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146-530: Right-wing populism , also called national populism and right populism , is a political ideology that combines right-wing politics with populist rhetoric and themes. Its rhetoric employs anti- elitist sentiments, opposition to the Establishment , and speaking to or for the common people . Recurring themes of right-wing populists include neo-nationalism , social conservatism , economic nationalism and fiscal conservatism . Frequently, they aim to defend

292-603: A fischblütige Bourgeoisdoktrinär (a "fish-blooded bourgeois doctrinaire"). The term has since dropped some of its pejorative sting ( euphemism treadmill ), and has become a neutral term in the analysis of differing political opinions and views of social groups . While Marx situated the term within class struggle and domination, others believed it was a necessary part of institutional functioning and social integration . There are many different kinds of ideologies, including political , social , epistemological , and ethical . Recent analysis tends to posit that ideology

438-662: A reactionary stance, influenced the Italian, Spanish and Russian thinkers who had begun to describe themselves as liberals and who attempted to reignite revolutionary activity in the early 1820s, including the Carbonari societies in France and Italy and the Decembrists in Russia . Karl Marx adopted Napoleon's negative sense of the term, using it in his writings, in which he once described Tracy as

584-491: A right-wing libertarian and right-wing populist, that supports laissez-faire economics, aligning specifically with minarchist and anarcho-capitalist principles. Milei has proposed a comprehensive overhaul of the country's fiscal and structural policies. He supports freedom of choice on drug policy, firearms, prostitution, same-sex marriage, sexual preference, and gender identity, while opposing abortion and euthanasia. In foreign policy, he advocates closer relations with

730-824: A social movement , institution , class , or large group that explains how society should work, offering some political and cultural blueprint for a certain social order . Political ideologies are concerned with many different aspects of a society, including but not limited to: the economy , the government , the environment , education , health care , labor law , criminal law , the justice system , social security and welfare , public policy and administration , foreign policy , rights , freedoms and duties , citizenship , immigration , culture and national identity , military administration, and religion . Political ideologies have two dimensions: A political ideology largely concerns itself with how to allocate power and to what ends power should be used. Some parties follow

876-516: A " new world order , driven by patriotism and a fierce urge to look after your own, a neo-nationalism that endlessly smears Muslims and strives to turn back the clock on free trade and globalization, a world where military might counts for far more than diplomacy and compromise". In the wake of Trump's election, U.S. Senator Marco Rubio has called for the Republican Party to embrace a "new nationalism" to oppose "economic elitism that has replaced

1022-686: A " nihilistic culture and an intractable crisis." [P]opulism is like fascism in being a response to liberal and socialist explanations of the political. And also like fascism, populism does not recognize a legitimate political place for an opposition that it regards as acting against the desires of the people and that it also accuses of being tyrannical, conspiratorial, and antidemocratic. ... The opponents are turned into public enemies, but only rhetorically. If populism moves from rhetorical enmity to practices of enemy identification and persecution, we could be talking about its transformation into fascism or another form of dictatorial repression. This has happened in

1168-400: A "critical reflection of the ideology concept". In his work, he strove to bring the concept of ideology into the foreground, as well as the closely connected concerns of epistemology and history, defining ideology in terms of a system of presentations that explicitly or implicitly lay claim to absolute truth. Marx's analysis sees ideology as a system of false consciousness that arises from

1314-495: A "nationalist ideologue" and whose role has been compared to that formerly of Steve Bannon . In 2014, Mustafa Akyol wrote of a new "brand of Turkish neonationalism" promoted by Justice and Development Party (AKP), the country's ruling party, whose leader is President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan (assumed office in 2014). The Turkish "new nationalism" replaces the secular character of traditional forms of Turkish nationalism with an "assertively Muslim" identity. Devlet Bahçeli ,

1460-572: A "new Arab nationalism ", which replaces the older, leftist form of the Arab nationalist ideology with a more conservative form, through its strong support for the rise of the respective new leaders of Egypt and Saudi Arabia, Abdel Fattah el-Sisi and Prince Mohammad bin Salman, as a means of countering Iranian and Turkish influence in the Arab states. The 23 June 2016 referendum in the United Kingdom to leave

