such jurisdictions, only a registered association (an incorporated body) is a juristic person whose members are not responsible for the financial acts of the association. Any group of persons may, of course, work as an informal association, but in such cases, each person making

1620-507: The process of acclimatisation, which involved "gradual adjustment". The idea, at least in France, was associated with Lamarckism , and Wallace noted that some, such as Charles Darwin , denied the possibility of forcing individual animals to adjust. However, Wallace pointed out that there was the possibility that there were variations among individuals and so some could have the ability to adapt to new environments. The first acclimatisation society

1665-487: The provisions of the relevant state act and lodge their constitution with the corresponding state government authority. In Israel , many non-profit organizations (NPOs) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are established as registered nonprofit associations (Hebrew amutah , plural amutot ) (some are established as public benefit companies (Hebrew Chevrah LeTo’elet Hatzibur ) not to be confused with public benefit corporations). Amutot are regulated by

1710-461: The right to freedom of assembly and association. Article 11 – Freedom of assembly and association The Field (magazine) The Field is a British monthly magazine about country matters and field sports . It was started as a weekly magazine in 1853, and has remained in print since then; Robert Smith Surtees was among the founders. In the nineteenth century, it was known as Field: The Country Gentleman's Newspaper . The magazine

1755-505: The right to own property, make contracts, sue and be sued, with limited liability for their officers and members. Certain civil-law systems classify an association as a special form of contractual relationship. Under the Quebec Civil Code an association is categorized as a type of statutory specific contract set forth in a constitution. An association can become incorporated with its own legal identity so that it may, e.g., open

1800-439: The rights are transferred to the members or officers absolutely, perhaps on trust for the members, but are importantly bound by contracts inter se . Accordingly, on dissolution, the distribution of these rights depends on how they were held. A purpose trust may by its nature survive the dissolution of the association, or it may not. If it fails as a result of the dissolution, then the rights will be held on resulting trust for

1845-421: The street gangs by name, with cases titled such as City of Los Angeles v. The Bloods and City of Los Angeles v. The Crips , which then allowed the city to go after any member of the street gang, as a member of the unincorporated association being sued, for damages resulting from graffiti tagging involving that gang's name,. New York state law regarding unincorporated associations actually gives members of

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1890-539: The way in which the body meets and operates. Such an instrument is often called the organization's bylaws, constitution, regulations, or agreement of association. In most states and territories in Australia , a similar set of laws allows not-for-profit associations to become legal entities with a limit to the liability of their members. An example of such a law, the Associations Incorporation Act 1985 that

1935-468: Was Burdett Coutts . Other such societies spread quickly around the world, particularly to European colonies in the Americas, Australia and New Zealand. In many instances they existed both as societies for the study of natural history as well as to improve the success rate of introduced species. In 1850, English sparrows were introduced into America and Eugene Schieffelin introduced starlings in 1890 as part of

1980-621: Was La Societé Zoologique d'Acclimatation , founded in Paris by Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire , on 10 May 1854. It was essentially an offshoot of the National Museum of Natural History in Paris, and the other staff included Jean Louis Armand de Quatrefages , Antoine César Becquerel and his son Alexandre. Saint-Hilaire subscribed to the Lamarckian idea that humans and animals could be forced to adapt to new environments. The French society established

2025-508: Was held and the Acclimatisation Society was formally founded in London. A year later, the Secretary to the Society, Frank Buckland , a popular naturalist known for his taste in exotic meats, noted the "success" of the Society in introducing peafowl , common pheasant, European swans , starlings and linnets into Australia, through the efforts of Edward Wilson . One of the supporters of the Society

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