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73-519: In 1881, Emily Fairbanks Talbot , Marion Talbot and Ellen Swallow Richards invited 15 alumnae from 8 colleges to a meeting in Boston, Massachusetts. The purpose of this meeting was to create an organization of women college graduates that would assist women in finding greater opportunities to use their education, as well as promoting and assisting other women's college attendance. The Association of Collegiate Alumnae or ACA (AAUW's predecessor organization)

146-465: A divorce is very difficult in many jurisdictions because of the need to prove fault in court. While attempting a de facto separation (moving away from the marital home) is also impossible because of laws preventing this. For instance, in Afghanistan , a wife who leaves her marital home risks being imprisoned for "running away". In addition, many former British colonies, including India , maintain

219-441: A patriarchal order . In her definition, sexism rationalizes and justifies patriarchal norms, in contrast with misogyny , the branch which polices and enforces patriarchal norms. Manne says that sexism often attempts to make patriarchal social arrangements seem natural, good, or inevitable so that there appears to be no reason to resist them. Evidence is lacking to support the idea that many pre-agricultural societies afforded women

292-584: A career, but they would get married. This meant that few women who did graduate did not likely have a group of college graduates to discuss their education and career. In addition, women were not treated as potential career women. Talbot founded the Association of Collegiate Alumnae (1881) with her daughter Marion Talbot and Ellen Swallow Richards . The organization is now named the American Association of University Women . The organization created

365-521: A critical stance on language that calls for a change in the way speakers use their language. One of the most common calls is for gender-neutral language. Many have called attention, however, to the fact that the English language is not inherently sexist in its linguistic system, but the way it is used becomes sexist and gender-neutral language could thus be employed. Romanic languages such as French and Spanish may be seen as reinforcing sexism, in that

438-486: A distinguished professor at the University of California's Hastings College of Law, raised issues with its methodology, pointing out that the fictional female candidates it used were unusually well-qualified. Studies using more moderately qualified graduate students have found that male students are much more likely to be hired, offered better salaries, and offered mentorship. In Europe, studies based on field experiments in

511-576: A fellowship program for women was established. Supporting the education of women through fellowships would continually remain a critical part of AAUW's mission. Back in 1883, a similar group of college women had considered forming a Chicago, Illinois branch of the ACA; however, they had reconsidered and formed their own independent organization. They formed the Western Association of Collegiate Alumnae (WACA) with Jane M. Bancroft as its first president. WACA

584-410: A female as a "girl" rather than a "woman", implying that she is subordinate or not fully mature. Other examples include obscene language. Some words are offensive to transgender people, including "tranny", "she-male", or "he-she". Intentional misgendering (assigning the wrong gender to someone) and the pronoun "it" are also considered pejorative. The practice of using first names for individuals from

657-534: A higher status than women today, however, historians are reasonably sure that women had roughly equal social power to men in many such societies. After the adoption of agriculture and sedentary cultures, the concept that one gender was inferior to the other was established; most often this was imposed upon women and girls. The status of women in ancient Egypt depended on their fathers or husbands, but they had property rights and could attend court, including as plaintiffs. Examples of unequal treatment of women in

730-532: A network of women college graduates, including University of Michigan , Boston University , Vassar College , Oberlin College , and other colleges and universities to support female students. It directly impacted the professional lives of teachers, but ensuring they were paid more closely to a man's pay and had opportunities for promotion beyond the instructor level. The organization supported higher learning for women, including providing scholarships and fellowships. It

803-525: A person's sex , occurring in the workplace. One form of occupational sexism is wage discrimination . In 2008, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) found that while female employment rates have expanded and gender employment and wage gaps have narrowed nearly everywhere, on average women still have 20% less chance to have a job and are paid 17% less than men. The report stated: [In] many countries, labour market discrimination—i.e.