1606-470: A betrayal of conservative ideology, while they see it as a "return". According to conservative commentator Jonah Goldberg , the nationalism associated with Trump is "really little more than a brand name for generic white identity politics ." Writing for The Week , Damon Linker called the idea of neo-nationalism being racist "nonsense" and went on to say that "the tendency of progressives to describe it as nothing but 'racism, Islamophobia, and xenophobia'—is

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1752-405: A certain ideology very closely, while others may take broad inspiration from a group of related ideologies without specifically embracing any one of them. Each political ideology contains certain ideas on what it considers the best form of government (e.g., democracy , demagogy , theocracy , caliphate etc.), scope of government (e.g. authoritarianism , libertarianism , federalism , etc.) and

1898-578: A global nation under liberal democracy as the single political ideology that governs that transnational state. After the referendum on the Treaty to establish a Constitution for Europe was rejected, the delegation of national sovereignty to the European Union was seen by the neo-nationalists as a strategic act that aims at accumulation of power that undermines states’ national sovereignty and their right to self-determination . The dramatic events that marked

2044-615: A history of right-wing populist protest parties and politicians, most notably in Western Canada, partly due to the idea of Western alienation . The highly successful Social Credit Party of Canada consistently won seats in British Columbia , Alberta, and Saskatchewan but fell into obscurity by the 1970s. In the late 1980s, the Reform Party of Canada , led by Preston Manning , became another right-wing populist movement formed due to

2190-583: A main driver for nationalism's rise around the globe." According to religion scholar Mark L. Movesian, new nationalism "sets the nation-state against supranational, liberal regimes like the EU or NAFTA, and local customs and traditions, including religious traditions, against alien, outside trends." David Brog and Yoram Hazony wrote in National Review that some conservatives view the new nationalism associated with Brexit , Rodrigo Duterte , and Donald Trump as

2336-590: A member of the centrist Brazilian Democratic Movement , was removed from office after facing embezzlement charges. In March 2016, after entering the Social Christian Party , far-right congressman Jair Bolsonaro decided to run for President of the Republic. In 2017, he tried to become the presidential nominee of Patriota , but, eventually, Bolsonaro entered the Social Liberal Party and, supported by

2482-584: A national culture, identity, and economy against perceived attacks by outsiders. Right-wing populism has associations with authoritarianism, while some far-right populists draw comparisons to fascism . Right-wing populism in the Western world is generally associated with ideologies such as anti-environmentalism , anti-globalization , nativism , and protectionism . In Europe, the term is often used to describe groups, politicians, and political parties generally known for their opposition to immigration , especially from

2628-478: A need of protection the national cultural identity. Neo-nationalism is the successor to classical nationalism . Both nationalists and neo-nationalists see the nation as one family but differ in the criteria for affiliation. Nationalists see the state and the nation as a family whose members are inextricably linked based on ethnical, racial, genetic, religious or cultural homogeneity as criteria of belonging In contrast, neo-nationalists take historical association as

2774-597: A new nationalist. Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi (assumed office in 2014) and his Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) have been referred to as neo-nationalist. Modi is a volunteer in the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), a religio-socio-cultural voluntary organisation to which the BJP is aligned with, which has also been said to advocate a neo-nationalist ideology. Modi's nationalist campaigns have been directed by BJP strategist Amit Shah , who currently serves as

2920-577: A new nationalist. Putin has been described by Hirsh as "the harbinger of this new global nationalism". Charles Clover, the Moscow bureau chief of the Financial Times from 2008 to 2013, wrote a book in 2016 titled Black Wind, White Snow: The Rise of Russia's New Nationalism . Russian nationalist thinker Aleksandr Dugin in particular has had influence over the Kremlin, serving as an adviser to key members of

3066-424: A number of other propositions, which are. In this way, the essence of the lacunar discourse is what is not told but is suggested. For example, the statement "All are equal before the law ", which is a theoretical groundwork of current legal systems, suggests that all people may be of equal worth or have equal opportunities. This is not true, according to Althusser, for the concept of private property and power over

