Misplaced Pages

#778221

98-461: Ab urbe condita ( Latin: [ab ˈʊrbɛ ˈkɔndɪtaː] ; 'from the founding of the City '), or anno urbis conditae ( Latin: [ˈannoː ˈʊrbɪs ˈkɔndɪtae̯] ; 'in the year since the city's founding'), abbreviated as AUC or AVC , expresses a date in years since 753 BC , the traditional founding of Rome. It is an expression used in antiquity and by classical historians to refer to

196-509: A Mycenaean Greek settlement on the Palatine even earlier than Romulus and Remus, at some time during the 12th century BC. Modern scholars disregard most of the traditional accounts as myths. There is no persuasive archaeological evidence for either the Romulan foundation or for the idea of an early Greek settlement. Even the name Romulus is now generally believed to have been retrojected from

294-406: A body", but incarnation (a term these groups would avoid) requiring Jesus having the temptable and mortal nature of His mother. In contrast to the traditional view of the incarnation cited above, adherents of Oneness Pentecostalism believe in the doctrine of Oneness. Although both Oneness and traditional Christianity teach that God is a singular Spirit, Oneness adherents reject the idea that God

392-644: A cult to Hercules had been established at the Ara Maxima in Rome during the archaic period. By the early fifth century BC, these stories had become entrenched in Roman historical beliefs. These cults, along with the early – in literary terms – account of Cato the Elder , show how Italians and Romans took these Greek histories seriously and as reliable evidence by later annalists, even though they were speculations of little value. Much of

490-529: A general melee. Wiseman and some others attribute the aspects of fratricide to the 4th-century BC Conflict of the Orders , when Rome's lower-class plebeians began to resist excesses by the upper-class patricians . Romulus, after ritualistically ploughing the generally square course of the city's future boundary , erects its first walls and declares the settlement an asylum for exiles, criminals, and runaway slaves. The city becomes larger but also acquires

588-621: A given year in Ancient Rome . In reference to the traditional year of the foundation of Rome, the year 1 BC would be written AUC 753, whereas AD 1 would be AUC 754. The foundation of the Roman Empire in 27 BC would be AUC 727. The current year AD 2024 would be AUC 2777. Usage of the term was more common during the Renaissance , when editors sometimes added AUC to Roman manuscripts they published, giving

686-615: A local magnate called Latinus and marries his daughter Lavinia , joining the two into a new group called the Latini; they then found a new city, called Lavinium . After a series of wars against the Rutuli and Caere , the Latins conquer the Alban Hills and its environs. His son Ascanius then founds the legendary city of Alba Longa , which became the dominant city in the region. The later descendants of

784-562: A long period, but it was definitely occupied by the middle of the Bronze Age . Core samples have shown that the terrain of Bronze-Age Rome differed greatly from what is present now. The area of the Forum Boarium north of the Aventine Hill was a seasonally dry plain that simultaneously provided a safe inland port for the era's seafaring ships, a wide area for watering horses and cattle, and

882-457: A mixing ground between Etruscan , Apennine , and Greek civilizations . It also served as a measure of societal control , with the patricians partially justifying their long dominance of Roman institutions by their supposed descent from Alba Longan nobility and other legendary figures. The Romans took the foundation of their own new cities seriously, undertaking many rituals and attributing many of them to remote antiquity. They long maintained

980-637: A mostly male population. When Romulus' attempts to secure the women of neighbouring settlements by diplomacy fail, he uses the religious celebration of Consualia to abduct the women of the Sabines . According to Livy, when the Sabines rally an army to take their women back, the women force the two groups to make peace and install the Sabine king Titus Tatius as comonarch with Romulus. The story has been theorised by some modern scholars to reflect anti-Roman propaganda from

1078-529: A new city at the location where they had been rescued. The twins then come into conflict during the foundation of the city, leading to the murder of Remus. The dispute is variously said to have been over the naming of the new city, over the interpretation of auguries , whether to place it on the Palatine or Aventine Hill, or concerned with Remus's disrespect of the new town's ritual furrow or wall. Some accounts say Romulus slays his brother with his own hand, others that Remus and sometimes Faustulus are killed in

SECTION 10

#1732848939779

1176-492: A process of synoikismos was complete and there had been formed a unified Rome – reflected in the production of a central forum area, public monumental architecture, and civic structures – can be spoken of. By the late Republic , the usual Roman origin myth held that their city was founded by a Latin named Romulus on the day of the Parilia Festival (21 April) in some year around 750   BC. Important aspects of