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876-499: A position analogous to that of the racist—I might call you, in this case, a 'sexist' ... Both the racist and the sexist are acting as if all that has happened had never happened, and both of them are making decisions and coming to conclusions about someone's value by referring to factors which are in both cases irrelevant." According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the first time the term sexism appeared in print

949-676: A profession that is predominantly female occurs in health care. Physicians are typically referred to using their last name, but nurses are referred to, even by physicians they do not know, by their first name. According to Suzanne Gordon , a typical conversation between a physician and a nurse is: "Hello Jane. I'm Dr. Smith. Would you hand me the patient's chart?" – Nursing Against the Odds: How Health Care Cost Cutting, Media Stereotypes, and Medical Hubris Undermine Nurses and Patient Care Occupational sexism refers to discriminatory practices, statements or actions, based on

1022-776: A program of the Foundation, is the United States' largest legal fund focused solely on sex discrimination against women in higher education. LAF provides funds and a support system for women seeking judicial redress for sex discrimination in higher education. Since 1981, LAF has helped female students, faculty, and administrators challenge sex discrimination, including sexual harassment, pay inequity, denial of tenure and promotion, and inequality in women's athletics programs. AAUW sponsors grassroots and advocacy efforts, research, and Campus Action Projects and other educational programs in conjunction with its ongoing programmatic theme, Education as

1095-400: A progressive country in the region, arguing that discrimination against women remains very strong there. The World Organisation Against Torture (OMCT) has recognized the "independence and ability to leave an abusive husband" as crucial in stopping mistreatment of women. However, in some parts of the world, once married, women have very little chance of leaving a violent husband: obtaining

1168-500: A series of questions that were sent to 1,290 ACA members; 705 replies were received. After the results were tabulated, the data demonstrated that higher education did not harm women's health. The report, "Health Statistics of Female College Graduates", was published in 1885 in conjunction with the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor . This first research report is one of many conducted by AAUW during its history. In 1887,

1241-402: A women's menu without prices left her feeling "humiliated and incensed". The owners of the restaurant defended the practice, saying it was done as a courtesy, like the way men would stand up when a woman enters the room. Even though the lawsuit was dropped, the restaurant ended its gender-based menu policy. A 2021 study found little evidence that levels of sexism had changed from 2004 to 2018 in

1314-411: Is prejudice or discrimination based on one's sex or gender . Sexism can affect anyone, but primarily affects women and girls . It has been linked to gender roles and stereotypes , and may include the belief that one sex or gender is intrinsically superior to another. Extreme sexism may foster sexual harassment , rape , and other forms of sexual violence . Discrimination in this context

1387-458: Is defined as discrimination toward people based on their gender identity or their gender or sex differences. An example of this is workplace inequality . Sexism refers to violation of equal opportunities ( formal equality ) based on gender or refers to violation of equality of outcomes based on gender, also called substantive equality . Sexism may arise from social or cultural customs and norms. According to legal scholar Fred R. Shapiro ,

1460-642: Is heavily inflected for gender, number, and case; nearly all nouns denoting the occupations or statuses of human beings are gender-differentiated. For more gender-neutral constructions, gerund nouns are sometimes used instead, as this eliminates the grammatical gender distinction in the plural, and significantly reduces it in the singular. For example, instead of die Studenten ("the men students") or die Studentinnen ("the women students"), one writes die Studierenden ("the [people who are] studying"). However, this approach introduces an element of ambiguity, because gerund nouns more precisely denote one currently engaged in

1533-683: Is identified as one of the 200 events that have shaped our destiny in the book What every American should know about women's history by Christine A. Lunardini. She helped found the literary club, Round Table. Israel died at his home in Hingham, Massachusetts on July 2, 1899, and was buried at Mount Auburn Cemetery . After her husband's death, Talbot's health began to fail. She died in Holderness, New Hampshire at her summer home on October 29, 1900. Talbot and her daughter are also interred at Mount Auburn Cemetery. Sex discrimination Sexism

