63-402: Wedge strategies in diplomacy are used to prevent, divide, and weaken an adversary coalition. Wedge strategies can take the shape of reward-based or coercive-based. Alignment abnormalities can arise because of wedge strategies. Wedge strategies may be a subset or similar to Divide and rule strategies, however, there may be a slight optical difference. With the divide and rule strategy, there
126-406: A harem of 180 concubines into soldiers. Sun Tzu divided them into two companies, appointing the two concubines most favored by the king as the company commanders. When Sun Tzu first ordered the concubines to face right, they giggled. In response, Sun Tzu said that the general, in this case himself, was responsible for ensuring that soldiers understood the commands given to them. Then, he reiterated
189-530: A Western text on warfare and strategy. For example, the eleventh chapter states that a leader must be "serene and inscrutable" and capable of comprehending "unfathomable plans". The text contains many similar remarks that have long confused Western readers lacking an awareness of the East Asian context . The meanings of such statements are clearer when interpreted in the context of Taoist thought and practice. Despite its title, The Art of War addresses strategy in
252-542: A broad fashion, touching upon public administration and planning. The text outlines theories of battle, but also advocates diplomacy and the cultivation of relationships with other nations as essential to the health of a state. As such, the book has also become popular among political leaders and those in business management . For example, in the 1987 film Wall Street , the protagonist Gordon Gekko frequently cites passages from The Art of War as guiding principles for his aggressive trading techniques. On 10 April 1972,
315-423: A business is going to compete, what its goals should be, and what policies will be needed to carry out those goals" and the "...combination of the ends (goals) for which the firm is striving and the means (policies) by which it is seeking to get there." Henry Mintzberg described five definitions of strategy in 1998: Complexity theorists define strategy as the unfolding of the internal and external aspects of
378-636: A conceptual framework capable of harmonizing emergent and deliberate strategies. Within complexity approaches, the term "strategy" is intricately linked to action but contrasts programmed action. Complexity theorists view programs merely as predetermined sequences effective in highly ordered and less chaotic environments. Conversely, strategy emerges from a simultaneous examination of determined conditions (order) and uncertainties (disorder) that drive action. Complexity theory posits that strategy involves execution, encompasses control and emergence, scrutinizes both internal and external organizational aspects, and can take
441-635: A doctrine that will ensure long-term success if followed faithfully." Subordinating the political point of view to the military would be absurd, for it is policy that has created war...Policy is the guiding intelligence, and war only the instrument, not vice-versa. In military theory, strategy is "the utilization during both peace and war, of all of the nation's forces, through large scale, long-range planning and development, to ensure security and victory" ( Random House Dictionary ). The father of Western modern strategic study , Carl von Clausewitz , defined military strategy as "the employment of battles to gain
504-526: A much more detailed account of the Battle of Boju, but does not mention Sun Tzu at all. Around the 12th century AD, some Chinese scholars began to doubt the historical existence of Sun Tzu, primarily on the grounds that he is not mentioned in the historical classic Zuo Zhuan , which mentions most of the notable figures from the Spring and Autumn period. The name "Sun Wu" ( 孫武 ) does not appear in any text prior to
567-577: A school of theorists in Qi or Wu ; Sun Bin ; and others. Sun Bin appears to have been an actual person who was a genuine authority on military matters, and may have been the inspiration for the creation of the historical figure "Sun Tzu" through a form of euhemerism . The name Sun Wu does appear in later sources such as the Shiji and the Wu Yue Chunqiu , but were written centuries after Sun Tzu's era. The use of
630-605: A set of attraction basins establishing operational and regenerative capabilities. Hence, one of the primary roles of strategists is to identify "human attractors" and assess their impacts on organizational dynamics. According to the theory of Symbiotic Dynamics, both leaders and the technical system can act as attractors, directly influencing organizational dynamics and responses to external disruptions. Terra and Passador further assert that while producing, organizations contribute to environmental entropy, potentially leading to abrupt ruptures and collapses within their subsystems, even within
693-555: A strategic problem. The first is related to environmental factors, and the second focuses on the organizational context (Mukherji and Hurtado, 2001). These two sources summarize three dimensions originally proposed by Ansoff and Hayes (1981). According to them, a strategic problem arises from analysis of internal and external issues, the processes to solve them, and the variables involved. In Terra and Passador's conceptualization, organizations and their surrounding systems are closely linked, so their survival depends on each other. Therefore,
