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69-471: The rolled steel "profile" or cross section of steel columns takes the shape of the letter "Ɪ". The two wide flanges of a column are thicker and wider than the flanges on a beam , to better withstand compressive stress in the structure. Square and round tubular sections of steel can also be used, often filled with concrete. Steel beams are connected to the columns with bolts and threaded fasteners, and historically connected by rivets . The central "web" of

138-421: A continuous casting operation, the products are usually fed directly into the rolling mills at the proper temperature. In smaller operations, the material starts at room temperature and must be heated. This is done in a gas- or oil-fired soaking pit for larger workpieces; for smaller workpieces, induction heating is used. As the material is worked, the temperature must be monitored to make sure it remains above

207-463: A reduction mill or mill , has a common construction independent of the specific type of rolling being performed: Slabs are the feed material for hot strip mills or plate mills and blooms are rolled to billets in a billet mill or large sections in a structural mill. The output from a strip mill is coiled and, subsequently, used as the feed for a cold rolling mill or used directly by fabricators. Billets, for re-rolling, are subsequently rolled in either

276-560: A coating to insulate it from the heat of the fire or it can be protected by a fire-resistant ceiling construction. Asbestos was a popular material for fireproofing steel structures up until the early 1970s, before the health risks of asbestos fibres were fully understood. The exterior "skin" of the building is anchored to the frame using a variety of construction techniques and following a huge variety of architectural styles . Bricks , stone , reinforced concrete , architectural glass , sheet metal and simply paint have been used to cover

345-451: A finite element model (FE) for predicting the final shape of a rolled bar in round-flat pass. One of the major concerns when designing rolling mills is to reduce the number of passes. A possible solution to such requirements is the slit pass , also called split pass , which divides an incoming bar in two or more subparts, thus virtually increasing the cross section reduction ratio per pass as reported by Lambiase. Another solution for reducing

414-529: A hammer. Although Cort was not the first to use grooved rolls, he was the first to combine the use of many of the best features of various ironmaking and shaping processes known at the time. Thus modern writers have called him "father of modern rolling". The first rail rolling mill was established by John Birkenshaw at Bedlington Ironworks in Northumberland , England, in 1820, where he produced fish-bellied wrought iron rails in lengths of 15 to 18 feet. With

483-417: A lot of residual stresses, which usually occurs in shapes that have a non-uniform cross-section, such as I-beams . While the finished product is of good quality, the surface is covered in mill scale , which is an oxide that forms at high temperatures. It is usually removed via pickling or the smooth clean surface (SCS) process, which reveals a smooth surface. Dimensional tolerances are usually 2 to 5% of

552-416: A merchant, bar or rod mill. Merchant or bar mills produce a variety of shaped products such as angles, channels, beams, rounds (long or coiled) and hexagons. Mills are designed in different types of configurations, with the most basic being a two-high non-reversing , which means there are two rolls that only turn in one direction. The two-high reversing mill has rolls that can rotate in both directions, but

621-443: A parametric Finite element model and to optimize and automatically design rolling mills. Cold rolling occurs with the metal below its recrystallization temperature (usually at room temperature), which increases the strength via strain hardening up to 20%. It also improves the surface finish and holds tighter tolerances . Commonly cold-rolled products include sheets, strips, bars, and rods; these products are usually smaller than

690-433: A rolling mill can produce 10 to 20 or more bars at the same time. A patent was granted to Thomas Blockley of England in 1759 for the polishing and rolling of metals. Another patent was granted in 1766 to Richard Ford of England for the first tandem mill. A tandem mill is one in which the metal is rolled in successive stands; Ford's tandem mill was for hot rolling of wire rods. Rolling mills for lead seem to have existed by

759-411: A single pass is limited by the friction between the rolls; if the change in thickness is too great the rolls just slip over the material and do not draw it in. The final product is either sheet or plate, with the former being less than 6 mm (0.24 in) thick and the latter greater than; however, heavy plates tend to be formed using a press , which is termed forging , rather than rolling. Often

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828-454: A small diameter rolls. To reduce the need for small rolls pack rolling is used, which rolls multiple sheets together to increase the effective starting thickness. As the foil sheets come through the rollers, they are trimmed and slitted with circular or razor-like knives . Trimming refers to the edges of the foil, while slitting involves cutting it into several sheets. Aluminum foil is the most commonly produced product via pack rolling. This

