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89-867: Others In terms of Ihsan : After the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad in 632, the Muslim world split into two camps, the Sunnis , who believed that the Caliphs of the Islamic community should be chosen by consensus, and a second group, the Shia who believed that Mohammed’s successors should be members of his own family , beginning with Ali ibn Abi Talib , his cousin and son-in-law. Today there are differences in religious practice and jurisprudence , traditions, and customs between Shia and Sunni Muslims. Although all Muslim groups consider

178-421: A müsahiplik relationship for at least twelve years. Entry into the third gate dissolves the müsahiplik relationship (which otherwise persists unto death), in a ceremony called Öz Verme Âyini ("ceremony of giving up the self"). The value corresponding to the second gate (and necessary to enter the third) is âşinalık ("intimacy," perhaps with God). Its counterpart for the third gate is called peşinelik ; for

267-587: A beating, [for] in no part of Al-Hijaz are they for a moment safe from abuse and blows.” But in "the late Ottoman years" toleration had reached a level were Shi‘ites observed Muharram in Jidda (65 km from Mecca) openly. An Iranian Shi‘ite on hajj in 1885 reported: Previously, in Mecca the populace greatly persecuted the Iranian pilgrims who were Shi‘ites, so they had to practice complete dissimulation. These days, because of

356-520: A cause for further divergence. Even so, by the 13th to 14th century, Sunni and Shiite practices remained highly intertwined, and figures today commonly associated with Shia Islam, such as Ali and Jafar al-Sadiq , played an almost universal role for Muslim believers to understand the unseen ( Al-Ghaib ). The Umayyads were overthrown in 750 by a new dynasty, the Abbasids . The first Abbasid caliph, As-Saffah , recruited Shia support in his campaign against

445-531: A conventional Islamic marriage in that the man does not have financial responsibility of the woman by her own free will. The man can divorce the woman whenever he wants to in a misyar marriage.) Both Sunni and Shia women wear the hijab . Devout women of the Shia traditionally wear black as do some Sunni women in the Persian Gulf . Some Shia religious leaders also wear a black robe. Mainstream Shia and Sunni women wear

534-526: A different aspect of the world. They are realized as twelve services or On İki Hizmet which are performed by members of the Alevi community. Each Imam is believed to be a reflection of Ali ibn Abu Talib , the first Imam of the Shi'ites, and there are references to the "First Ali" (Birinci Ali) , Imam Hasan the "Second 'Ali" (İkinci Ali) , and so on up to the "Twelfth 'Ali" (Onikinci Ali) , Imam Mehdi . The Twelfth Imam

623-556: A fast for the first twelve days, known as the Mourning of Muharram ( Turkish : Muharrem Mâtemi , Yâs-ı Muharrem , or Mâtem Orucu ; Kurdish : Rojîya Şînê or Rojîya Miherremê ). This culminates in the festival of Ashura ( Aşure ), which commemorates the martyrdom of Husayn at Karbala . The fast is broken with a special dish (also called aşure ) prepared from a variety (often twelve) of fruits, nuts, and grains. Many events are associated with this celebration, including

712-412: A piece of naturally-occurring material—most often a clay tablet ( mohr ) or soil ( turbah )—instead of directly onto a prayer rug. There are five salat prayers at different times of the day, but unlike Sunni, some Shia combine two sets of the prayers, (1+2+2, i.e. fajr on its own, Dhuhr with Asr and Maghrib with Isha' ) praying five times per day but with a very small break in between

801-549: A righteous person, a doer of good ( muhsin ), but a truly good and righteous person is both a Muslim and a true person of faith. Some Islamic scholars explain ihsan as being the inner dimension of Islam whereas shariah is often described as the outer dimension. Ihsan "constitutes the highest form of worship" ( ibadah ). It is excellence in work and in social interactions. For example, ihsan includes sincerity during Muslim prayers and being grateful to parents, family, and God. Alevi The term “Alevi-Bektashi”

890-562: A rose tree in the evening of every 6 May. The festival is also celebrated in parts of the Balkans by the name of "Erdelez," where it falls on the same day as George's Day in Spring or Saint George's Day . Khidr is also honored with a three-day fast in mid-February called Hızır Orucu . In addition to avoiding any sort of comfort or enjoyment, Alevis also abstain from food and water for the entire day, though they do drink liquids other than water during

979-499: Is "simply a cultural identity , rather than a form of worship". The Alevi beliefs among Turkish Alevis and Kurdish Alevis diverge as Kurdish Alevis put more emphasis on Pir Sultan Abdal than Haji Bektash Veli, and Kurdish Alevism is rooted more in nature veneration . In Alevi cosmology , God is also called Al-Haqq (the Truth) or referred to as Allah . God created life, so the created world can reflect His Being. Alevis believe in