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1606-632: Is more emphasis on female candidates' personal qualities, such as their appearance and their personality, as females are portrayed as emotional and dependent. There is a widespread imbalance of lawmaking power between men and women. The ratio of women to men in legislatures is used as a measure of gender equality in the United Nations' Gender Empowerment Measure and its newer incarnation the Gender Inequality Index . Speaking about China, Lanyan Chen stated that, since men more than women serve as

1679-559: Is most often expressed toward women and girls. Sociology has examined sexism as manifesting at both the individual and the institutional level. According to Richard Schaefer, sexism is perpetuated by all major social institutions . Sociologists describe parallels among other ideological systems of oppression such as racism , which also operates at both the individual and institutional level. Early female sociologists Charlotte Perkins Gilman , Ida B. Wells , and Harriet Martineau described systems of gender inequality , but did not use

1752-415: Is one of the world's largest sources of funding exclusively for women who have graduated from college. Each year, AAUW has provided $ 3.5 to $ 4 million in fellowships, grants , and awards for women and for community action projects. The Foundation also funds pioneering research on women, girls, and education. The organization funds studies germane to the education of women. The AAUW Legal Advocacy Fund (LAF),

1825-699: Is still partially in force in present-day Eswatini ). Restrictions on married women's rights were common in Western countries until a few decades ago: for instance, French married women obtained the right to work without their husband's permission in 1965, and in West Germany women obtained this right in 1977. During the Franco era, in Spain, a married woman required her husband's consent (called permiso marital ) for employment, ownership of property and traveling away from home;

1898-419: Is the first crucial step towards achieving substantive equality between women and men. Personal issues—such as when, how and with whom they choose to have sex, and when, how and with whom they choose to have children—are at the heart of living a life in dignity. Gender has been used as a tool for discrimination against women in the political sphere. Women's suffrage was not achieved until 1893, when New Zealand

1971-660: The Democratic Republic of Congo , the Family Code states that the husband is the head of the household; the wife owes her obedience to her husband; a wife has to live with her husband wherever he chooses to live; and wives must have their husbands' authorization to bring a case in court or initiate other legal proceedings. Abuses and discriminatory practices against women in marriage are often rooted in financial payments such as dowry , bride price , and dower . These transactions often serve as legitimizing coercive control of

2044-431: The permiso marital was abolished in 1975. In Australia, until 1983, a married woman's passport application had to be authorized by her husband. Women in parts of the world continue to lose their legal rights in marriage. For example, Yemeni marriage regulations state that a wife must obey her husband and must not leave home without his permission. In Iraq , the law allows husbands to legally "punish" their wives. In

2117-419: The 20th century, U.S. and English law observed the system of coverture , where "by marriage, the husband and wife are one person in law; that is the very being or legal existence of the woman is suspended during the marriage". U.S. women were not legally defined as "persons" until 1875 ( Minor v. Happersett , 88 U.S. 162). A similar legal doctrine, called marital power , existed under Roman Dutch law (and

2190-512: The ACA participated in a larger effort led by a group of American women which ultimately raised $ 156,413 to purchase a gram of radium for Marie Curie for her experiments. In 1921, the ACA merged with the Southern Association of College Women to create the AAUW, although local branches continued to be the backbone of AAUW. The policy of expansion greatly increased both the size and the impact of

2263-867: The American Association of University Women, the National Women's Law Center , the National Women's Political Caucus , Girls, Inc. , Legal Momentum , End Rape on Campus, Equal Rights Advocates and the Women's Sports Foundation said that, "as organizations that fight every day for equal opportunities for all women and girls, we speak from experience and expertise when we say that nondiscrimination protections for transgender people—including women and girls who are transgender—are not at odds with women's equality or well-being, but advance them" and that "we support laws and policies that protect transgender people from discrimination, including in participation in sports, and reject