897-579: A thickness of 12 to 25 gauge . Heavy gauges, such as 12 and 14 gauge, are commonly used when axial loads (parallel to the length of the member) are high, such as in load-bearing construction. Medium-heavy gauges, such as 16 and 18 gauge, are commonly used when there are no axial loads but heavy lateral loads (perpendicular to the member) such as exterior wall studs that need to resist hurricane-force wind loads along coasts. Light gauges, such as 25 gauge, are commonly used where there are no axial loads and very light lateral loads such as in interior construction where

966-409: Is 2% thicker than the edges). It is typically desirable to have some crown in the workpiece as this will cause the workpiece to tend to pull to the center of the mill, and thus will run with higher stability. Span (architecture) In engineering , span is the distance between two adjacent structural supports (e.g., two piers ) of a structural member (e.g., a beam ). Span is measured in

1035-570: Is a type of thermomechanical processing which integrates controlled deformation and heat treating . The heat which brings the workpiece above the recrystallization temperature is also used to perform the heat treatments so that any subsequent heat treating is unnecessary. Types of heat treatments include the production of a fine grain structure; controlling the nature, size, and distribution of various transformation products (such as ferrite , austenite , pearlite , bainite , and martensite in steel); inducing precipitation hardening ; and, controlling

1104-536: Is continuously deformed to produce a certain finished product with smaller cross section dimension and geometry. Starting from a given billet, different sequences can be adopted to produce a certain final product. However, since each rolling mill is significantly expensive (up to 2 million euros), a typical requirement is to reduce the number of rolling passes. Different approaches have been achieved, including empirical knowledge, employment of numerical models, and Artificial Intelligence techniques. Lambiase et al. validated

1173-427: Is done in one pass. In a traditional rolling mill rolling is done in several passes, but in tandem mill there are several stands (>=2 stands) and reductions take place successively. The number of stands ranges from 2 to 18. Tandem mills can be either of hot or cold rolling mill types. Cold rolling mills may be further divided into continuous or batch processing. A continuous mill has a looping tower which allows

1242-510: Is established with a horizontal track that is anchored to the floor and ceiling to outline each room. The vertical studs are arranged in the tracks, usually spaced 16 inches (410 mm) apart, and fastened at the top and bottom. The typical profiles used in residential construction are the C-shape stud and the U-shaped track, and a variety of other profiles. Framing members are generally produced in

1311-411: Is evident from the two different surface finishes; the shiny side is on the roll side and the dull side is against the other sheet of foil. Ring rolling is a specialized type of hot rolling that increases the diameter of a ring. The starting material is a thick-walled ring. This workpiece is placed between two rolls, an inner idler roll and a driven roll , which presses the ring from the outside. As

1380-419: Is fed in between two rollers , called working rolls , that rotate in opposite directions. The gap between the two rolls is less than the thickness of the starting material, which causes it to deform . The decrease in material thickness causes the material to elongate. The friction at the interface between the material and the rolls causes the material to be pushed through. The amount of deformation possible in

1449-420: Is mainly used to preform long-scaled billets through targeted mass distribution for parts such as crankshafts, connection rods, steering knuckles and vehicle axles. Narrowest manufacturing tolerances can only partially be achieved by forge rolling. This is the main reason why forge rolling is rarely used for finishing, but mainly for preforming. Characteristics of forge rolling: A rolling mill , also known as

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1518-576: Is now Belgium to England in 1590. These passed flat bars between rolls to form a plate of iron, which was then passed between grooved rolls (slitters) to produce rods of iron. The first experiments at rolling iron for tinplate took place about 1670. In 1697, Major John Hanbury erected a mill at Pontypool to roll "Pontypool plates" – blackplate . Later this began to be rerolled and tinned to make tinplate . The earlier production of plate iron in Europe had been in forges, not rolling mills. The slitting mill

1587-403: Is obtained. Roll forming is ideal for producing parts with long lengths or in large quantities. There are three main processes: 4 rollers, 3 rollers and 2 rollers, each of which has as different advantages according to the desired specifications of the output plate. Flat rolling is the most basic form of rolling with the starting and ending material having a rectangular cross-section. The material