1274-514: A safe ford of the Tiber with shallow and slow-flowing water even if Tiber Island had not yet formed, one of the river's major fords between Etruria and Campania . This advantageous but exposed location was closely flanked by the Capitoline, which at that time rose sharply from the more easterly bank of the Tiber and provided a ready citadel for defense and for control of the salt production along

1372-497: A son of Aeneas, founding not only Rome but also Capua. Authors also wrote their home regions into the story. Polybius , who hailed from Arcadia, for example, gave Rome not a Trojan colonial origin but rather an Arcadian one. Incarnation (Christianity) In the incarnation, as traditionally defined by those Churches that adhere to the Council of Chalcedon , the divine nature of the Son

1470-592: A story of Aeneas's son founding the city of Alba Longa and establishing a dynasty there, which eventually produced Romulus. In Livy's first book he recounts how Aeneas, a demigod of the Trojan royal Anchises and the goddess Venus , leaves Troy after its destruction during the Trojan War and sailed to the western Mediterranean. He brings his son – Ascanius – and a group of companions. Landing in Italy, he forms an alliance with

1568-503: A view of the incarnation in keeping with the personal pre-existence of Christ. Whiston considered the incarnation to be of the Logos Who had pre-existed as "a Metaphysick existence, in potentia or in the like higher and sublimer Manner in the Father as His Wisdom or Word before His real Creation or Generation." Jacob Bauthumley rejected that God was "onely manifest in the flesh of Christ, or

1666-653: A virgin birth. Sozzini, Przypkowski and other Socinian writers were distinct from Servetus in stating that Jesus having "come down from heaven" was primarily in terms of Mary's miraculous conception and not in Jesus having in any literal sense been in heaven. Today the number of churches with Socinian Christology is very small, the main group known for this are the Christadelphians , other groups include CoGGC and CGAF . Modern Socinian or " Biblical Unitarian " writers generally place emphasis on "made flesh" not just meaning "made

1764-485: Is a Trinity of persons. Oneness doctrine teaches there is one God who manifests Himself in different ways, as opposed to a Trinity, where God is seen as one being consisting of three distinct persons. To a Oneness Pentecostal, Jesus is seen as both fully divine and fully human. The term Father refers to God Himself, who caused the conception of the Son in Mary, thus becoming the father of the child she bore. The term Son refers to

1862-527: Is also one of the key factors which, alongside humans made in the image and likeness of God, forms Christian Anthropology. Specifically, incarnation is vital for understanding the concept of Divinisation of the Man, most well and elaborately developed in Orthodox Christianity and most well expressed by Church Fathers, such as St. Athanasius of Alexandria ("Therefore He was not man, and then became God, but He

1960-595: Is not an eternally existing being, but rather the more abstract Logos (a manifestation of the One True God, not a separate person) incarnate. For this reason, Servetus refused to call Christ the "eternal Son of God" preferring "the Son of the eternal God" instead. In describing Servetus' theology of the Logos , Andrew Dibb (2005) comments: "In Genesis God reveals Himself as the Creator. In John He reveals that He created by means of

2058-500: Is the 753   BC date that continues to form the basis for most modern calculations of the AUC calendar era . The conventional division of pre-Roman cultures in Italy deals with cultures which spoke Indo-European and non-Indo-European languages. The Italic languages , which include Latin , are Indo-European and were spoken, according to inscriptions, in the lower Tiber Valley . It was once thought that Faliscan – spoken north of Veii on

SECTION 20

#1732848939779

2156-613: The Council of Ephesus in 431, and the Council of Chalcedon in 451. These councils declared that Jesus was both fully God (begotten from, but not created by, the Father) and fully man, taking his flesh and human nature from the Virgin Mary . These two natures, human and divine, were hypostatically united into the one personhood of Jesus Christ. According to the Catholic Church , an ecumenical council's declarations are infallible , making

2254-566: The Feast of the Annunciation ; "different aspects of the mystery of the incarnation" are celebrated at Christmas and the Annunciation. The noun incarnation derives from the ecclesiastical Latin verb incarno , itself derived from the prefix in- and caro , "flesh", meaning "to make into flesh" or, in the passive , "to be made flesh". The verb incarno does not occur in the Latin Bible but

2352-512: The First Council of Nicaea in 325, and the First Council of Constantinople in 381. As such, is it still relevant to most Christian churches today. The Incarnation is always professed, though different Rites use different translations . The Roman Catholic Church's current translation is: "For us men and for our salvation, he came down from heaven: by the power of the Holy Spirit, he was born of