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3212-786: A past homogeneity." Clarence Page wrote in the Las Vegas Sun that "a new neo-tribal nationalism has boiled up in European politics and to a lesser degree in the United States since the global economic meltdown of 2008 ". In The Week , Ryan Cooper and researchers with the Centre for Economic Policy Research have linked 21st-century right-wing populism to the Great Recession . According to Harvard political theorist Yascha Mounk , "economic stagnation among lower- and middle-class whites [has been]

3358-792: A philosophy rooted in life, liberty, and property, and free market principles. He criticizes socialism and communism , advocating economic liberalization and the restructuring of government ministries. He opposes the Central Bank of Argentina and current taxation policies. Economically, Milei is influenced by the Austrian school of economics and admires former president Carlos Menem 's policies. He supports capitalism , viewing socialism as embodying envy and coercion. Milei proposes reducing government ministries and addressing economic challenges through spending cuts and fiscal reforms, criticizing previous administrations for excessive spending. He has praised

3504-663: A platform. The country has also a "far-right" reputation politically. Bongbong Marcos , elected in 2022 , is expected to govern in continuity with Duterte with a more far-right agenda. Confederation party is a main political party in Poland that promotes New Nationalism, especially National Movement . There is also a neofascist and National Radical Narodowe Odrodzenie Polski that promotes harshly anti-globalist, anti-immigrant and anti-liberal agenda. President of Russia Vladimir Putin (second President of Russia from 2000 to 2008 and fourth President of Russia from 2012) has been labelled

3650-944: A politically dominant group, while minorities are conceived as threats to the nation". It is "generally, but not necessarily racist"; in the case of the Dutch PVV for instance, "a religious [minority, i.e. Muslims] instead of an ethnic minority constitutes the main 'enemy'". Scholars use terminology inconsistently, sometimes referring to right-wing populism as " radical right " or other terms such as new nationalism . Pippa Norris noted that "standard reference works use alternate typologies and diverse labels categorising parties as ' far ' or 'extreme' right, ' New Right ', ' anti-immigrant ' or ' neo-fascist ', ' anti-establishment ', 'national populist', 'protest', 'ethnic', 'authoritarian', ' anti-government ', 'anti-party', ' ultranationalist ', ' right-libertarian ' and so on". The term 'authoritarian populism' can be used to describe right-wing populism, though it

3796-495: A rational system of ideas to oppose the irrational impulses of the mob. In political science , the term is used in a descriptive sense to refer to political belief systems . The term ideology originates from French idéologie , itself deriving from combining Greek : idéā ( ἰδέα , 'notion, pattern'; close to the Lockean sense of idea ) and -logíā ( -λογῐ́ᾱ , 'the study of'). The term ideology and

3942-437: A reaction to the political, economic and socio-cultural changes that came with globalization during the second wave of globalization in the 1980s. Neo-nationalism is associated with several positions such as right-wing populism , anti-globalization , nativism , protectionism , opposition to immigration , Islamophobia in non-Muslim-majority countries, and Euroscepticism , where applicable. With globalisation and

4088-458: A real syncretism of the left and right, as their ideology and voter base are interclassist. Furthermore, neo-populist parties went from a critique of the welfare state to that of multiculturalism , and their priority demand remains the reduction of immigration. The roots of the right-wing populist movement in Hungary are deep, and over the past few decades it has significantly influenced politics in

4234-448: A single real generation, there may be several generations which he called "differentiated and antagonistic". For him, it is not the common birth date that marks a generation, though it matters, but rather the historical moment in which they live in common. In this case, the historical moment was the impeachment of Dilma Rousseff . They can be called the "post-Dilma generation". Centrist interim President Michel Temer took office following

4380-511: A society and politically confuses the alienated groups of society via false consciousness . Some explanations have been presented. Antonio Gramsci uses cultural hegemony to explain why the working-class have a false ideological conception of what their best interests are. Marx argued: "The class which has the means of material production at its disposal has control at the same time over the means of mental production." The Marxist formulation of "ideology as an instrument of social reproduction"