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#1733093832517756-479: A strategy should combine proactive and reactive approaches, which means recognizing the organization’s impact on the environment and acting to minimize harm while adapting to new demands. The strategy should also align internal and external aspects of the organization and include all related entities. This helps build a complex socio-economic system where the organization is part of a sustainable ecosystem. Complexity science, as articulated by R. D. Stacey, represents
819-455: A third school claims that the slips were published in the last half of the 5th century BC; this is based on how its adherents interpret the bamboo slips discovered at Yinque Shan in 1972. The Art of War is traditionally ascribed to Sun Tzu. It presents a philosophy of war for managing conflicts and winning battles. It is accepted as a masterpiece on strategy and has been frequently cited and referred to by generals and theorists since it
882-440: A type of problem solving in 2011. He wrote that good strategy has an underlying structure he called a kernel . The kernel has three parts: 1) A diagnosis that defines or explains the nature of the challenge; 2) A guiding policy for dealing with the challenge; and 3) Coherent actions designed to carry out the guiding policy. President Kennedy illustrated these three elements of strategy in his Cuban Missile Crisis Address to
945-399: A view consistent with the definition of strategy by Porter and Mintzberg. In contrast, Burnett regards strategy as a plan formulated through methodology in which strategic problem encompasses six tasks: goal formulation, environmental analysis, strategy formulation, strategy evaluation, strategy implementation, and strategy control. The literature identifies two main sources for defining
1008-479: Is a clear winner, whereas with the wedge strategy, attention is not focused on the winner but instead against the discredited coalition. This article about foreign relations is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Strategy Strategy (from Greek στρατηγία stratēgia , "art of troop leader; office of general, command, generalship" ) is a general plan to achieve one or more long-term or overall goals under conditions of uncertainty . In
1071-562: Is a component incorporated in the Art of War . According to Steven C. Combs in "Sun-zi and the Art of War : The Rhetoric of Parsimony", warfare is "used as a metaphor for rhetoric, and that both are philosophically based arts." Combs writes: "Warfare is analogous to persuasion, as a battle for hearts and minds." Combs compares Taoist and Aristotelian rhetoric, notably for the differences in persuasion. Daoist rhetoric in The Art of War warfare strategies
1134-507: Is a government's plan to use the instruments of national power to neutralize terrorists, their organizations, and their networks in order to render them incapable of using violence to instill fear and to coerce the government or its citizens to react in accordance with the terrorists' goals. The United States has had several such strategies in the past, including the United States National Strategy for Counterterrorism (2018);
1197-498: Is critical in understanding China's push to become a superpower in the twenty-first century. Modern Chinese scholars explicitly rely on historical strategic lessons and The Art of War in developing their theories, seeing a direct relationship between their modern struggles and those of China in Sun Tzu's time. There is a great perceived value in Sun Tzu's teachings and other traditional Chinese writers, which are used regularly in developing
1260-523: Is described as "peaceful and passive, favoring silence over speech". This form of communication is parsimonious . Parsimonious behavior, which is highly emphasized in The Art of War as avoiding confrontation and being spiritual in nature, shapes basic principles in Taoism. In Sun Tzu and the Art of Modern Warfare , Mark McNeilly writes that a modern interpretation of Sun and his importance throughout Chinese history
1323-463: Is doubt as to Sun Tzu's rank and generalship. This caused much confusion as to when The Art of War was actually written. The first traditional view is that it was written in 512 BC by the historical Sun Wu, active in the last years of the Spring and Autumn period ( c. 722 –481 BC). A second view, held by scholars such as Samuel Griffith, places The Art of War during the middle to late Warring States period ( c. 481 –221 BC). Finally,
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#17330938325171386-569: Is more popularly known—is an honorific which means "Master Sun ". Sun Tzu mastered the military science of ancient China and created the military doctrine of asymmetrical warfare. According to it, an attack on the enemy should begin only after the enemy has no opportunity to either defend or counterattack. It was used in the wars in the era of the Warring States in ancient China (about 475–221 BC). Those combat combinations had specific names, descriptions and classifications. Sun Tzu's historicity
1449-452: Is regarded as extremely important by scholars, both because of Sun Bin's relationship to Sun Tzu and because of the work's addition to the body of military thought in Chinese late antiquity. The discovery as a whole significantly expanded the body of surviving Warring States military theory. Sun Bin's treatise is the only known military text surviving from the Warring States period discovered in
1512-417: Is uncertain. The Han dynasty historian Sima Qian and other traditional Chinese historians placed him as a minister to King Helü of Wu and dated his lifetime to 544–496 BC. Modern scholars accepting his historicity place the extant text of The Art of War in the later Warring States period of 475 to 221 BC, based on its style of composition and its descriptions of warfare. Traditional accounts state that