1656-441: Is true that hot rolled steel members often have a higher initial cost per component when compared to cold rolled steel, their cost-efficiency becomes increasingly evident when used in the construction of larger structures. This is due to the fact that hot rolled steel frames require fewer components to span equivalent distances, leading to economic advantages in bigger projects. The use of steel instead of iron for structural purposes

1725-580: The semi-finished casting products into finished products. There are many types of rolling processes, including ring rolling , roll bending , roll forming , profile rolling , and controlled rolling . The earliest rolling mills in crude form but the same basic principles were found in Middle East and South Asia as early as 600 BCE. The invention of the rolling mill in Europe may be attributed to Leonardo da Vinci in his drawings. Earliest rolling mills were slitting mills , which were introduced from what

1794-429: The toughness . In order to achieve this the entire process must be closely monitored and controlled. Common variables in controlled rolling include the starting material composition and structure, deformation levels, temperatures at various stages, and cool-down conditions. The benefits of controlled rolling include better mechanical properties and energy savings. Forge rolling is a longitudinal rolling process to reduce

1863-789: The Back-up Rolls from about Stand 3 of the Hot Strip Mill through to the Finished Product. The Back-up Roll eccentricity can be up to 100 μm in magnitude per stack. The eccentricity can be measured off-line by plotting the force variation against time with the Mill on creep, no strip present, and the Mill Stand below face. A modified Fourier analysis was employed by the 5 Stand Cold Mill at Bluescope Steel, Port Kembla from 1986 until that Cold Mill ceased production in 2009. Within each coil,

1932-522: The Backup Rolls of each Stand. If a Mill Stand is fitted with Hydraulic Pistons in series with, or instead of the electrically driven Mechanical Screws, then it is possible to eliminate the effect of that Stands Back-up Roll eccentricity. While rolling, the eccentricity of each Back-up Roll is determined by sampling the roll force and assigning it to the corresponding portion of each Back-up Roll's rotational position. These recordings are then used to operate

2001-473: The Hydraulic Piston so as to neutralize the eccentricities. In a flat metal workpiece, the flatness is a descriptive attribute characterizing the extent of the geometric deviation from a reference plane. The deviation from complete flatness is the direct result of the workpiece relaxation after hot or cold rolling, due to the internal stress pattern caused by the non-uniform transversal compressive action of

2070-521: The advancement of technology in rolling mills, the size of rolling mills grew rapidly along with the size of the products being rolled. One example of this was at The Great Exhibition in London in 1851, where a plate 20 feet long, 3 1 ⁄ 2 feet wide, and 7/16 of an inch thick, and weighing 1,125 pounds, was exhibited by the Consett Iron Company . Further evolution of the rolling mill came with

2139-408: The back side of the smaller rolls. A four-high mill has four rolls, two small and two large. A cluster mill has more than four rolls, usually in three tiers. These types of mills are commonly used to hot roll wide plates, most cold rolling applications, and to roll foils. Historically mills were classified by the product produced: A tandem mill is a special type of modern rolling mill where rolling

Steel frame - Misplaced Pages Continue

2208-534: The base material for the manufacture of cold-formed steel profiles. Sheet steel is then roll-formed into the final profiles used for framing. The sheets are zinc coated (galvanized) to increase protection against oxidation and corrosion . Steel framing provides excellent design flexibility due to the high strength-to-weight ratio of steel, which allows it to span over long distances, and also resist wind and earthquake loads. Steel-framed walls can be designed to offer excellent thermal and acoustic properties – one of

2277-405: The center as compared to the average thickness at the edges of the workpiece. Wedge is a measure of the thickness at one edge as opposed to the other edge. Both may be expressed as absolute measurements or as relative measurements. For instance, one could have 2 mil of crown (the center of the workpiece is 2 mil thicker than the edges), or one could have 2% crown (the center of the workpiece

2346-402: The cost of being more expensive. Roll bending produces a cylindrical shaped product from plate or steel metals. Roll forming, roll bending or plate rolling is a continuous bending operation in which a long strip of metal (typically coiled steel) is passed through consecutive sets of rolls, or stands, each performing only an incremental part of the bend, until the desired cross-section profile

2415-403: The cross-section is relatively uniform and the transverse dimension is relatively small. Cold rolling shapes requires a series of shaping operations, usually along the lines of sizing, breakdown, roughing, semi-roughing, semi-finishing, and finishing. If processed by a blacksmith, the smoother, more consistent, and lower levels of carbon encapsulated in the steel makes it easier to process, but at