4526-484: A sole explanation of ideology is that it does not explain the differences between ideologies. Terror management theory posits that ideology is used as a defence mechanism against threats to their worldview which in turn protect and individuals sense of self-esteem and reduce their awareness of mortality. Evidence shows that priming individuals with an awareness of mortality does not cause individuals to respond in ways underpinned by any particular ideology, but rather

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4672-499: A state of decadence, from which "only the healthy common people can free the nation by forming one national class from the different social classes and casting aside the corrupt elites". Methodologically, by co-opting concepts from the left – such as multiculturalism and ethnopluralism , which is espoused by the left as a means of preserving minority ethnic cultures within a pluralistic society – and then jettisoning their non-hierarchical essence, right-wing populists can, in

4818-463: A strong stance on national security, and Amit Shah , the BJP’s chief strategist. The party’s policies often prioritize military modernization, anti-corruption measures, and regional development projects. Ideology#Political ideologies The term was coined by Antoine Destutt de Tracy , a French Enlightenment aristocrat and philosopher , who conceived it in 1796 as the "science of ideas" to develop

4964-560: A tried-and-tested populist discourse that granted him political success in the first place, to continue the advancement of his regime and to promote his election campaigns." Javier Milei , the incumbent president of Argentina, is known for his flamboyant personality, distinctive personal style, and strong media presence. Milei's views distinguish him in the Argentine political landscape and have garnered him significant public attention and polarizing reactions. He has been described politically as

5110-528: Is a "broad nativist revolt" against post-Cold War politics long "characterized by an orthodoxy of free trade , nurturing the service economy , neoliberal trading arrangements, and liberalized immigration policies." Political science professor Eirikur Bergmann defines new-nationalism as being a specific kind of nativist populism. The Economist wrote in November 2016 that "new nationalists are riding high on promises to close borders and restore societies to

5256-654: Is a "marriage of convenience" of populism based on an "ethnic and chauvinistic definition of the people", authoritarianism, and nativism. This results in right-wing populism having a "xenophobic nature". Roger Eatwell, Emeritus Professor of Comparative Politics at the University of Bath , writes that "whilst populism and fascism differ notably ideologically, in practice the latter has borrowed aspects of populist discourse and style, and populism can degenerate into leader-oriented authoritarian and exclusionary politics." For populism to transition into fascism or proto-fascism, it requires

5402-473: Is a 'coherent system of ideas' that rely on a few basic assumptions about reality that may or may not have any factual basis. Through this system, ideas become coherent, repeated patterns through the subjective ongoing choices that people make. These ideas serve as the seed around which further thought grows. The belief in an ideology can range from passive acceptance up to fervent advocacy. Definitions, such as by Manfred Steger and Paul James , emphasize both

5548-496: Is a common theme at the center of many national right-wing populist movements, the theme often crystallizes around cultural issues, such as religion, gender roles, and sexuality, as is the case with the transnational anti-gender theory movements. A body of scholarship has also found populist movements to employ or be based around conspiracy theories, rumors, and falsehoods. Some scholars argue that right-wing populism's association with conspiracy, rumor and falsehood may be more common in

5694-767: Is also a prominent factor in Hungarian right-wing populism. Since taking office in 2010, Orbán has changed Fidesz from a center-right party to a right-wing populist organization. Under Orbán's leadership, the party has stressed national sovereignty, anti-immigrant policies, and conservative social values, frequently battling with the EU on a variety of topics. Orbán's administration has centralized authority, controlled media, and altered legal frameworks to keep power. Piero Ignazi  [ it ] , an Italian political scientist , divided right-wing populist parties, which he called "extreme right parties", into two categories: he placed traditional right-wing parties that had developed out of

5840-567: Is also used to refer to left-wing political movements. In regard to the authoritarian aspect of right-wing populism, political psychologist Shawn W. Rosenberg asserts that its "intellectual roots and underlying logic" are best seen as "a contemporary expression of the fascist ideologies of the early 20th century". Guided by its roots in ideological fascism ... and its affinity to the fascist governments of 1930s Germany and Italy, [right-wing populism] tends to delegate unusual power to its leadership, more specifically its key leader. This leader embodies