1575-460: The Battle of Boju , has no record of him fighting in that battle. Skeptics cite possible historical inaccuracies and anachronisms in the text, and that the book was actually a compilation from different authors and military strategists. Attribution of the authorship of The Art of War varies among scholars and has included people and movements including Sun; Chu scholar Wu Zixu ; an anonymous author;
1638-648: The Kuomintang to The Art of War . The work strongly influenced writings about warfare in Mao's Little Red Book , which further influenced communist insurgencies around the world. The Art of War was introduced into Nara Japan in c. AD 760 and the book quickly became popular among Japanese military generals. Through its later influence on the Sengoku period "Great Unifiers" of Japan, Oda Nobunaga , Toyotomi Hideyoshi , and Tokugawa Ieyasu , it significantly affected
1701-543: The Records of the Grand Historian , and may have been a made-up descriptive cognomen meaning "the fugitive warrior" – the surname "Sun" can be glossed as the related term "fugitive" ( xùn 遜 ), while "Wu" is the ancient Chinese virtue of "martial, valiant" ( wǔ 武 ), which corresponds to Sun Tzu's role as the hero's doppelgänger in the story of Wu Zixu . The only historical battle attributed to Sun Tzu,
1764-554: The Yinqueshan Han Tombs were accidentally unearthed by construction workers in Shandong . Scholars uncovered a collection of ancient texts written on unusually well-preserved bamboo slips . Among them were The Art of War and Sun Bin 's Military Methods . Although Han dynasty bibliographies noted the latter publication as extant and written by a descendant of Sun, it had previously been lost. The rediscovery of Sun Bin's work
1827-638: The unification of Japan in the early modern era. After the Meiji Restoration , it remained popular among the Imperial Japanese armed forces . Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō , who led Japan's forces to victory in the Russo-Japanese War , was an avid reader of Sun Tzu. Ho Chi Minh translated the work for his Vietnamese officers to study. His general Võ Nguyên Giáp was likewise an avid student and practitioner of Sun Tzu's ideas. Taoist rhetoric
1890-411: The "art of creating power." Eastern military philosophy dates back much further, with examples such as The Art of War by Sun Tzu dated around 500 B.C. Because counterterrorism involves the synchronized efforts of numerous competing bureaucratic entities, national governments frequently create overarching counterterrorism strategies at the national level. A national counterterrorism strategy
1953-422: The Grand Historian ( Shiji ) state that Sun Tzu was born in Qi . Both sources also agree that Sun Tzu was born in the late Spring and Autumn period and that he was active as a general and strategist, serving King Helü of Wu in the sixth century BC, beginning around 512 BC. Sun Tzu's victories then inspired him to write The Art of War . The Art of War was one of the most widely read military treatises in
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2016-550: The Nation of 22 October 1962: Rumelt wrote in 2011 that three important aspects of strategy include "premeditation, the anticipation of others' behavior, and the purposeful design of coordinated actions." He described strategy as solving a design problem, with trade-offs among various elements that must be arranged, adjusted and coordinated, rather than a plan or choice. Strategy typically involves two major processes: formulation and implementation . Formulation involves analyzing
2079-696: The Obama-era National Strategy for Counterterrorism (2011); and the National Strategy for Combatting Terrorism (2003). There have also been a number of ancillary or supporting plans, such as the 2014 Strategy to Counter the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant , and the 2016 Strategic Implementation Plan for Empowering Local Partners to Prevent Violent Extremism in the United States . Similarly,
2142-516: The United Kingdom's counterterrorism strategy, CONTEST , seeks "to reduce the risk to the UK and its citizens and interests overseas from terrorism, so that people can go about their lives freely and with confidence." The essence of formulating competitive strategy is relating a company to its environment. Modern business strategy emerged as a field of study and practice in the 1960s; prior to that time,
2205-468: The actions of other players. Sun Tzu Sun Tzu ( / s uː n ˈ d z uː , s uː n ˈ s uː / soon DZOO , soon SOO ; traditional Chinese : 孫子 ; simplified Chinese : 孙子 ; pinyin : Sūnzǐ ) was a Chinese military general , strategist , philosopher , and writer who lived during the Eastern Zhou period (771–256 BC). Sun Tzu is traditionally credited as
2268-531: The author of The Art of War , an influential work of military strategy that has affected both Western and East Asian philosophy and military thought. Sun Tzu is revered in Chinese and East Asian culture as a legendary historical and military figure. His birth name was Sun Wu ( traditional Chinese : 孫武 ; simplified Chinese : 孙武 ) and he was known outside of his family by his courtesy name Changqing ( Chinese : 長卿 ). The name Sun Tzu —by which he
2331-426: The basic requirements for strategy development include, among other factors: 1) extensive knowledge about the environment, market and competitors; 2) ability to examine this knowledge as an interactive dynamic system; and 3) the imagination and logic to choose between specific alternatives. Henderson wrote that strategy was valuable because of: "finite resources, uncertainty about an adversary's capability and intentions;