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1068-447: Is Muhammad, Muhammad is Ali") Gördüm bir elmad ır, el- Hamd û'li llâh . ("I've seen an apple, all praise is for God") Alevis believe in the immortality of the soul, the literal existence of supernatural beings, including good angels ( melekler ) and bad angels ( şeytanlar ), bad ones as encourager of human's evil desires ( nefs ), and jinn ( cinler ), as well as the evil eye . Angels feature in Alevi cosmogony. Although there

1157-577: Is among contemporary Alevi. According to scholar Russell Powell, there is a tradition of informal "Dede" courts within the Alevi society, but regarding Islamic jurisprudence or fiqh there has been "little scholarship on Alevi influences" in it. Alevism has a unique belief system tracing back to Kaysanites and Khurramites . The Alevi spiritual path ( yol ) is commonly understood to take place through four major life-stages, or "gates". These may be further subdivided into " four gates , forty levels" ( Dört Kapı Kırk Makam ). The first gate (religious law)

1246-546: Is an Arabic term meaning "to do beautiful things", "beautification", "perfection", or "excellence" (Arabic: husn , lit.   ' beauty ' ). Ihsan is a matter of taking one's inner faith ( iman ) and showing it in both deed and action, a sense of social responsibility borne from religious convictions. In Islam , Ihsan is the Muslim responsibility to obtain perfection, or excellence, in worship, such that Muslims try to worship God as if they see Him, and although they cannot see Him, they undoubtedly believe that He

1335-488: Is at least as strong as it is for blood relatives, so much so that müsahiplik is often called spiritual brotherhood (manevi kardeşlik). The children of covenanted couples may not marry. Krisztina Kehl-Bodrogi reports that the Tahtacı identify müsahiplik with the first gate (şeriat), since they regard it as a precondition for the second (tarikat). Those who attain to the third gate (marifat , " gnosis ") must have been in

1424-575: Is considered an enemy of Ali and according to Shia, only a Muslim for four years of his life before Muhammad's death. Although he accompanied Muhammad for only four years, he managed to record ten times as many hadiths as Abu Bakr and Ali each). Shiism and Sufism are said to share a number of hallmarks: Belief in an inner meaning to the Quran, special status for some mortals (saints for Sufi, Imams for Shia), as well as veneration of Ali and Muhammad's family. The Five Pillars of Islam ( Arabic : أركان الإسلام)

1513-410: Is considered elementary (and this may be perceived as subtle criticism of other Muslim traditions). The following are major crimes that cause an Alevi to be declared düşkün (shunned): Most Alevi activity takes place in the context of the second gate (spiritual brotherhood) , during which one submits to a living spiritual guide ( dede , pir , mürşid ) . The existence of the third and fourth gates

1602-472: Is constantly watching over them. That definition comes from the Hadith of Gabriel in which Muhammad states, "[Ihsan is] to worship God as though you see Him, and if you cannot see Him, then indeed He sees you". ( Al-Bukhari and Al-Muslim ). According to Muhammad's hadith "God has written ihsan on everything". Ihsan is one of the three dimensions of the Islamic religion ( ad-din ): In contrast to

1691-561: Is currently a widely and frequently used expression in the religious discourse of Turkey as an umbrella term for the two religious groups of Alevism and Bektashism . Adherents of Alevism are found primarily in Turkey and estimates of the percentage of Turkey's population that are Alevi include between 4% and 25%. According to scholar Soner Çağaptay , Alevism is a "relatively unstructured interpretation of Islam". Journalist Patrick Kingsley states that for some self-described Alevi, their religion

1780-573: Is hidden and represents the Messianic Age . The plurality in nature is attributed to the infinite potential energy of Kull-i Nafs when it takes corporeal form as it descends into being from Allah. During the Cem ceremony, the cantor or aşık sings: This is sung as a reminder that the reason for creation is love, so that the followers may know themselves and each other and that they may love that which they know. Sources differ on how important formal doctrine

1869-695: Is mostly theoretical, though some older Alevis have apparently received initiation into the third. Rakia , a fruit brandy , is used as a sacramental element by the Bektashi Order , and Alevi Jem ceremonies, where it is not considered alcoholic and is referred to as "dem". A Dede (literally meaning grandfather) is a traditional leader that is claimed to be from the lineage of Muhammad that performs ritual baptisms for newborns, officiates at funerals, and organises weekly gatherings at cemevis. Alevi religious, cultural and other social activities take place in assembly houses ( Cemevi ). The ceremony's prototype

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1958-408: Is no set formula or prescribed amount for annual charitable donation as there is in other forms of Islam (2.5% of possessions above a certain minimum). Rather, they are expected to give the "excess" according to Qur'an 2:219. A common method of Alevi almsgiving is through donating food (especially sacrificial animals) to be shared with worshippers and guests. Alevis also donate money to be used to help