5986-441: Is conceptually important to the sociology of knowledge , viz. Karl Mannheim , Daniel Bell , and Jürgen Habermas et al. Moreover, Mannheim has developed and progressed from the "total" but "special" Marxist conception of ideology to a "general" and "total" ideological conception acknowledging that all ideology (including Marxism ) resulted from social life, an idea developed by the sociologist Pierre Bourdieu . Slavoj Žižek and

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6132-554: Is concerned with the causes, consequences and content of ideology, with humans being dubbed the "ideological animal" by Althusser. Many theories have tried to explain the existence of ideology in human societies. Jost, Ledgerwood, and Hardin (2008) propose that ideologies may function as prepackaged units of interpretation that spread because of basic human motives to understand the world, avoid existential threat , and maintain valued interpersonal relationships . The authors conclude that such motives may lead disproportionately to

6278-467: Is difficult, however, due to cultural relativity in definitions. For example, "what Americans now call conservatism much of the world calls liberalism or neoliberalism "; a conservatism in Finland would be labeled socialism in the United States . Philosopher Michael Oakeshott defines single-issue ideologies as "the formalized abridgment of the supposed sub-stratum of the rational truth contained in

6424-430: Is ecology, which studies the relationships among living things on Earth. Perceptual psychologist James J. Gibson believed that human perception of ecological relationships was the basis of self-awareness and cognition itself. Linguist George Lakoff has proposed a cognitive science of mathematics wherein even the most fundamental ideas of arithmetic would be seen as consequences or products of human perception—which

6570-543: Is itself necessarily evolved within an ecology. Deep ecology and the modern ecology movement (and, to a lesser degree, Green parties ) appear to have adopted ecological sciences as a positive ideology. Some notable economically based ideologies include neoliberalism , monetarism , mercantilism , mixed economy , social Darwinism , communism , laissez-faire economics, and free trade . There are also current theories of safe trade and fair trade that can be seen as ideologies. A large amount of research in psychology

6716-733: Is often associated with Francis Fukuyama 's writings on the end of history . Contrastly, Nienhueser (2011) sees research (in the field of human resource management ) as ongoingly "generating ideology". There are many proposed methods for the classification of political ideologies. Ideologies can identify themselves by their position on the political spectrum (e.g. left , center , or right ). They may also be distinguished by single issues around which they may be built (e.g. civil libertarianism , support or opposition to European integration , legalization of marijuana ). They may also be distinguished by political strategies (e.g. populism , personalism ). The classification of political ideology

6862-556: Is reiterated by J. William Fulbright , while a similar form occurs in Eric Hoffer 's The True Believer . The revolution thus becomes established as an ideocracy , though its rise is likely to be checked by a 'political midlife crisis.' Even when the challenging of existing beliefs is encouraged, as in scientific theories, the dominant paradigm or mindset can prevent certain challenges, theories, or experiments from being advanced. A special case of science that has inspired ideology

7008-819: Is seen as being strongly culturally conservative and a deeply pious Muslim , although he is no Islamist . Even with Kwankwaso's cultural conservatism, he has expressed support for women's rights in Nigeria . According to John Campbell from the Council on Foreign Relations , Freedom Front Plus is a white and coloured dominated political party that promotes Afrikaner nationalism . The current party manifesto, written by Pieter Groenewald , calls for an end to affirmative action and Black Economic Empowerment while supporting proportional representation . Freedom Front Plus has always promoted policies which are conservative in nature and support Afrikaans-speakers and Christians from

7154-604: Is the leading right-wing party, closely associated with the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), a Hindu nationalist organization. The BJP and the RSS promote the idea of Hindutva, or “Hinduness,” which emphasizes India’s Hindu cultural heritage. This ideology is often contrasted with secularism and is sometimes seen as favoring policies that strengthen Hindu identity in the nation’s cultural and political fabric. Key figures in right-wing Indian politics include Narendra Modi , known for his policies on economic reform, digital infrastructure, and