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2336-688: The Association, from a small, local organization to a nationwide network of college educated women, and by 1929, there were 31,647 members and 475 branches. During World War II, AAUW officially began raising money to assist female scholars displaced by the Nazi led occupation who were unable to continue their work. The War Relief Fund received numerous pleas for help and worked tirelessly to find teaching and other positions for refugee women at American schools and universities and in other countries. Individual branch members of AAUW also participated by signing immigration affidavits of support. During 1940, its inaugural year,

2409-634: The Gateway to Women's Economic Security. Along with three other organizations, it founded the CTM Madison Family Theatre in 1965. AAUW joined forces with other women's organizations in August 2011 to launch HERVotes to mobilize women voters in 2012 on preserving health and economic rights. In 2011, the AAUW Action Fund launched an initiative to encourage women to vote in the 2012 election. The campaign

2482-453: The United States, the female-to-male earnings ratio was 0.77 in 2009; female full-time, year-round (FTYR) workers earned 77% as much as male FTYR workers. Women's earnings relative to men's fell from 1960 to 1980 (56.7–54.2%), rose rapidly from 1980 to 1990 (54.2–67.6%), leveled off from 1990 to 2000 (67.6–71.2%) and rose from 2000 to 2009 (71.2–77.0%). As of the late 2010s, it has decreased back to around 1990 to 2000 levels (68.6-71.1%). When

2555-412: The United States, women are still represented using gender stereotypes in the press. Multiple authors have shown that gender differences in the media are less evident today than they used to be in the 1980s, but are still present. Certain issues (e.g., education) are likely to be linked with female candidates, while other issues (e.g., taxes) are likely to be linked with male candidates. In addition, there

2628-466: The United States. Gender stereotypes are widely held beliefs about the characteristics and behavior of women and men. Empirical studies have found widely shared cultural beliefs that men are more socially valued and more competent than women in a number of activities. Dustin B. Thoman and others (2008) hypothesize that "[t]he socio-cultural salience of ability versus other components of the gender-math stereotype may impact women pursuing math". Through

2701-479: The War Relief Committee raised $ 29,950 for distribution with 350 branches contributing. The organization was "largely apolitical" until the 1960s. On the other hand, women in the workforce had increased to the extent that they made up 38% of workers by the end of the 1960s. Women graduating from college were looking for good employment. Membership in 1960 was at 147,920 women, most of them middle class. AAUW

2774-756: The Westborough Insane Hospital by sitting on the Board of Trustees. Talbot supported the Massachusetts Infant Asylum since it was founded. She was a founder and then trustee of the Westboro Insane Hospital, that was co-founded with her husband. After the end of the Civil War (1861–1865), there was an increase in the number of schools that women could attend. The expectation, though, was generally that women would not graduate and pursue

2847-616: The activity, rather than one who routinely engages in it as their primary occupation. In Chinese , some writers have pointed to sexism inherent in the structure of written characters. For example, the character for man is linked to those for positive qualities like courage and effect while the character for wife is composed of a female part and a broom, considered of low worth. Gender-specific pejorative terms intimidate or harm another person because of their gender. Sexism can be expressed in language with negative gender-oriented implications, such as condescension . For example, one may refer to

2920-481: The ancient world include written laws preventing women from participating in the political process; for instance, women in ancient Rome could not vote or hold political office . Another example is scholarly texts that indoctrinate children in female inferiority; women in ancient China were taught the Confucian principles that a woman should obey her father in childhood, husband in marriage, and son in widowhood. On

2993-431: The book which played a major role in the witch hunts and trials, the author argues that women are more likely to practice witchcraft than men, and writes that: Witchcraft remains illegal in several countries, including Saudi Arabia , where it is punishable by death . In 2011, a woman was beheaded in that country for "witchcraft and sorcery". Murders of women after being accused of witchcraft remain common in some parts of