2047-498: Is no fixed creation narrative among Alevis, it is generally accepted that God created five archangels, who have been invited to the chamber of God. Inside they found a light representing the light of Muhammad and Ali. A recount of the Quranic story, one of the archangels refused to prostrate before the light, arguing, that the light is a created body just like him and therefore inappropriate to worship. He remains at God's service, but rejects

2136-564: Is not allowed within the Sunni community, nor within the Ismaili Shia or the Zaidi Shia, who consider it planned and agreed fornication rather than marriage. These schools believe that mutah was permitted until Umar forbade it during his rule. (Mutah is not the same as misyar marriage or 'arfi marriage, which has no date of expiration and is permitted by some Sunnis. A misyar marriage differs from

2225-639: Is said that when modern Iraq was formed, some of the population of Karbala was Iranian". In time, these immigrants adopted the Arabic language and Arab identity, but their origin has been used to "unfairly cast them as lackeys of Iran". However many of these Shia come from Sayyid families with origins in tribes from Iraq, Lebanon and Bahrain, one of said tribes being al-Musawi, and two prevalent families that are descended from it and lived in Iran for some time before settling in Iraq are

2314-679: Is sent away, until Ali reveals a secret to him. When God asks him again, he answers: "You are the creator and I am your creation". Afterwards, Gabriel was accepted and introduced to Muhammad and Ali. Alevis acknowledge the four revealed scriptures also recognized in Islam: the Tawrat (Torah), the Zabur (Psalms), the Injil (Gospel), and the Quran . Additionally, Alevis are not opposed to looking to other religious books outside

2403-536: Is speculated that the majority of the population was genuinely Shia by the end of the Safavid period in the 18th century, and most Iranians today are Shia, although there is still a Sunni minority. Immediately following the establishment of Safavid power the migration of scholars began and they were invited to Iran ... By the side of the immigration of scholars, Shi'i works and writings were also brought to Iran from Arabic-speaking lands, and they performed an important role in

2492-617: Is the Muhammad's nocturnal ascent into heaven , where he beheld a gathering of forty saints ( Kırklar Meclisi ), and the Divine Reality made manifest in their leader, Ali. The Cem ceremony features music, singing, and dancing ( Samāh ) in which both women and men participate. Rituals are performed in Turkish , Zazaki , Kurmanji and other local languages. During the Cem ceremony the Âşık plays

2581-607: Is the term given to the five duties incumbent on every Muslim and are held by both Sunni and Shia. These duties are Shahada (profession of faith), Salat (prayers), Zakāt (giving of alms), Sawm (fasting, specifically during Ramadan ) and Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca ). In addition, Shia theology has two concepts that define religion as a whole. There are Roots of Religion ( Usūl al-Dīn ) and Branches of Religion ( Furu al Din ). Many distinctions can be made between Sunnis and Shiaīs through observation alone: When prostrating during Salah, Shia place their forehead onto

2670-735: The Cem ceremony ritual, the events at these cultural centers and sites are open to the public. In the case of the Hacibektaş celebration , since 1990 the activities there have been taken over by Turkey's Ministry of Culture in the interest of promoting tourism and Turkish patriotism rather than Alevi spirituality. The annual celebrations held at Hacıbektaş (16 August) and Sivas (the Pir Sultan Abdal Kültür Etkinlikleri, 23–24 June). Some Alevis make pilgrimages to mountains and other natural sites believed to be imbued with holiness. Alevis are expected to give zakat , but there

2759-489: The Bağlama whilst singing spiritual songs, some of which are centuries old and well known amongst Alevis. Every song, called a Nefes, has spiritual meaning and aims to teach the participants important lessons. A family of ritual dances characterized by turning and swirling, is an inseparable part of any cem . Samāh is performed by men and women together, to the accompaniment of the Bağlama . The dances symbolize (for example)

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2848-480: The Bektashi order  – tariqa , which like other Sufi orders is based on a silsila "initiatory chain or lineage" of teachers and their students, Alevi leaders succeed to their role on the basis of family descent. Perhaps ten percent of Alevis belong to a religious elite called ocak "hearth", indicating descent from Ali and/or various other saints and heroes. Ocak members are called ocakzade s or "sons of

2937-500: The Day of Ashure takes place. Performing ziyarat and du'a at the tombs of Alevi-Bektashi saints or pirs is quite common. Some of the most frequently visited sites are the shrines of Şahkulu and Karacaahmet (both in Istanbul ), Abdal Musa ( Antalya ), Seyyid Battal Gazi Complex ( Eskişehir ), Hamza Baba ( İzmir ), Hasandede ( Kırıkkale ). In contrast with the traditional secrecy of