2450-609: The Holy Qurbono of St. James (c. AD 60) have a similar ma‛neetho , a poetic hymn, traditionally attributed to St. Severus, the Patriarch of Antioch (c. 465–538): I exalt Thee, Lord and King, Only-begotten Son and Word of the heavenly Father, immortal by nature, Thou came down by grace for salvation and life for all human race; was incarnate of the holy glorious, pure Virgin Mary, Mother of God and became man without any change;

2548-583: The Hut of Romulus , a primitive dwelling on the Palatine attributed to their founder, although they had no firm basis for associating it with him specifically. While the Romans believed that their city had been founded by an eponymous founder at a specific time, when that occurred was disputed by the ancient historians. The earliest dates placed it c.  1100   BC out of a belief that Romulus had been Aeneas's grandson. This moved Rome's foundation much closer to

2646-518: The Iliad 's prophecy that Aeneas's descendants would one day return and rule Troy once more. Greeks by 550 BC had begun to speculate, given the lack of any clear descendants of Aeneas, that the figure had established a dynasty outside the proper Greek world. The first attempts to tie this story to Rome were in the works of two Greek historians at the end of the fifth century BC, Hellanicus of Lesbos and Damastes of Sigeum , likely only mentioning off hand

2744-559: The Incarnation in 2 BC, 1 BC, or AD 1. The year AD 1 corresponds to AUC 754, based on the epoch of Varro . Thus: Founding of Rome The founding of Rome was a prehistoric event or process later greatly embellished by Roman historians and poets. Archaeological evidence indicates that Rome developed from the gradual union of several hilltop villages during the Final Bronze Age or early Iron Age . Prehistoric habitation of

2842-595: The Italian Peninsula occurred by 48,000 years ago , with the area of Rome being settled by around 1600 BC. Some evidence on the Capitoline Hill possibly dates as early as c.  1700 BC and the nearby valley that later housed the Roman Forum had a developed necropolis by at least 1000   BC. The combination of the hilltop settlements into a single polity by the later 8th century   BC

2940-583: The Parilian Festival celebrated annually on April 21. This festival was originally concerned with the purification of shepherds and herds of sheep in the countryside around Rome, but eventually became so associated with Rome's foundation myth that it was restructured as the urban Romaea in AD   121. The association with Romulus may have arisen from the twins' supposed foster parents Faustulus and Acca Larentia , who initially raised them as shepherds. In

3038-619: The Polish Brethren such as Samuel Przypkowski , Marcin Czechowic and Johann Ludwig von Wolzogen saw the incarnation as being primarily a function of fatherhood . Namely that Christ was literally both 'Son of Man' from his maternal side, and also literally 'Son of God' on his paternal side. The concept of the incarnation —"the Word became flesh and dwelt among us"— was understood as the literal word or logos of Ps. 33:6 having been made human by

Ab urbe condita - Misplaced Pages Continue

3136-646: The Reformed Protestants in Geneva, Switzerland . The French reformer John Calvin , who asserted he would ensure the death of Servetus if he set foot in Geneva because of his non-Reformed views on the Trinity and the sacrament of baptism, requested he be beheaded as a traitor rather than burned as a heretic, but the authorities insisted on executing Servetus by fire. Post-Reformation Arians such as William Whiston often held

3234-412: The fall of Troy , dated by Eratosthenes to 1184–83 BC; these dates are attested as early as the 4th century   BC. Romulus was later chronologically connected to Aeneas and the time of the Trojan War by introducing a line of Alban kings , which scholars consider to be entirely spurious. Ancient attempts to date the foundation of the city were based on the length of the republic, counted by

3332-596: The life of Christ . The significance of the incarnation has been extensively discussed throughout Christian history , and is the subject of countless hymns and prayers . For instance, the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom (c. 400), as used by Eastern Orthodox Christians and Byzantine Catholics , includes this "Hymn to the Only Begotten Son": O only begotten Son and Word of God, Who, being immortal, Deigned for our salvation To become incarnate Of

3430-591: The Early Church." Debate on this subject occurred during the first four centuries of Christianity, involving Jewish Christians , Gnostics , followers of Arius of Alexandria, and adherents of Pope Alexander of Alexandria , among others. Ignatius of Antioch taught that "We have also as a Physician the Lord our God, Jesus the Christ, the only-begotten Son and Word, before time began, but who afterwards became also man, of Mary

3528-577: The Father. After resurrection, Jesus is seen as assuming temporary human forms, though resuming his spirit form eventually. According to Latter-day Saint theology , two of the three divine beings of the Godhead have perfected, glorified, physical bodies, namely God the Father ( Elohim ) and God the Son ( Jehovah ). Instead of considering the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost as one in substance or essence with one another, Latter-day Saints understand