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3066-553: The concept of restitution of conjugal rights , under which a wife may be ordered by court to return to her husband; if she fails to do so, she may be held in contempt of court . Other problems have to do with the payment of the bride price : if the wife wants to leave, her husband may demand the return of the bride price that he had paid to the woman's family; and the woman's family often cannot or does not want to pay it back. Laws, regulations, and traditions related to marriage continue to discriminate against women in many parts of

3139-427: The experiment comparing the math outcomes of women under two various gender-math stereotype components, which are the ability of math and the effort on math respectively, Thoman and others found that women's math performance is more likely to be affected by the negative ability stereotype, which is influenced by sociocultural beliefs in the United States, rather than the effort component. As a result of this experiment and

3212-546: The female diner would not know the prices of the items. In 1980, Kathleen Bick took a male business partner out to dinner at L'Orangerie in West Hollywood. After she was given a women's menu without prices and her guest got one with prices, Bick hired lawyer Gloria Allred to file a discrimination lawsuit, on the grounds that the women's menu went against the California Civil Rights Act. Bick stated that getting

3285-415: The form of sexual violence. Victims of such violence are often accused of promiscuity and held responsible for their fate, while infertile women are rejected by husbands, families and communities. In many countries, married women may not refuse to have sexual relations with their husbands, and often have no say in whether they use contraception   ... Ensuring that women have full autonomy over their bodies

3358-405: The gatekeepers of policy making, this may lead to women's needs not being properly represented. In this sense, the inequality in lawmaking power also causes gender discrimination. Until the early 1980s, some high-end restaurants had two menus : a regular menu with the prices listed for men and a second menu for women, which did not have the prices listed (it was called the "ladies' menu"), so that

3431-684: The labor market, provide evidence for no severe levels of discrimination based on female gender. However, unequal treatment is still measured in particular situations, for instance, when candidates apply for positions at a higher functional level in Belgium, when they apply at their fertile ages in France, and when they apply for male-dominated occupations in Austria. Studies have concluded that on average women earn lower wages than men worldwide. Some people argue that this results from widespread gender discrimination in

3504-432: The labor market. It also found that although almost all OECD countries, including the U.S., have established anti-discrimination laws, these laws are difficult to enforce. Women who enter predominantly male work groups can experience the negative consequences of tokenism : performance pressures, social isolation, and role encapsulation. Tokenism could be used to camouflage sexism, to preserve male workers' advantage in

3577-570: The masculine form is the default. The word " mademoiselle ", meaning " miss ", was declared banished from French administrative forms in 2012 by Prime Minister François Fillon . Current pressure calls for the use of the masculine plural pronoun as the default in a mixed-sex group to change. As for Spanish, Mexico's Ministry of the Interior published a guide on how to reduce the use of sexist language. German speakers have also raised questions about how sexism intersects with grammar. The German language

3650-614: The other hand, women of the Anglo-Saxon era were commonly afforded equal status. Sexism may have been the impetus that fueled the witch trials between the 15th and 18th centuries. In early modern Europe , and in the European colonies in North America, claims were made that witches were a threat to Christendom . The misogyny of that period played a role in the persecution of these women. In Malleus Maleficarum by Heinrich Kramer ,

3723-525: The resources, skills, and networks they need to lead change on campuses and in communities nationwide. The student leadership conference is held annually in Washington, D.C. Local chapters frequently host speakers who highlight a variety of topics related to women such as Molly Murphy MacGregor , a co-founder of the National Women's History Alliance. A statement by 16 women's rights organizations including

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3796-536: The semantic rule in operation in language of the male-as-norm . This results in sexism as the male becomes the standard and those who are not male are relegated to the inferior. Sexism in language is considered a form of indirect sexism because it is not always overt. Examples include: Various 20th century feminist movements, from liberal feminism and radical feminism to standpoint feminism , postmodern feminism and queer theory , have considered language in their theorizing. Most of these theories have maintained