3026-514: The Middle East and South Asia . Tensions between communities have intensified during power struggles, such as the Shia led Bahraini uprising , the Iraqi Civil War , the 2013–2017 War in Iraq against ISIS , as well as the Sunni led Syrian Civil War . While the self-styled (ISIS) Islamic State of Iraq and Syria launched a persecution of Shia . While the exact numbers are subject to debate,

3115-623: The Mongols finally seized and destroyed it in 1256. After the Mongols and the fall of the Abbasids, the Sunni Ulama suffered greatly. In addition to the destruction of the caliphate there was no official Sunni school of law. Many libraries and madrasahs were destroyed and Sunni scholars migrated to other Islamic areas such as Anatolia and Egypt. In contrast, most Shia were largely unaffected as their center

3204-544: The Quran to be divine, Sunni and Shia have different opinions on hadith . In recent years, Sunni–Shia relations , commonly termed the Sunni–Shia divide , have been increasingly marked by conflict. The aftermath of the 1979 Iranian Revolution , which reconfigured Iran into a theocratic Islamic republic governed by high-ranking Shia clerics , had far-reaching consequences across the Muslim world. The Iraq war further influenced regional power dynamics, solidifying Shi'ites as

3293-584: The Safavid Shia state and related sects. This created a gap between the Sunni Ottoman ruling elite and the Alevi Anatolian population. Anatolia became a battlefield between Safavids and Ottomans, each determined to include it in their empire. According to Eren Sarı, Alevi saw Kemal Atatürk as a Mahdi "savior sent to save them from the Sunni Ottoman yoke". However, pogroms against Alevi did not cease after

3382-463: The Sufis have focused their attention on ihsan . Those who are muhsin are a subset of those who are mu'min , and those who are mu'min are a subset of muslims : From the preceding discussion it should be clear that not every Muslim is a man or woman of faith ( mu'min ), but every person of faith is a Muslim . Furthermore, a Muslim who believes in all the principles of Islam may not necessarily be

3471-796: The Usuli school of jurisprudence. In Iran , an officially Shia country since 1501, around 90-95% of Muslims are Shia. 65-85% of Muslims in Azerbaijan are Shia, as are 47-64% of those in Iraq and 55-75% in Bahrain . Shia, mostly of the Zaidiyyah sect, form a large minority (35-45%) of the population in Yemen. About 10% of Turkey's population belong to the Alevi sect of Shi'i Islam. The Shia constitute around 30% of Kuwaiti citizens, 45% of

3560-504: The hijab differently. Some Sunni scholars emphasize covering of all body including the face in public whereas some scholars exclude the face from hijab. Shia believe that the hijab must cover around the perimeter of the face and up to the chin. Like Sunnis, some Shia women, such as those in Iran and Iraq, use their hand to hold the black chador in order to cover their faces when in public. Muslims are often named after famous early Muslims, so that given names of Shia are often derived from

3649-512: The succession to Muhammad and whether Ali ibn Abi Talib or a more experienced member of the Quraysh tribe should succeed. The concept of Shi'ism further crystallized around events at the Battle of Karbala (680 CE) where Husayn ibn Ali , the son of Ali and grandson of Muhammad, was killed alongside many of his supporters. Thus a political split became a far more personal one, marked by blood feud , and

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3738-647: The 13th to the 16th century, Sufism began to grow within official Shiite circles. The extremist sects of the Hurufis and Shasha'a grew directly out of a background that is both Shiite and Sufi. More important in the long run than these sects were the Sufi orders which spread in Persia at this time and aided in the preparing the ground for the Shiite movement of Safavids. Two of these orders are of particular significance in this question of

3827-491: The Mahdi will be Muhammad al-Mahdi , the twelfth Imam returned from the occultation , where he has been hidden by Allah since 874. Mainstream Sunnis' beliefs are somewhat different: The Mahdi forms an important component of Sunni eschatology, his appearance being considered the last of the minor signs of the Day of Judgment before its major signs. They believe the Mahdi will be a descendant of Muhammad named Muhammad and will revive

3916-507: The Middle East it is not convenient" to have exact numbers, "for ruling regimes in particular". The Mahdi is the prophesied redeemer of Islam. While Shia and Sunnis differ on the nature of the Mahdi, many members of both groups believe that the Mahdi will appear at the end of the world to bring about a perfect and just Islamic society. In Shia Islam, "the Mahdi symbol has developed into a powerful and central religious idea." Twelvers believe