3626-499: The Greek east or Mesopotamia, inasmuch as the story of virgin birth, intercession by animals and humble stepparents, with triumphant return expelling an evil leader are common mythological elements across Eurasia and even into the Americas. The indigenous tradition of Romulus was also combined with a legend telling of Aeneas coming from Troy and travelling to Italy. This tradition emerges from

3724-556: The Incarnation in which only God the Son , temporarily possessed an incarnated, physical body while God the Father is and has always remained unembodied. Despite these differences, Latter-day Saint doctrine accepts a similar version of so-called ethical monotheism (which developed out of the Jewish tradition ), in that Latter-day Saints believe that the Light of Christ (alternatively referred to as

3822-503: The Iron age saw a gradual increase in social complexity and population that led to the emergence of proto-urban settlements in central and northern Italy writ large. These proto-urban agglomerations were normally clusters of smaller settlements that were insufficiently distant to be separated communities; over time, they would unify. There is archaeological evidence of human occupation of the area of modern Rome from at least 5,000 years ago , but

3920-566: The King of kings and Lord of lords, Christ our God , comes forward to be sacrificed , and to be given for food to the faithful; and the bands of angels go before Him with every power and dominion, the many-eyed cherubim , and the six-winged seraphim , covering their faces, and crying aloud the hymn, Alleluia , Alleluia, Alleluia. The West Syriac Churches – Syriac Orthodox, Malankara Orthodox, Syro-Malankara Catholic, Syriac Catholic and Maronite Catholic – principally celebrating

4018-562: The Palatine, the Capitoline, the Quirinal and Viminal, and the Caelian, Oppian, and Velia. There is, however, no evidence linking any settlement on the Quirinal hill with the Sabines, as is alleged by some ancient accounts. The area of the Forum also was converted at this time into a public space. Burials there discontinued and portions of it were paved over. Votive offerings appear in the comitium in

Ab urbe condita - Misplaced Pages Continue

4116-498: The Roman state's adoption of the Varronian chronology – created by Titus Pomponius Atticus and Marcus Terentius Varro – there were many different dates posited for when the city was founded. This state of confusion required, for one to use an AUC date, one to pick a date as canonical. The Varronian chronology, constructed from fragmentary sources and demonstrably about four years off of absolute events c.  340 BC , placed

4214-546: The Secular Games celebrated at Rome's 900th and 1000th anniversaries under Antoninus Pius and Philip   I , meanwhile, used dates computed from a foundation a year later in 752   BC. Despite known errors in Varro's work, it is the former date that has become the most repeated in modernity and is still used for computing the AUC calendar era . By the late Republic , the founding had also become closely associated with

4312-415: The Trojan foundation myth instead. Nilsson further speculates that the name of Romos was changed by some Romans to the native name Romulus, but the same name Romos (later changed to the native Remus) was never forgotten by many of the people, so both these names were used to represent the founders of the city. Another story, attributed to Hellanicus of Lesbos by Dionysius of Halicarnassus , says that Rome

4410-455: The Virgin Mary and became man." The Apostles' Creed includes the article of faith "He was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born of the Virgin Mary." According to Pope John Paul II , by his incarnation Jesus is a figure of and has united himself to every human being, including the unborn at the moment of their life at conception . Eventually, the teachings of Alexander, Athanasius , and

4508-537: The Word, or Logos. Finally, also in John, He shows that this Logos became flesh and 'dwelt among us'. Creation took place by the spoken word, for God said 'Let there be...' The spoken word of Genesis, the Logos of John, and the Christ, are all one and the same." Condemned by both the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches on account of his heterodox Christology , Servetus was burnt at the stake for heresy in 1553, by

4606-412: The absence of further evidence, with the arguments made by Carandini and others appearing to rest on highly tendentious interpretations of what is currently known with certainty from scientific excavations. The Romans' origin myths , however, provide evidence of how the Romans conceived of themselves as a mixture of different ethnic groups and foreign influences, reflecting the reality of Latium being

4704-431: The ancient cult of Jupiter Feretrius . Other offerings discovered indicate Rome's connections outside Latium, with imported Greek pottery from Euboea and Corinth . The first evidence of a wall appears in the middle or late eighth century on the Palatine, dated between 730 and 720 BC. It is possible that the circuit of the wall marked out what later Romans believed to be the original pomerium (sacred boundary) of

4802-456: The atonement, such as Substitution , Satisfaction or Christus Victor , Christ must be human in order for the sacrifice of the cross to be efficacious, for human sins to be "removed" and/or "conquered". In his work The Trinity and the Kingdom of God , Jürgen Moltmann differentiated between what he called a "fortuitous" and a "necessary" incarnation. The latter gives a soteriological emphasis to