2394-511: The command, and again the concubines giggled. Sun Tzu then ordered the execution of the king's two favored concubines, to the king's protests. He explained that if the general's soldiers understood their commands but did not obey, it was the fault of the officers. Sun Tzu also said that, once a general was appointed, it was his duty to carry out his mission, even if the king protested. After both concubines were killed, new officers were chosen to replace them. Afterward, both companies, now well aware of
2457-464: The costs of further frivolity, performed their maneuvers flawlessly. Sima Qian claimed that Sun Tzu later proved on the battlefield that his theories were effective (for example, at the Battle of Boju ), that he had a successful military career, and that he wrote The Art of War based on his tested expertise. However, the Zuozhuan , a historical text written centuries earlier than the Shiji , provides
2520-439: The demands arising from these interactions. To achieve this, organizations need to incorporate all interconnected systems into their decision-making processes, enabling the envisioning of complex socio-economic systems where they integrate in a stable and sustainable manner. This blend of proactivity and reactivity is fundamental to ensure the survival of the organization itself. Professor Richard P. Rumelt described strategy as
2583-434: The differing theories concerning the work's author or authors and date of completion are unlikely to be completely resolved. Some modern scholars believe that it contains not only the thoughts of its original author but also commentary and clarifications from later military theorists, such as Li Quan and Du Mu . Of the military texts written before the unification of China and Shi Huangdi 's subsequent book burning in
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2646-446: The end of war." B. H. Liddell Hart 's definition put less emphasis on battles, defining strategy as "the art of distributing and applying military means to fulfill the ends of policy". Hence, both gave the pre-eminence to political aims over military goals. U.S. Naval War College instructor Andrew Wilson defined strategy as the "process by which political purpose is translated into military action." Lawrence Freedman defined strategy as
2709-413: The environment or situation, making a diagnosis, and developing guiding policies. It includes such activities as strategic planning and strategic thinking . Implementation refers to the action plans taken to achieve the goals established by the guiding policy. Bruce Henderson wrote in 1981 that: "Strategy depends upon the ability to foresee future consequences of present initiatives." He wrote that
2772-409: The essence of strategy as the activities to deliver a unique mix of value – choosing to perform activities differently or to perform different activities than rivals. while Max McKeown (2011) argues that "strategy is about shaping the future " and is the human attempt to get to "desirable ends with available means". Vladimir Kvint defines strategy as "a system of finding, formulating, and developing
2835-671: The form of maneuvers or any other act or process. The works of Stacey stand as pioneering efforts in applying complexity principles to the field of strategy. This author applied self-organization and chaos principles to describe strategy, organizational change dynamics, and learning. Their propositions advocate for strategy approached through choices and the evolutionary process of competitive selection. In this context, corrections of anomalies occur through actions involving negative feedback, while innovation and continuous change stem from actions guided by positive feedback. Dynamically, complexity in strategic management can be elucidated through
2898-456: The general's descendant Sun Bin wrote a treatise on military tactics, also titled The Art of War . Since both Sun Wu and Sun Bin were referred to as "Sun Tzu" in classical Chinese texts, some historians believed them identical, prior to the rediscovery of Sun Bin's treatise in 1972. Sun Tzu's work has been praised and employed throughout the arc of East Asian military history since its composition, and eventually earned global attention. During
2961-403: The irreversible commitment of resources; necessity of coordinating action over time and distance; uncertainty about control of the initiative; and the nature of adversaries' mutual perceptions of each other." In game theory , a player 's strategy is any of the options that the player would choose in a specific setting. Any optimal outcomes they receive depend not only on their actions but also,
3024-408: The means (resources). Strategy can be intended or can emerge as a pattern of activity as the organization adapts to its environment or competes. It involves activities such as strategic planning and strategic thinking . Henry Mintzberg from McGill University defined strategy as a pattern in a stream of decisions to contrast with a view of strategy as planning, while Henrik von Scheel defines
3087-429: The model of "Symbiotic Dynamics" by Terra and Passador. This model conceives the social organization of production as an interplay between two distinct systems existing in a symbiotic relationship while interconnected with the external environment. The organization's social network acts as a self-referential entity controlling the organization's life, while its technical structure resembles a purposeful "machine" supplying
3150-476: The more primitive small-scale battles that many believe predominated in China during the 6th century BC. Against this, Sawyer argues that the teachings of Sun Wu were probably taught to succeeding generations in his family or a small school of disciples, which eventually included Sun Bin. These descendants or students may have revised or expanded upon certain points in the original text. Skeptics who identify issues with