4005-622: The Muslim population in Lebanon, 10% of Saudi Arabia, 12% of Syria (mostly of the Alawite sect), and 10% of Pakistan. Around 10% of Afghanistan, less than 5% of the Muslims in Nigeria, and around 5% of population of Tajikistan are Shia. India has as many Shia ("potentially") as there are in Iraq. Scholar Vali Nasr has said that numbers and percentages of Sunni and Shia populations are not exact because "in much of

4094-636: The Safavid rule these manuscripts were transferred to Iran. This led to a wide gap between Iran and its Sunni neighbors, particularly its rival, the Ottoman Empire , in the wake of the Battle of Chaldiran . This gap continued until the 20th century. In the holy cities of Mecca and Medina , where Muslims, including Shia, perform Hajj (one of the pillars of Islam), tensions between Shia and Sunni have waxed and waned. Historian Martin Kramer writes that both Sunni and Shia spread "farfetched" libelous rumours about

4183-531: The Shia Four Books were Iranian, as were many other scholars. According to Morteza Motahhari : The majority of Iranians turned to Shi'ism from the Safawid period onwards. Of course, it cannot be denied that Iran's environment was more favourable to the flourishing of the Shi'ism as compared to all other parts of the Muslim world. Shi'ism did not penetrate any land to the extent that it gradually could in Iran. With

4272-506: The Shia comprise around 10-13% of the world's Muslims , and Sunnis 87-90%. Sunnis are a majority in most Muslim communities around the world. Shia make up the majority of the citizen population in Iran , Iraq , Bahrain and Azerbaijan , as well as being a minority in Pakistan , Lebanon , Saudi Arabia , Syria , Yemen , Nigeria , Afghanistan , Chad , Turkey , and Kuwait . Sunni Muslims are

4361-564: The Umayyads by emphasising his blood relationship to Muhammad's household through descent from his uncle, ‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib . The Shia also believe that he promised them that the caliphate, or at least religious authority, would be vested in the Shia imam. As-Saffah assumed both the temporal and religious mantle of caliph. He continued the Umayyad dynastic practice of succession, and his brother al-Mansur succeeded him in 754. Ja'far al-Sadiq ,

4450-560: The Zaidis of Daylaman, Gilan and Tabaristan then acknowledge the Zaidi Imams of Yemen or rival Zaidi Imams within Iran. The Buyids, who were Zaidi and had a significant influence not only in the provinces of Persia but also in the capital of the caliphate in Baghdad, and even upon the caliph himself, provided a unique opportunity for the spread and diffusion of Shia thought. This spread of Shiism to

4539-492: The al-Qazwini and al-Shahristani families. Other Iraqi Shia are ethnic Arabs with roots in Iraq as deep as those of their Sunni counterparts. Shafi'i Sunnism was the dominant form of Islam in most of Iran until rise of the Safavid Empire although a significant undercurrent of Ismailism and a large minority of Twelvers were present all over Persia. The Sunni hegemony did not undercut the Shia presence in Iran. The writers of

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4628-585: The conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottoman state became increasingly determined to assert its fiscal but also its juridical and political control over the farthest reaches of the Empire. The resulting Alevi revolts, a series of millenarian anti-state uprisings by the non-Sunni Turkmen population of Anatolia that culminated in the establishment of a militantly Shiite rival state in neighbouring Iran. The Ottoman Empire later proclaimed themselves its defenders against

4717-578: The drive against Byzantines and Crusaders. As in Khorasan and West Asia before, the Turkmens who spearheaded the Ottomans’ drive into the Balkans and West Asia were more inspired by a vaguely Shiite folk Islam than by formal religion. Many times, Ottoman campaigns were accompanied or guided by Bektaşi dervishes, spiritual heirs of the 13th century Sufi saint Haji Bektash Veli , himself a native of Khorasan . After

4806-416: The emphases of islam (what one should do) and iman (why one should do), the concept of ihsan is primarily associated with intention. One who "does what is beautiful" is called a muhsin . It is generally held that a person can only achieve true Ihsan with the help and guidance of God , who governs all things. While traditionally Islamic jurists have concentrated on islam and theologians on iman ,

4895-553: The establishment of the Turkish Republic. In attacks against leftists in the 1970s, ultranationalists and reactionaries killed many Alevis. Malatya in 1978 , Maraş in 1979 , and Çorum in 1980 witnessed the murder of hundreds of Alevis, the torching of hundreds of homes, and lootings. Alevis have been victims of pogroms during both Ottoman times and under the Turkish republic up until the 1993 Sivas massacre . In contrast to

4984-554: The evening. Note that the dates of the Khidr holidays can differ among Alevis, most of whom use a lunar calendar, but some a solar calendar. Müsahiplik (roughly, "Companionship") is a covenant relationship between two men of the same age, preferably along with their wives. In a ceremony in the presence of a dede the partners make a lifelong commitment to care for the spiritual, emotional, and physical needs of each other and their children. The ties between couples who have made this commitment