4900-423: The best known form of the legend, Romulus and Remus are the grandsons of Numitor , the king of Alba Longa. After Numitor is deposed by his brother Amulius and his daughter Rhea Silvia is forced to become a Vestal virgin , she becomes pregnant – allegedly raped by the war god Mars  – and delivers the two illegitimate brothers. Amulius orders that the children be left to die on

4998-423: The celebrations. A coin by a contender for the imperial throne, Pacatianus , explicitly states "[y]ear one thousand and first", which is an indication that the citizens of the empire had a sense of the beginning of a new era, a Sæculum Novum . The Anno Domini (AD) year numbering was developed by a monk named Dionysius Exiguus in Rome in AD   525 (AUC   1278), as a result of his work on calculating

SECTION 50

#1732848939779

5096-457: The city to an eponymous founder, usually "Rhomos" or "Rhome" rather than Romulus. One story told how Romos , a son of Odysseus and Circe , was the one who founded Rome. Martin P. Nilsson speculates that this older story was becoming a bit embarrassing as Rome became more powerful and tensions with the Greeks grew. Being descendants of the Greeks was no longer preferable, so the Romans settled on

5194-461: The city's name – glossed as "Mr Rome" by the classicist Mary Beard – rather than reflecting a historical or actual figure. Some scholars, particularly Andrea Carandini , have argued that it remains possible that these foundation myths reflect actual historical events in some form and that the city and Roman Kingdom were in fact founded by a single actor in some way. This remains a minority viewpoint in present scholarship and highly controversial in

5292-510: The city. The discovery of gates and streets connected to the wall, with the remains of various huts, suggest that Rome had by this time: acquired a defined boundary ... [and] a more sophisticated level of social and political organisation ... the use of the Forum as a public space point[s] to the development of [a] shared civil and ritual space[] for the inhabitants of all communities, demonstrating an increasing level of centralisation. Like other Villanovan proto-urban centres, this archaic Rome

5390-505: The date of Easter. Dionysius did not use the AUC convention, but instead based his calculations on the Diocletian era . This convention had been in use since AD 293, the year of the tetrarchy , as it became impractical to use regnal years of the current emperor. In his Easter table, the year AD   532 (AUC   1285) was equated with the 248th regnal year of Diocletian . The table counted

5488-507: The dense layer of much younger debris obscures any Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites . Traces of occupation have been found in the general region – including Lavinium and the coast near Ardea  – going back to the 15th century BC. The area was home to the Apennine and Proto-Villanovan cultures before the advent of the more regional Latial culture . Archaeological evidence suggests that Rome developed over

5586-551: The early Iron Age c.  900 BC , graves started to be placed into the ground. Other cemeteries appear on the Esquiline , Quirinal , and Viminal Hills by the 9th century, containing pottery, imported Greek wares, fibulae, and bronze objects. Remains from huts on the Palatine have been found that date to the 9th or 8th centuries BC, with accelerating development by the early to middle 8th century BC. By this time, four major settlements emerged in Rome. The nuclei appeared on

5684-412: The eighth century, indicating a more central religious cult, and other public buildings appear to have been erected around that time. One of those buildings was the domus publica (the official residence of the pontifex maximus ), which is now believed to have been constructed between 750 and 700 BC. Religious activity started also in this period on the Capitoline hill, suggesting a connection to

5782-513: The false impression that the convention was commonly used in antiquity. In reality, the dominant method of identifying years in Roman times was to name the two consuls who held office that year. In late antiquity, regnal years were also in use, as in Roman Egypt during the Diocletian era after AD 293 , and in the Byzantine Empire from AD 537, following a decree by Justinian . Prior to

5880-603: The first and second millennia BC: first a western Italic group (including Latin), followed by a central Italic group of Osco-Umbrian dialects, with a late arrival of Greek and Celtic on the Italian peninsula, from across the Adriatic and Alps, respectively. These migrations are generally believed to have displaced speakers of Etruscan and other pre-Indo-European languages; although it is possible that Etruscan arrived also by migration, almost certainly before 2000 BC. The start of

5978-452: The foundation of a settlement on the Palatine hill by Evander (originally hailing also from Arcadia) and Hercules , whose labour with the cattle of Geryon was placed in the Forum Boarium by the Romans. The introduction of Aeneas follows a trend across Italy towards Hellenising their own early mythologies by rationalising myths and legends of the Greek Heroic Age into a pseudo-historical tradition of prehistoric times; this