3869-520: The sociocultural beliefs in the United States, Thoman and others concluded that individuals' academic outcomes can be affected by the gender-math stereotype component that is influenced by the sociocultural beliefs. Sexism in language exists when language devalues members of a certain gender. Sexist language, in many instances, promotes male superiority. Sexism in language affects consciousness, perceptions of reality, encoding and transmitting cultural meanings and socialization. Researchers have pointed to

3942-402: The suggestion that cisgender women and girls benefit from the exclusion of women and girls who happen to be transgender." Emily Fairbanks Talbot Emily Fairbanks Talbot (February 22, 1834 – October 29, 1900) was an American philanthropist. Talbot and her daughter Marion Talbot founded the organization that became the American Association of University Women . Emily H. Fairbanks

4015-554: The term ambivalent sexism to describe how stereotypes about women can be both positive and negative, and that individuals compartmentalize the stereotypes they hold into hostile sexism or benevolent sexism. Feminist author bell hooks defines sexism as a system of oppression that results in disadvantages for women. Feminist philosopher Marilyn Frye defines sexism as an "attitudinal-conceptual-cognitive-orientational complex" of male supremacy , male chauvinism , and misogyny. Philosopher Kate Manne defines sexism as one branch of

4088-410: The term sexism , which was coined later. Sociologists who adopted the functionalist paradigm, e.g. Talcott Parsons , understood gender inequality as the natural outcome of a dimorphic model of gender. Psychologists Mary Crawford and Rhoda Unger define sexism as prejudice held by individuals that encompasses "negative attitudes and values about women as a group." Peter Glick and Susan Fiske coined

4161-533: The term "sexism" was most likely coined on November 18, 1965, by Pauline M. Leet during a "Student-Faculty Forum" at Franklin and Marshall College . Specifically, the word sexism appears in Leet's forum contribution "Women and the Undergraduate", and she defines it by comparing it to racism, stating in part, "When you argue ... that since fewer women write good poetry this justifies their total exclusion, you are taking

4234-530: The unequal treatment of equally productive individuals only because they belong to a specific group—is still a crucial factor inflating disparities in employment and the quality of job opportunities [...] Evidence presented in this edition of the Employment Outlook suggests that about 8   percent of the variation in gender employment gaps and 30 percent of the variation in gender wage gaps across OECD countries can be explained by discriminatory practices in

4307-507: The wife by her husband and in giving him authority over her; for instance Article 13 of the Code of Personal Status (Tunisia) states that, "The husband shall not, in default of payment of the dower, force the woman to consummate the marriage", implying that, if the dower is paid, marital rape is permitted. In this regard, critics have questioned the alleged gains of women in Tunisia , and its image as

4380-517: The workplace. No link exists between the proportion of women working in an organization/company and the improvement of their working conditions. Ignoring sexist issues may exacerbate women's occupational problems. In the World Values Survey of 2005, responders were asked if they thought wage work should be restricted to men only. In Iceland, the percentage that agreed was 3.6%, whereas in Egypt it

4453-568: The workplace. Others argue that the wage gap results from different choices by men and women, such as women placing more value than men on having children, and men being more likely than women to choose careers in high paying fields such as business, engineering, and technology. Eurostat found a persistent, average gender pay gap of 27.5% in the 27 EU member states in 2008. Similarly, the OECD found that female full-time employees earned 27% less than their male counterparts in OECD countries in 2009. In

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4526-478: The world, and to contribute to the mistreatment of women, in particular in areas related to sexual violence and to self-determination regarding sexuality , the violation of the latter now being acknowledged as a violation of women's rights . In 2012, Navi Pillay , then High Commissioner for Human Rights , stated that: Women are frequently treated as property, they are sold into marriage, into trafficking, into sexual slavery. Violence against women frequently takes