5073-553: The faith. The Shia accept some of the same hadiths of Muhammad used by Sunnis as part of the sunnah and the basis of divine law and religious practice. In addition, they consider the sayings of Ahl al-Bayt that are not attributed directly to Muhammad as hadiths. Shia do not accept many Sunni hadiths unless they are also recorded in Shia sources or the methodology of how they were recorded can be proven. Some Sunni-accepted hadiths—for example by Aisha or Abu Hurairah —are less favored by Shia (Aisha's opposed Ali and Abu Hurairah

5162-512: The final test and turns back to darkness. From this primordial decline, the devil's enmity towards Adam emerged. (The archangels constitute of the same four archangels as within orthodox Islam. The fifth archangel namely Azâzîl fell from grace, thus not included among the canonical archangels apart from this story). Another story features the archangel Gabriel ( Cebrail ), who is asked by God, who they are. Gabriel answers: "I am I and you are you". Gabriel gets punished for his haughty answer and

5251-798: The form of the Zaidis of Tabaristan , the Buwayhid , the rule of the Sultan Muhammad Khudabandah (r. 1304–1316) and the Sarbedaran . Nevertheless, apart from this domination there existed, firstly, throughout these nine centuries, Shia inclinations among many Sunnis of this land and, secondly, Twelver and Zaidi Shiism had prevalence in some parts of Iran. During this period, the Shia in Iran were nourished from Kufa , Baghdad and later from Najaf and Al Hillah . Shia were dominant in Tabaristan, Qom , Kashan , Avaj and Sabzevar . In many other areas

5340-526: The four major ones as sources for their beliefs including Hadiths, Nahjul Balagha and Buyruks. Alevism also acknowledges the Islamic prophet Mohammed. Unlike the vast majority of Muslims, Alevis do not regard interpretations of the Quran today as binding or infallible, since the true meaning the Quran is considered to be taken as a secret by Ali and must be taught by a teacher, who transmits the teachings of Ali ( Buyruk ) to his disciple. The Twelve Imams are part of another common Alevi belief. Each Imam represents

5429-524: The fourth gate (hâkikat , Ultimate Truth), cıngıldaşlık or cengildeşlik (translations uncertain). Many folk practices may be identified, though few of them are specific to the Alevis. In this connection, scholar Martin van Bruinessen notes a sign from Turkey's Ministry of Religion, attached to Istanbul's shrine of Eyüp Sultan , which presents ...a long list of ‘superstitious’ practices that are emphatically declared to be non-Islamic and objectionable, such as lighting candles or placing ‘wishing stones’ on

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5518-400: The hearth". This system apparently originated in the Safavid state. Alevi leaders are variously called murshid , pir , rehber or dede . Groups that conceive of these as ranks of a hierarchy (as in the Bektashi Order ) disagree as to the order. The last of these, dede "grandfather", is the term preferred by the scholarly literature. Ocakzade s may attain to the position of dede on

5607-445: The inner circles of the government enabled the Shia to withstand those who opposed them by relying upon the power of the caliphate. Twelvers came to Iran from Arab regions in the course of four stages. First, through the Asharis at the end of the 7th and during the 8th century. Second through the pupils of Sabzevar, and especially those of Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid , who were from Rey and Sabzawar and resided in those cities. Third, through

5696-583: The names of Ahl al-Bayt . In particular, the names Fatema, Zaynab, Ali, Abbas, Hassan and Hussain are disproportionately common among Shia; while Umar, Uthman, Abu Bakr, Aisha are very common among Sunnis but very rare among Shia. The pilgrimage to Mecca , known as hajj , is one of the pillars of Islam for both Sunnis and Shi‘ites, but Shia have many other holy sites they make pilgrimages ( ziyarat ) to. Among them are Al-Baqi Cemetery near Medina, Najaf and Karbala , in Iraq, and Qom and Mashhad , in Iran. The origin of Shia Islam arose in response to

5785-420: The other sect — Sunnis that Shia defiled the Ka‘bah with excrement, and Shia that Sunni considered the lives of Shi‘ite pilgrims to be "forfeit" in a holy shrine where in fact "all forms of strife and bloodshed are forbidden". According to English explorer Richard Francis Burton , a non-Muslim who journeyed to Mecca in disguise in 1853, when a Shi‘ite performs hajj, “that man is happy who gets over it without

5874-503: The participants in a discussion ( chat ), this discussion is called a sohbet . There are twelve services ( Turkish : On İki hizmet ) performed by the twelve ministers of the cem. Alevis celebrate and commemorate the birth of Ali, his wedding with Fatima, the rescue of Yusuf from the well, and the creation of the world on this day. Various cem ceremonies and special programs are held. The Muslim month of Muharram begins 20 days after Eid ul-Adha ( Kurban Bayramı ). Alevis observe