7300-553: Is too confined to verbal systems. ' Worldview ' is too metaphysical , ' propaganda ' too loaded. Despite or because of its contradictions, 'ideology' still plays a key role in semiotics oriented to social, political life. Authors such as Michael Freeden have also recently incorporated a semantic analysis to the study of ideologies. Sociologists define ideology as "cultural beliefs that justify particular social arrangements, including patterns of inequality". Dominant groups use these sets of cultural beliefs and practices to justify

7446-507: Is ultimately ideological for Althusser are not the subjective beliefs held in the conscious "minds" of human individuals, but rather discourses that produce these beliefs, the material institutions and rituals that individuals take part in without submitting it to conscious examination and so much more critical thinking . The French Marxist theorist Guy Debord , founding member of the Situationist International , argued that when

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7592-422: The 2016 United States presidential election and the 2024 United States presidential election after running on platforms founded on right-wing populist themes. Right-wing populism is an ideology that primarily espouses neo-nationalism , social conservatism , and economic nationalism . Cas Mudde argues that what he calls the "populist radical right" starts with the idea of 'the nation'. He however rejects

7738-577: The 2018 political campaign , both Evangelical Christian candidate Fabricio Alvarado Muñoz and right-wing anti-establishment candidate Juan Diego Castro Fernández were described as examples of right-wing populists. In the United States, right-wing populism is frequently aligned with evangelical Christianity , segregationism , nationalism , nativism anti-intellectualism and anti-Semitism . The Republican Party (United States) , particularly supporters of Donald Trump, includes right-wing populist factions. Moore (1996) argues that "populist opposition to

7884-636: The Brazilian Labour Renewal Party , he won the 2018 presidential election , followed by left-wing former Mayor of São Paulo Fernando Haddad of Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 's Workers' Party. Lula was banned from running after being convicted on criminal corruption charges and imprisoned. Bolsonaro has been accused of racist, xenophobic, misogynistic, and homophobic rhetoric. His campaign was centered on opposition to crime, political corruption, and queer identity, and support for tax cuts, militarism , catholicity , and evangelicalism . Canada has

8030-511: The Chinese internet , and many narratives very similar to those of the populist right have since been observed, such as anti-" western leftism ", Islamophobia , and anti-multiculturalism . Right-wing politics in India primarily centers around nationalism, cultural conservatism, and economic reform aimed at self-reliance and growth. The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) , led by Prime Minister Narendra Modi ,

8176-499: The Dutch Reformed Church of South Africa . President Yoweri Museveni and his party, National Resistance Movement , are usually considered right-wing populist, anti-LGBT , and Ugandan nationalist . According to Corina Lacatus, "Museveni came to power in 1986 as a populist figure who adopted an authoritarian leadership style and converted over the years in an authoritarian leader. Over the years, he has continued to rely on

8322-792: The Freedom Caucus , associated with the Tea Party movement, has been described as right-wing populist. Donald Trump 's 2016 presidential campaign , noted for its anti-establishment , anti-immigration, and protectionist rhetoric, was characterized as right-wing populist. The ideology of Trump's former Chief Strategist, Steve Bannon , has also been described as such. Donald Trump's policies and rhetoric as have been frequently described as right-wing populist by academics and political commentators. Right-wing populism has also been represented by Pauline Hanson's One Nation , led by Pauline Hanson , Senator for Queensland and typically preferences votes to

8468-531: The Liberal Party of Australia include right-wing populist factions. Rabiu Kwankwaso , as well as his New Nigeria People's Party , are generally as populist and ultraconservative . Styling himself off of Aminu Kano , Kwankwaso has voiced support for the welfare state and building more universities, while also increasing the size of the Nigerian Armed Forces and Nigerian Police Force . Kwankwaso

8614-715: The Muslim world , and for Euroscepticism . Right-wing populists may support expanding the welfare state , but only for those they deem fit to receive it; this concept has been referred to as " welfare chauvinism ". Since the Great Recession , European right-wing populist movements such as the Brothers of Italy and the League in Italy, the National Rally (formerly the National Front ) in France,