4599-531: The world; for example, in Tanzania , about 500 elderly women are murdered each year following such accusations. When women are targeted with accusations of witchcraft and subsequent violence, it is often the case that several forms of discrimination interact – for example, discrimination based on gender with discrimination based on caste , as is the case in India and Nepal, where such crimes are relatively common. Until

4672-415: Was 94.9%. Research has repeatedly shown that mothers in the United States are less likely to be hired than equally qualified fathers and if hired, receive a lower salary than male applicants with children. One study found that female applicants were favored; however, its results have been met with skepticism from other researchers, since it contradicts most other studies on the issue. Joan C. Williams,

4745-494: Was aimed to increase the number of votes by women and to advance initiatives supporting education and equity for women and girls. AAUW's 2011 research report addresses sexual harassment in grades seven through 12. AAUW's national convention is held biennially. AAUW sponsors a student leadership conference, called the National Conference of College Women Student Leaders (NCCWSL) designed to help women college students access

4818-655: Was born February 22, 1834, in Winthrop, Maine , the daughter of Lydia Wood Tinkham and Columbus Fairbanks, a farmer. She was the eighth of nine children. In 1850, Phebe W. and Charles W. Fairbanks were at home with Emily and their parents. Three of Emily's siblings died within their first two years of life. She was a schoolteacher and advocated for higher learning for women and health reform. Emily married Israel Tisdale Talbot in 1856, becoming Emily Fairbanks Talbot. Her husband, born on October 29, 1829, in Sharon, Massachusetts ,

4891-510: Was broad in purpose and consisted of five committees: fine arts, outdoor occupations, domestic professions, press and journalism, and higher education of women in the West. In 1888, WACA awarded its first fellowship of $ 350 to Ida Street , a Vassar College graduate, to conduct research at the University of Michigan . In 1889, WACA merged with the ACA, further expanding the groups' capacity. In 1919,

4964-512: Was director of the Boston homeopathic hospital and a founder, professor of surgery, and dean of the Boston University Medical School . He was involved in many public matters, which his wife shared with him. They had six children, four of whom survived their parents: Talbot is also described as a co-worker with her husband, "not just assisting her husband". She was particularly involved in homeopathic medical care and serving

5037-548: Was forced to do so by the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland . French women were granted the right to vote in 1944. In Greece, women obtained the right to vote in 1952. In Liechtenstein , women obtained the right to vote in 1984, through the women's suffrage referendum of 1984 . While almost every woman today has the right to vote, there is still progress to be made for women in politics. Studies have shown that in several democracies including Australia, Canada, and

5110-701: Was in Caroline Bird ’s speech "On Being Born Female", which was delivered before the Episcopal Church Executive Council in Greenwich, Connecticut , and subsequently published on November 15, 1968, in Vital Speeches of the Day (p. 6). Sexism may be defined as an ideology based on the belief that one sex is superior to another. It is discrimination, prejudice, or stereotyping based on gender, and

5183-433: Was officially founded on January 14, 1882. The ACA also worked to improve standards of education for women so that men and women's higher education was more equal in scope and difficulty. At the beginning of 1884, the ACA had been meeting only in Boston. However, as more women across the country became interested in its work, the Association saw that expansion into branches was necessary to carry on its work. Washington, D.C.,

5256-499: Was the first branch to be created in 1884, and New York, Pacific (San Francisco), Philadelphia, and Boston branches followed in 1886. In 1885, the organization took on one of its first major projects: they essentially had to justify their right to exist. A common belief held at the time that a college education would harm a woman's health and result in infertility. This myth was supported by Harvard-educated Boston physician Dr. Edward H. Clarke. An ACA committee led by Annie Howes created

5329-432: Was the first country to grant women the right to vote. Saudi Arabia is the most recent country, as of August 2015, to extend the right to vote to women in 2011. Some Western countries allowed women the right to vote only relatively recently. Swiss women gained the right to vote in federal elections in 1971, and Appenzell Innerrhoden became the last canton to grant women the right to vote on local issues in 1991, when it

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