5963-498: The passage of time, Iranians' readiness to practise Shi'ism grew day by day. Had Shi`ism not been deeply rooted in the Iranian spirit, the Safawids (907–1145/1501–1732) would not have succeeded in converting Iranians to the Shi'i creed Ahl al-Bayt sheerly by capturing political power. The domination of the Sunni creed during the first nine Islamic centuries characterizes the religious history of Iran during this period. There were some exceptions to this general domination which emerged in

6052-476: The poor, to support the religious, educational and cultural activities of Alevi centers and organizations ( dargahs , awqaf , and meetings), and to provide scholarships for students. During the great Turkish expansion from Central Asia into Iran and Anatolia in the Seljuk period (11–12th centuries), Turkmen and Kurdish nomad tribes accepted a Sufi and pro-Ali form of Islam that co-existed with some of their pre-Islamic customs. Their conversion to Islam in this period

6141-400: The population of Shia and Sunni was mixed. The first Zaidi state was established in Daylaman and Tabaristan (northern Iran) in 864 by the Alavids ; it lasted until the death of its leader at the hand of the Samanids in 928. Roughly forty years later the state was revived in Gilan (north-western Iran) and survived under Hasanid leaders until 1126. After which from the 12th–13th centuries,

6230-548: The populations of the regions of the Levant during this era, notably in the cities of Damascus, Tiberias, Nablus, Tyre, Homs and Jabal Amel. In addition to the account of Nasir Khusraw who visited Jerusalem in the year 1045 AD and reported: "The population of Jerusalem is about 20,000, the populace being mostly Shi'a Muslims". However, with the advent of the Zengids and Ayyubids , the population of Shia dwindled greatly due to conversion and migrations. Ihsan Ihsan ( Arabic : إحسان ʾiḥsān , also romanized ehsan ),

6319-492: The prayer, instead of five prayers with some gap between them as required by Sunni schools of law . Shia and the followers of the Sunni Maliki school hold their hands at their sides during prayer while Sunnis of other schools cross their arms (right over left) and clasp their hands; it is commonly held by Sunni scholars (especially of the Maliki school) that either is acceptable. The Twelver branch of Shia Islam permits Nikah mut‘ah —fixed-term temporary marriage. The practice

6408-458: The predominant force in Iraq. Iran's ascent as a regional power in the Middle East, along with shifts in politics and demographics in Lebanon favouring Shia, has heightened Sunni concerns about their Sunni–Arab hegemony. Recent years have witnessed the Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict , as well as sectarian violence from Pakistan to Yemen, which became a major element of friction throughout

6497-596: The relation of Shiism and Sufism: The Nimatullahi order and Nurbakhshi order. Ismail I initiated a religious policy to recognize Shiism as the official religion of the Safavid Empire, and the fact that modern Iran and Azerbaijan remain majority-Shia states is a direct result of Ismail's actions. However, most of Ismail's subjects were Sunni. As a result, he enforced official Shiism violently, putting to death those who opposed him. Under this pressure, Safavid subjects either converted or pretended to convert. However, it

6586-402: The religious development of Iran ... In fact, since the time of the leadership of Shaykh Mufid and Shaykh Tusi, Iraq had a central academic position for Shi'ism. This central position was transferred to Iran during the Safavid era for two-and-a-half centuries, after which it partly returned to Najaf. ... Before the Safavid era Shi'i manuscripts were mainly written in Iraq, with the establishment of

6675-448: The revolution of the planets around the Sun (by man and woman turning in circles), and the putting off of one's self and uniting with God. The Rite of Integration (görgü cemi) is a complex ritual occasion in which a variety of tasks are allotted to incumbents bound together by extrafamilial brotherhood ( müsahiplik ), who undertake a dramatization of unity and integration under the direction of

6764-445: The salvation of Husayn's son Ali ibn Husayn from the massacre at Karbala, thus allowing the bloodline of the family of Muhammad to continue. Hıdırellez honors the mysterious figure Khidr ( Turkish : Hızır ) who is sometimes identified with Elijah ( Ilyas ), and is said to have drunk of the water of life. Some hold that Khidr comes to the rescue of those in distress on land, while Elijah helps those at sea; and that they meet at

6853-742: The school of Hillah under the leadership of Al-Hilli and his son Fakhr al-Muhaqqiqin. Fourth, through the scholars of Jabal Amel residing in that region, or in Iraq, during the 16th and 17th centuries who later migrated to Iran. On the other hand, the Ismaili da‘wah ("missionary institution") sent missionaries ( du‘āt , sg. dā‘ī ) during the Fatimid Caliphate to Persia. When the Ismailis divided into two sects, Nizaris established their base in northern Persia. Hassan-i Sabbah conquered fortresses and captured Alamut in 1090. Nizaris used this fortress until