3213-429: The organization that results in actions in a socio-economic context. Crouch in 1998 defined the strategic problem as maintaining of flexible relationships that range from intense competition to harmonious cooperation among different players in a changing market. Despite being open to the idea of cooperation between players, this approach still considers that strategy is determined by market and organizational structure,
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#17330938325173276-444: The organizations themselves. Given this issue, the authors conclude that organizations intervening to maintain the environment's stability within suitable parameters for survival tend to exhibit greater longevity. The theory of Symbiotic Dynamics posits that organizations must acknowledge their impact on the external environment (markets, society, and the environment) and act systematically to reduce their degradation while adapting to
3339-580: The second century BC, six major works have survived. During the much later Song dynasty , these six works were combined with a Tang text into a collection called the Seven Military Classics . As a central part of that compilation, The Art of War formed the foundations of orthodox military theory in early modern China. Illustrating this point, the book was required reading to pass the tests for imperial appointment to military positions. Sun Tzu's The Art of War uses language that may be unusual in
3402-491: The sense of the " art of the general", which included several subsets of skills including military tactics , siegecraft , logistics etc., the term came into use in the 6th century C.E. in Eastern Roman terminology, and was translated into Western vernacular languages only in the 18th century. From then until the 20th century, the word "strategy" came to denote "a comprehensive way to try to pursue political ends, including
3465-401: The social system by processing resources. These intertwined structures exchange disturbances and residues while interacting with the external world through their openness. Essentially, as the organization produces itself, it also hetero-produces, surviving through energy and resource flows across its subsystems. This dynamic has strategic implications, governing organizational dynamics through
3528-450: The strips in other works, however, such as The Methods of the Sima is considered proof of Sun Tzu's historical priority. According to Ralph Sawyer, it is very likely Sun Tzu did exist and not only served as a general, but also wrote the core of the book that bears his name. It is argued that there is a disparity between the large-scale wars and sophisticated techniques detailed in the text and
3591-537: The subsequent Warring States period , a time of constant war among seven ancient Chinese states— Zhao , Qi , Qin , Chu , Han , Wei , and Yan —who fought to control the vast expanse of fertile territory in Eastern China. One of the better-known stories about Sun Tzu, taken from Sima Qian, illustrates Sun Tzu's temperament as follows: Before hiring Sun Tzu, the King of Wu tested Sun Tzu's skills by commanding him to train
3654-428: The threat or actual use of force, in a dialectic of wills" in a military conflict , in which both adversaries interact. Strategy is important because the resources available to achieve goals are usually limited. Strategy generally involves setting goals and priorities, determining actions to achieve the goals, and mobilizing resources to execute the actions. A strategy describes how the ends (goals) will be achieved by
3717-509: The traditionalist view point to possible anachronisms in The Art of War including terms, technology (such as anachronistic crossbows ), philosophical ideas, events, and military techniques that should not have been available to Sun Wu. Additionally, there are no records of professional generals during the Spring and Autumn period ; these are only extant from the Warring States period , so there
3780-449: The twentieth century and bears the closest similarity to The Art of War of all surviving texts. Sun Tzu's Art of War has influenced many notable figures. The Han dynasty historian Sima Qian recounted that China's first historical emperor , Qin 's Shi Huangdi , considered the book invaluable in ending the time of the Warring States . In the twentieth century, Mao Zedong partially credited his 1949 victory over Chiang Kai-shek and
3843-498: The twentieth century, The Art of War grew in popularity and saw practical use in the Western world as well. It remains influential in many contemporary competitive endeavors across the modern world beyond military strategy and warfare, including espionage, culture, governance, business, and sports. The oldest available sources disagree as to where Sun Tzu was born. The Spring and Autumn Annals and Sima Qian 's later Records of
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#17330938325173906-408: The words "strategy" and "competition" rarely appeared in the most prominent management literature. Alfred Chandler wrote in 1962 that: "Strategy is the determination of the basic long-term goals of an enterprise , and the adoption of courses of action and the allocation of resources necessary for carrying out these goals." Michael Porter defined strategy in 1980 as the "...broad formula for how
3969-413: Was first published, translated, and distributed internationally. There are numerous theories concerning when the text was completed and concerning the identity of the author or authors, but archeological recoveries show The Art of War had taken roughly its current form by at least the early Han period. Because it is impossible to prove definitively when the Art of War was completed before this date,
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