2484-436: The cross-sectional area of heated bars or billets by leading them between two contrary rotating roll segments. The process is mainly used to provide optimized material distribution for subsequent die forging processes. Owing to this a better material utilization, lower process forces and better surface quality of parts can be achieved in die forging processes. Basically any forgeable metal can also be forge-rolled. Forge rolling

2553-447: The demand for iron-based building products, due mainly to problems of producing steel from alkaline ores. These problems, caused principally by the presence of phosphorus, were solved by Sidney Gilchrist Thomas in 1879. It was not until 1880 that an era of construction based on reliable mild steel began. By that date the quality of steels being produced had become reasonably consistent. The Home Insurance Building , completed in 1885,

2622-403: The differential fiber elongation across the width of the workpiece. This property must be subject to an accurate feedback-based control in order to guarantee the machinability of the metal sheets in the final transformation processes. Some technological details about the feedback control of flatness are given in. Profile is made up of the measurements of crown and wedge. Crown is the thickness in

2691-467: The disadvantage is that the rolls must be stopped, reversed, and then brought back up to rolling speed between each pass. To resolve this, the three-high mill was invented, which uses three rolls that rotate in one direction; the metal is fed through two of the rolls and then returned through the other pair. The disadvantage to this system is the workpiece must be lifted and lowered using an elevator. All of these mills are usually used for primary rolling and

2760-427: The exit thickness deviation times 10 for every meter of strip was stored in a file. This file was analyzed separately for each frequency/wavelength from 5 m to 60 m in steps of 0.1 m. To improve the accuracy, care was taken to use a full multiple of each wavelength (100*). The calculate amplitudes were plotted against the wavelength, so that the spikes could be compared to the expected wavelengths created by

2829-542: The final floor surface is provided by some form of raised flooring system with the void between the walking surface and the structural floor being used for cables and air handling ducts. The frame needs to be protected from fire because steel softens at high temperature and this can cause the building to partially collapse. In the case of the columns this is usually done by encasing it in some form of fire resistant structure such as masonry, concrete or plasterboard. The beams may be cased in concrete, plasterboard or sprayed with

Steel frame - Misplaced Pages Continue

2898-406: The frame to protect the steel from the weather. Cold-formed steel frames are also known as lightweight steel framing (LSF). Thin sheets of galvanized steel can be cold formed into steel studs for use as a structural or non-structural building material for both external and partition walls in both residential, commercial and industrial construction projects (pictured). The dimension of the room

2967-502: The grain structure of the steel and align its crystalline lattice. It is then passed through precision rollers to achieve the desired frame profiles. The distinctive feature of hot formed frames is their substantial beam thickness and larger dimensions, making them more robust compared to their cold rolled counterparts. This inherent strength makes them particularly well-suited for application in larger structures, as they show minimal deformation when subjected to substantial loads. While it

3036-400: The horizontal direction either between the faces of the supports ( clear span ) or between the centers of the bearing surfaces ( effective span ): A span can be closed by a solid beam or by a rope. The first kind is used for bridges, the second one for power lines , overhead telecommunication lines, some type of antennas or for aerial tramways . Span is a significant factor in finding

3105-524: The introduction of three-high mills in 1853 used for rolling heavy sections. Hot rolling is a metalworking process that occurs above the recrystallization temperature of the material. After the grains deform during processing, they recrystallize, which maintains an equiaxed microstructure and prevents the metal from work hardening . The starting material is usually large pieces of metal, like semi-finished casting products , such as ingots , slabs , blooms , and billets . If these products came from

3174-431: The late 17th century. Copper and brass were also rolled by the late 18th century. Until well into the eighteenth century, rolling mills derived their power from water wheels . The first recorded use of a steam engine directly driving a mill is attributed to John Wilkinson 's Bradley Works where, in 1786, a Boulton and Watt engine was coupled to a slitting and rolling mill. The use of steam engines considerably enhanced

3243-428: The members serve as framing for demising walls between rooms. The wall finish is anchored to the two flange sides of the stud, which varies from 1 + 1 ⁄ 4 to 3 inches (32 to 76 mm) thick, and the width of web ranges from 1 + 5 ⁄ 8 to 14 inches (41 to 356 mm). Rectangular sections are removed from the web to provide access for electrical wiring. Steel mills produce galvanized sheet steel,