6942-425: The shrine. The list is probably an inventory of common local practices the authorities wish to prevent from re-emerging. Other, similar practices include kissing door frames of holy rooms; not stepping on the threshold of holy buildings; seeking prayers from reputed healers; and making lokma and sharing it with others. Also, Ashure is made and shared with friends and family during the month of Muharram in which

7031-475: The sixth Shia imam, died during al-Mansur's reign, and there were claims that he was murdered on the orders of the caliph. (However, Abbasid persecution of Islamic scholars was not restricted to the Shia. Abū Ḥanīfa , for example, was imprisoned by al-Mansur and tortured.) Shia sources further claim that by the orders of the tenth Abbasid caliph, al-Mutawakkil , the tomb of the third imam, Hussein ibn Ali in Karbala,

7120-451: The spiritual leader ( dede ). The love of the creator for the created and vice versa is symbolised in the Cem ceremony by the use of fruit juice and/or red wine [Dem] which represents the intoxication of the lover in the beloved. During the ceremony Dem is one of the twelve duties of the participants. (see above) At the closing of the cem ceremony the Dede who leads the ceremony engages

7209-401: The tomb, tying pieces of cloth to the shrine or to the trees in front of it, throwing money on the tomb, asking the dead directly for help, circling seven times around the trees in the courtyard or pressing one’s face against the walls of the türbe in the hope of a supernatural cure, tying beads to the shrine and expecting supernatural support from them, sacrificing roosters or turkeys as a vow to

7298-439: The unity of Allah, Muhammad, and Ali , but this is not a trinity composed of God and the historical figures of Muhammad and Ali. Rather, Muhammad and Ali are representations of Allah's light (and not of Allah himself), being neither independent from God, nor separate characteristics of Him. In Alevi writings are many references to the unity of Muhammad and Ali , such as: Ali Muhammed'dir uh dur fah'ad, Muhammad Ali, ("Ali

7387-749: The vast majority of Muslims in most Muslim communities in Central Asia (including China ), Europe (including Russia and the Balkans), South Asia , Southeast Asia, Africa , the Arab World , Turkey and among Muslims in the United States . Shia Muslims make up approximately 10-13% of the world Muslim population. Within Shia Islam about 85% are Twelver , and within Twelver Shia, the overwhelming majority follow

7476-620: The weakness of the Ottoman government and the European style civil law which is practiced there, and the strength of the Iranian government, this practice is completely abandoned. There is no harm done to the Iranians. No one would molest them, even if they did not practice dissimulation. The Shia faith in the Levant started spreading during the Hamdanid rule, which commenced in the start of the 10th century. It

7565-399: Was achieved largely through the efforts not of textual scholars (ulema) expounding the finer points of Koranic exegesis and shari‘a law, but by charismatic Sufi dervishes a belief whose cult of Muslim saint worship, mystical divination and millenarianism spoke more directly to the steppe mindset. These tribes dominated Anatolia for centuries with their religious warriors (ghazi) spearheading

7654-561: Was among the first of the Mongols to convert to Shiaism, and his descendants ruled for many years in Persia and were instrumental in spreading Shī‘ī thought. Sufism played a major role in spread of Shiism in this time. After the Mongol invasion Shiims and Sufism once again formed a close association in many ways. Some of the Ismailis whose power had been broken by the Mongols, went underground and appeared later within Sufi orders or as new branches of already existing orders. In Twelve-Imam Shiism, from

7743-407: Was completely demolished, and Shia were sometimes beheaded in groups, buried alive, or even placed alive within the walls of government buildings still under construction. The Shia believe that their community continued to live for the most part in hiding and followed their religious life secretly without external manifestations. Many Shia Iranians migrated to what is now Iraq in the 16th century. "It

7832-467: Was followed by the Mirdasid Shi'ite emirate in the 11th century, with both the emirates centered at Aleppo . The general observations recorded by Muslim travellers passing through the Levant during the tenth and eleventh centuries, notably al-Maqdisi in his geographical works, “The best divisions in the knowledge of the regions”, as well as Ibn Jubayr , indicate that Shia Muslims made up the majority of

7921-617: Was not in Iran at this time. For the first time, the Shia could openly convert other Muslims to their movement. Several local Shia dynasties like the Marashi and Sarbadars were established during this time. The kings of the Kara Koyunlu dynasty ruled in Tabriz with a domain extending to Fars and Kerman . In Egypt the Fatimid government ruled. Muhammad Khudabandah, the famous builder of Soltaniyeh ,

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