SECTION 60

#1732848939779

6076-439: The founding of the city on 21 April 753 BC. This date, likely arrived at by mechanical calculation but accepted with a variance of one year by the Augustan-era fasti Capitolini , has become the traditional date. From the time of Claudius ( r.  AD 41–51 ) onward, this calculation superseded other contemporary calculations. Celebrating the anniversary of the city became part of imperial propaganda . Claudius

6174-436: The fully human person, Jesus Christ; and the Holy Ghost refers to the manifestation of God's Spirit inside of and around His people. Thus the Father is not the Son – and this distinction is crucial – but is in the Son as the fullness of His divine nature. Traditional Trinitarians believe that the Son always existed as the eternal second person of the Trinity; Oneness adherents believe that the Son did not come into being until

6272-512: The holy Theotokos and ever-virgin Mary, And became man without change; You were also crucified, O Christ our God, And by death have trampled Death, Being one of the Holy Trinity, Glorified with the Father and the Holy Spirit— Save us! Additionally, the Divine Liturgy of Saint James includes this chant of " Let All Mortal Flesh Keep Silence " in its offertory : Let all mortal flesh be silent, and stand with fear and trembling, and meditate nothing earthly within itself:— For

6370-402: The incarnation a dogma in the Catholic Church . The incarnation implies three facts: (1) The divine person of Jesus Christ; (2) The human nature of Jesus Christ; (3) The hypostatic union of the human with the divine nature in the divine person of Jesus Christ. Without diminishing his divinity, he added to it all that is involved in being human. In Christian belief it is understood that Jesus

6468-407: The incarnation, when the one and only true God took on human form for the first, last and only time in history. The Jehovah's Witnesses believe Jesus to be the only direct creation of God through whom God created everything else. His incarnation is considered to be temporary, after which Christ, accordingly, resumed his spiritual and angelic form. Christ is not seen as divine or co-equal with God

6566-409: The incarnation: the Son of God became a man so that he could save us from our sins. The former, on the other hand, speaks of the incarnation as a fulfilment of the love of God , of his desire to be present and living amidst humanity, to "walk in the garden" with us. Moltmann favours "fortuitous" incarnation primarily because he feels that to speak of an incarnation of "necessity" is to do an injustice to

6664-481: The late fourth century BC, but more likely reflects an indigenous Roman tradition, given the Capitoline Wolf which likely dates to the sixth century BC. Regardless, by the third century, it was widely accepted by Romans and put onto some of Rome's first silver coins in 269 BC. In his 1995 Beginnings of Rome , Tim Cornell argues that the myths of Romulus and Remus are "popular expressions of some universal human need or experience" rather than borrowings from

6762-453: The man called Christ". Instead, he held that God "substantially dwells in the flesh of other men and creatures" rather than solely Christ. Servetus rejected Arianism because it denied Jesus' divinity so it is certain that he would have also rejected Socinianism as a form of Arianism which both rejects that Jesus is God, and, also that Jesus consciously existed before his birth, which most Arian groups accept. Fausto Sozzini and writers of

6860-453: The myth concerned Romulus's murder of his twin Remus , the brothers' descent from the god Mars and the royal family of Alba Longa , and that dynasty's supposed descent from Aeneas , himself supposedly descended from the goddess Aphrodite and the royal family of Troy . The accounts in the first book of Livy 's History of Rome and in Vergil 's Aeneid were particularly influential. Some accounts further asserted that there had been

6958-495: The neighboring valley that later became the Roman Forum from 1350–1120 BC. Some 13th century   BC structures indicate that the Capitoline was already being terraced to manage its slope. Evidence in the Final Bronze Age around 1200–975 BC is clearer, showing occupation of the Capitoline, Forum, and adjacent Palatine. Excavations near the modern Capitoline Museums suggest the construction of fortifications and some scholars have speculated that settlements also existed on

7056-491: The number of consuls, followed by subtracting of an estimated regal period. Modern scholars, however, largely reject the estimates of the length of the regal period as synthetic calculations. From Claudius 's Secular Games in AD   47 to Hadrian 's Romaea in AD   121, the official date seems to have used the chronology established by Varro in the late 1st century   BC, placing Rome's founding in 753   BC. Augustus 's Fasti running to AD   13 and

7154-523: The oneness of the Godhead as symbolic of Their perfectly united characteristics and purpose, while yet acknowledging that they are three separate and distinct beings. To explain this divergence from Trinitarian oneness as literal rather than symbolic, Latter-day Saints commonly cite Christ's Intercessory Prayer in John 17:20-23, which reads: This conception of the Godhead differs from the Trinitarian view of

7252-411: The other Nicene Fathers that the Son was consubstantial and coeternal with the Father, were defined as orthodox dogma. All divergent beliefs were defined as heresies . This included Docetism , Arianism , Nestorianism , Monophysitism , Adoptionism , and Sabellianism . The most widely accepted definitions of the incarnation and the nature of Jesus were made by the First Council of Nicaea in 325,