3312-512: The mill to continue rolling slowly the strip in the tower, while a strip welder joins the tail of the current coil to the head of the next coil. At the exit end of the mill there is normally a flying shear (to cut the strip at or near the weld) followed by two coilers; one being unloaded while the other winds on the current coil. Looping towers are also used in other places; such as continuous annealing lines and continuous electrolytic tinning and continuous galvanising lines . In hot rolling, if

3381-409: The number of passes in rolling mills is the employment of automated systems for Roll Pass Design as that proposed by Lambiase and Langella. subsequently, Lambiase further developed an Automated System based on Artificial Intelligence and particularly an integrated system including an inferential engine based on Genetic Algorithms a knowledge database based on an Artificial Neural Network trained by

3450-524: The overall dimension. Hot-rolled mild steel seems to have a wider tolerance for the level of included carbon than does cold-rolled steel, and is, therefore, more difficult for a blacksmith to use. Hot rolling is used mainly to produce sheet metal or simple cross-sections, such as rail tracks . Rolling mills are often divided into roughing, intermediate and finishing rolling cages. During shape rolling, an initial billet (round or square) with edge of diameter typically ranging between 100 and 140 mm

3519-510: The production capabilities of the mills, until this form of power was displaced by electric motors soon after 1900. Modern rolling practice can be attributed to the pioneering efforts of Henry Cort of Funtley Iron Mills, near Fareham in Hampshire , England. In 1783, a patent number was issued to Henry Cort for his use of grooved rolls for rolling iron bars. With this new design, mills were able to produce 15 times more output per day than with

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3588-706: The recrystallization temperature. To maintain a safety factor a finishing temperature is defined above the recrystallization temperature; this is usually 50 to 100 °C (122 to 212 °F) above the recrystallization temperature. If the temperature does drop below this temperature the material must be re-heated prior to additional hot rolling. Hot-rolled metals generally have little directionality in their mechanical properties or deformation-induced residual stresses . However, in certain instances non-metallic inclusions will impart some directionality and workpieces less than 20 mm (0.79 in) thick often have some directional properties. Non-uniform cooling will induce

3657-428: The roll diameters range from 60 to 140 cm (24 to 55 in). To minimize the roll diameter a four-high or cluster mill is used. A small roll diameter is advantageous because less roll is in contact with the material, which results in a lower force and power requirement. The problem with a small roll is a reduction of stiffness, which is overcome using backup rolls . These backup rolls are larger and contact

3726-488: The rolling occurs the wall thickness decreases as the diameter increases. The rolls may be shaped to form various cross-sectional shapes. The resulting grain structure is circumferential, which gives better mechanical properties. Diameters can be as large as 8 m (26 ft) and face heights as tall as 2 m (79 in). Common applications include railway tyres, bearings , gears , rockets , turbines , airplanes , pipes , and pressure vessels . Controlled rolling

3795-413: The rolls and the uneven geometrical properties of the entry material. The transverse distribution of differential strain/elongation-induced stress with respect to the material's average applied stress is commonly referenced to as shape. Due to the strict relationship between shape and flatness, these terms can be used in an interchangeable manner. In the case of metal strips and sheets, the flatness reflects

3864-399: The rolls are heated to assist in the workability of the metal. Lubrication is often used to keep the workpiece from sticking to the rolls. To fine-tune the process, the speed of the rolls and the temperature of the rollers are adjusted. For thin sheet metal with a thickness less than 200 μm (0.0079 in), the rolling is done in a cluster mill because the small thickness requires

3933-427: The same products that are hot rolled. Because of the smaller size of the workpieces and their greater strength, as compared to hot rolled stock, four-high or cluster mills are used. Cold rolling cannot reduce the thickness of a workpiece as much as hot rolling in a single pass. Cold-rolled sheets and strips come in various conditions: full-hard , half-hard , quarter-hard , and skin-rolled . Full-hard rolling reduces

4002-413: The spacing is 24 inches (610 mm) on center for all walls except for elevator and staircase wells. Hot Formed frames, also known as hot-rolled steel frames, are engineered from steel that undergoes a complex manufacturing process known as hot rolling. During this procedure, steel members are heated to temperatures above the steel’s recrystallization temperature (1700˚F).This process serves to refine