7350-459: The other hills, especially the Janiculum , Quirinal , and Aventine . The Capitoline currently seems to have been the earliest settled but it is debated whether the settlements on the other hills were independent, colonies of the Capitoline settlement, or formerly separate villages already consolidated into a single polity. By 1000 BC, a necropolis existed in the Forum for cremation graves. By

7448-486: The possibility of a Roman connection; a more assured connection only emerged at the end of the fourth century BC when Rome started having formal dealings with the Greek world. The ancient Roman annalists, historians, and antiquarians faced an issue tying Aeneas to Romulus, as they believed that Romulus lived centuries after the Trojan War, which was dated at the time c.  1100 BC . For this, they fabricated

7546-507: The putative Aeneid dynasty at Alba Longa as fiction. The legendary account was still much discussed and celebrated in Roman times. The Parilia Festival on 21 April was considered to commemorate the anniversary of the city's founding during the late Republic and that aspect of the holiday grew in importance under the Empire until it was fully transformed into the Romaea in AD   121. The year of

7644-492: The right bank of the Tiber – was a separate language, but inscriptions discovered in the 1980s indicate that Latin was spoken more generally in the area. Etruscan speakers were concentrated in modern Tuscany with a similar language called Raetic spoken on the upper Adige (the foothills of the eastern Italian Alps ). When drawing a connection between peoples and their languages, a reconstruction emerges with Indo-European peoples arriving in various waves of migrations during

7742-472: The river and at its mouth. The other hills and the marshes between them provided similarly defensible points for settlement. Accordingly, thick deposits of manure and ancient pottery shards have been discovered in the Forum Boarium from the middle of the Bronze Age. Current evidence suggests that there were three separate bronze-using settlements on the Capitoline during the period 1700–1350 BC and in

7840-421: The royal lineage of Alba Longa eventually produce Romulus and Remus, setting up the events of their mythological story. Dionysius of Halicarnassus similarly attempted to show a Greek connection, giving a similar story for Aeneas, but also a previous series of migrations. He describes migrations of Arcadians into southern Italy some time in the 18th century BC, migrations into Umbria by Greeks from Thessaly, and

7938-571: The shepherd Faustulus , taking revenge on their usurping great-uncle Amulius , and restoring Alba Longa to their grandfather Numitor . The brothers then decided to establish a new town but quarrelled over some details, ending with Remus's murder and the establishment of Rome on the Palatine Hill . Most modern historians doubt the existence of a single founder or founding event for the city, and no material evidence has been found connecting early Rome to Alba or Troy. Most modern historians also dismiss

8036-687: The slopes of the Palatine or in the Tiber River , but they are suckled by a she-wolf at the Lupercal and then discovered by the shepherd Faustulus and taken in by him and his wife Acca Larentia . (Livy combines Larentia and the she-wolf, considering them most likely to have referred to a prostitute , also known in Latin slang as a lupa or she-wolf.) Faustulus eventually reveals the brothers' true origins, and they depose or murder Amulius and restore Numitor to his throne. They then leave or are sent to establish

8134-493: The supposed founding was variously computed by ancient historians, but the two dates seeming to be officially sanctioned were the Varronian chronology 's 753 BC (used by Claudius 's Secular Games and Hadrian 's Romaea ) and the adjacent year of 752 BC (used by the Fasti and the Secular Games of Antoninus Pius and Philip I ). Despite known errors in Varro 's calculations, it

8232-468: The syncretism, however, may simply reflect Roman desires to give themselves a prestigious backstory: claim of Trojan descent proved politically advantageous with the Greeks by justifying both claims of common heritage and ancestral enmity. By the time of the Pyrrhic War (280–275 BC), there were some sixty different myths for Rome's foundation that circulated in the Greek world. Most of them attributed

8330-506: The term is drawn from the Gospel of John 1:14 " et Verbum caro factum est " ( Vulgate ), King James Version : "and the Word was made flesh" . Incarnation refers to the act of a pre-existent divine person, the Son of God, in becoming a human being. While all Christians believed that Jesus was indeed the Unigenite Son of God , "the divinity of Christ was a theologically charged topic for

8428-406: The two natures of Christ; some of them have been condemned traditionally as heretical. In A Kryptic Model of the Incarnation , Andrew Loke evaluates many of these attempts and suggests a possible Divine Preconscious Model (DPM) that postulates that at the Incarnation, Christ's mind included the divine conscious and the divine preconscious along with a human preconscious. The incarnation of Jesus

8526-577: The virgin." Justin Martyr argued that the incarnate Word was pre-figured in Old Testament prophecies. The Catechism of the Catholic Church discusses the Incarnation in paragraphs 461–463 and cites several Bible passages to assert its centrality ( Philippians 2:5–8 , Hebrews 10:5–7 , 1 John 4:2 , 1 Timothy 3:16 ). The Nicene Creed is a statement of belief originating in two ecumenical councils,

8624-432: The years starting from the presumed birth of Christ, rather than the accession of the emperor Diocletian on 20 November AD 284 or, as stated by Dionysius: "sed magis elegimus ab incarnatione Domini nostri Jesu Christi annorum tempora praenotare" ("but rather we choose to name the times of the years from the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ"). Blackburn and Holford-Strevens review interpretations of Dionysius which place

8722-479: Was united but not mixed with human nature in one divine person , Jesus. This is central to the traditional faith held by most Christians. Alternative views on the subject (see Ebionites and the Gospel of the Hebrews ) have been proposed throughout the centuries, but all were rejected by Nicene Christianity . The incarnation is commemorated and celebrated each year at Christmas , and reference can also be made to

8820-471: Was God, and then became man, and that to deify us" ), St Cyril of Alexandria ("For we too are sons and gods by grace, and we have surely been brought to this wonderful and supernatural dignity since we have the Only Begotten Word of God dwelling within us." ) and numerous others . The link between the incarnation and the atonement within systematic theology is complex. Within traditional models of

8918-440: Was a direct or collateral descendant of Aeneas. Myths of the early third century also differed greatly in the claimed genealogy of Romulus or the founder, if an intermediate actor was posited. One tale posited that a Romus, son of Zeus, founded the city. Callias posited that Romulus was descended from Latinus and a woman called Roma who was the daughter of Aeneas and a homonymous mother. Other authors depicted Romulus and Romus, as

9016-473: Was at the same time both fully God and fully human, two natures in one person. The body of Christ was therefore subject to all the bodily weaknesses to which human nature is universally subject; such are hunger (Matthew.4:2), thirst (John 19:28), fatigue (John 4:6), pain, and death. They were the natural results of the human nature he assumed. Approaches such as Nestorianism , Ebonism, Arianism , Appoliniarianism, and Eutychianism have attempted understanding of

9114-616: Was crucified for us. O Christ, our God, Who by Thy death trampled and slaughtered our death, Who are One of the Holy Trinity, worshipped and honored with the Father and the Holy Spirit, have mercy on us all. During the Reformation, Michael Servetus taught a theology of the incarnation that denied trinitarianism , insisting that classical trinitarians were essentially tritheists who had rejected Biblical monotheism in favor of Greek philosophy . The Son of God, Servetus asserted,

9212-466: Was founded by a woman named Rhome, one of the followers of Aeneas, after landing in Italy and burning their ships. That by the middle of the fifth century Aeneas was also allegedly the founder of two or three other cities across Italy was no object. These myths also differed as to whether their eponymous matriarch Roma was born in Troy or Italy – i.e. before or after Aeneas's journey – or otherwise if their Romus

9310-455: Was in part due to Greek historians' eagerness to construct narratives purporting that the Italians were actually descended from Greeks and their heroes. These narratives were accepted by non-Greek peoples due Greek historiography's prestige and claims to systematic validity. Archaeological evidence shows that worship of Aeneas had been established at Lavinium by the sixth century BC. Similarly,

9408-539: Was likely organised around clans that guarded their own areas, but by the later eighth century had confederated. The development of city-states was likely a Greek innovation that spread through the Mediterranean from 850 to 750 BC. The earliest votive deposits are found in the early seventh century on the Capitoline and Quirinal hills, suggesting that by that time a city had formed with monumental architecture and public religious sanctuaries. Certainly, by 600 BC,

9506-619: Was probably influenced by the trend for city-state formation emerging from ancient Greece . Roman myth held that their city was founded by Romulus , son of the war god Mars and the Vestal virgin Rhea Silvia , fallen princess of Alba Longa and descendant of Aeneas of Troy . Exposed on the Tiber river, Romulus and his twin Remus were suckled by a she-wolf at the Lupercal before being raised by

9604-477: Was the first to hold magnificent celebrations in honor of the anniversary of the city, in AD 47, the eight hundredth year from the founding of the city. Hadrian , in AD 121, and Antoninus Pius , in AD 147 and AD 148, held similar celebrations respectively. In AD 248, Philip the Arab celebrated Rome's first millennium , together with Ludi saeculares for Rome's alleged tenth saeculum . Coins from his reign commemorate

#778221