4071-514: The specific considerations when building using cold-formed steel is that thermal bridging can occur across the wall system between the outside environment and interior conditioned space. Thermal bridging can be protected against by installing a layer of externally fixed insulation along the steel framing – typically referred to as a 'thermal break'. The spacing between studs is typically 16 inches on center for home exterior and interior walls depending on designed loading requirements. In office suites

4140-419: The steel I-beam is often wider than a column web to resist the higher bending moments that occur in beams. Wide sheets of steel deck can be used to cover the top of the steel frame as a "form" or corrugated mold, below a thick layer of concrete and steel reinforcing bars . Another popular alternative is a floor of precast concrete flooring units with some form of concrete topping. Often in office buildings,

4209-412: The strength and size of a beam as it determines the maximum bending moment and deflection . The maximum bending moment M m a x {\displaystyle M_{max}} and deflection δ m a x {\displaystyle \delta _{max}} in the pictured beam is found using: where The maximum bending moment and deflection occur midway between

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4278-412: The surface and thereby reduces the possibility of formation of Lüders bands. To avoid the formation of Lüders bands it is necessary to create substantial density of unpinned dislocations in ferrite matrix. It is also used to break up the spangles in galvanized steel. Skin-rolled stock is usually used in subsequent cold-working processes where good ductility is required. Other shapes can be cold-rolled if

4347-747: The temperature of the metal rolled. If the temperature of the metal is above its recrystallization temperature, then the process is known as hot rolling . If the temperature of the metal is below its recrystallization temperature, the process is known as cold rolling . In terms of usage, hot rolling processes more tonnage than any other manufacturing process, and cold rolling processes the most tonnage out of all cold working processes. Roll stands holding pairs of rolls are grouped together into rolling mills that can quickly process metal, typically steel , into products such as structural steel ( I-beams , angle stock, channel stock), bar stock , and rails . Most steel mills have rolling mill divisions that convert

4416-432: The temperature of the workpiece is not uniform the flow of the material will occur more in the warmer parts and less in the cooler. If the temperature difference is great enough cracking and tearing can occur. The cooler sections are, among other things, a result of the supports in the re-heat furnace. When cold rolling, virtually all of the strip thickness variation is the result of the eccentricity and out-of-roundness of

4485-490: The thickness by 50%, while the others involve less of a reduction. Cold rolled steel is then annealed to induce ductility in the cold rolled steel which is simply known as a Cold Rolled and Close Annealed . Skin-rolling, also known as a skin-pass , involves the least amount of reduction: 0.5–1%. It is used to produce a smooth surface, a uniform thickness, and reduce the yield point phenomenon (by preventing Lüders bands from forming in later processing). It locks dislocations at

4554-486: Was adapted to producing hoops (for barrels) and iron with a half-round or other sections by means that were the subject of two patents of c. 1679. Some of the earliest literature on rolling mills can be traced back to the Swedish engineer Christopher Polhem in his Patriotista Testamente of 1761, where he mentions rolling mills for both plate and bar iron. He also explains how rolling mills can save on time and labor because

4623-480: Was initially slow. The first iron-framed building, Ditherington Flax Mill , had been built in 1797, but it was not until the development of the Bessemer process in 1855 that steel production was made efficient enough for steel to be a widely used material. Cheap steels, which had high tensile and compressive strengths and good ductility, were available from about 1870, but wrought and cast iron continued to satisfy most of

4692-748: Was the first to use skeleton frame construction, completely removing the load bearing function of its masonry cladding. In this case the iron columns are merely embedded in the walls, and their load carrying capacity appears to be secondary to the capacity of the masonry, particularly for wind loads. In the United States, the first steel framed building was the Rand McNally Building in Chicago, erected in 1890. The Royal Insurance Building in Liverpool designed by James Francis Doyle in 1895 (erected 1896–1903)

4761-459: Was the first to use a steel frame in the United Kingdom. Rolling mill In metalworking , rolling is a metal forming process in which metal stock is passed through one or more pairs of rolls to reduce the thickness, to make the thickness uniform, and/or to impart a desired mechanical property. The concept is similar to the rolling of dough . Rolling is classified according to

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