8760-1123: The Party for Freedom and the Forum for Democracy in the Netherlands, National Alliance in Latvia, the Conservative People's Party of Estonia , the Finns Party , the Sweden Democrats , Danish People's Party , Vox in Spain, Chega in Portugal, the Freedom Party of Austria , Fidesz in Hungary, Law and Justice in Poland, the UK Independence Party , the Alternative for Germany , the Freedom and Direct Democracy in

8906-683: The Populist Party of the 1890s and 1900s, while economically liberal, supported social aspects of right-wing populism. Watson, the Vice-Presidential nominee of the Populist Party in 1896 and presidential nominee in 1900, eventually embraced white supremacy and anti-Semitism . William Jennings Bryan, the 1896 Populist presidential nominee, was socially and theologically conservative, supporting creationism, Prohibition and other aspects of Christian fundamentalism. Bradley J. Longfield posits Bryan

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9052-478: The Republican candidacy in 2016 was widely described as a sign of growing new nationalism in the United States. A Chicago Sun-Times editorial on the day of the inauguration of Donald Trump called him "our new nationalist president". The appointment of Steve Bannon , the executive of Breitbart News (later cofounding The Movement ), as White House Chief Strategist, was described by one analyst as arousal of

9198-613: The Socratic method , though without extending the vocabulary beyond what the general reader already possessed, and without the examples from observation that practical science would require. Taine identifies it not just with Tracy but also with his milieu , and includes Condillac as one of its precursors. Napoleon Bonaparte came to view ideology as a term of abuse, which he often hurled against his liberal foes in Tracy's Institut national . According to Karl Mannheim 's historical reconstruction of

9344-430: The means of production results in some people being able to own more than others. This power disparity contradicts the claim that all share both practical worth and future opportunity equally; for example, the rich can afford better legal representation, which practically privileges them before the law. Althusser proffered the concept of the ideological state apparatus to explain his theory of ideology. His first thesis

9490-562: The military , the police , and the religious right . The subsequent economic crisis of 2015 and investigations of corruption scandals led to a right-wing movement that sought to rescue fiscally and socially conservative ideas in opposition to the left-wing policies of the Workers' Party . At the same time, right-libertarians , such as those that make up the Free Brazil Movement , emerged among many others. For Manheim (1952), within

9636-537: The "people", national populists claim to defend the "average citizen" and "common sense", against the "betrayal of inevitably corrupt elites". As Front National ideologue François Duprat put in the 1970s, inspired by the Latin American right of that time, right-populism aims to constitute a "national, social, and popular" ideology. If both left and right parties share populism itself, their premises are indeed different in that right-wing populists perceive society as in

9782-447: The 1970s, in a dynamic sustained by voters' rejection of the welfare state and of the tax system, both deemed "confiscatory"; the rise of xenophobia against the backdrop of immigration which, because originating from outside Europe, was considered to be of a new kind; and finally, the end of the prosperity that had reigned since the post–World War II era, symbolized by the oil crisis of 1973 . Two precursor parties consequently appeared in

9928-835: The 1990s and became the official opposition party before reforming itself as the Canadian Alliance . The Alliance ultimately merged with the Progressive Conservative Party to form the modern-day Conservative Party of Canada , after which the Alliance faction dropped some of its populist and socially conservative ideas. In recent years, right-wing populist elements have existed within the Conservative Party of Canada and mainstream provincial parties and have most notably been espoused by Ontario MP Kellie Leitch ; businessman Kevin O'Leary ; Quebec Premier François Legault ;

10074-577: The Brexit as "the most shocking success for the new nationalism sweeping the Western world". Leaders of the Brexit campaign, such as Nigel Farage , the former leader of the eurosceptic UK Independence Party (now of Reform UK ); London Mayor (now former prime minister and Conservative Party leader) Boris Johnson ; Vote Leave Co-Convenor Michael Gove ; former Brexit Secretary David Davis ; and European Research Group chairman Jacob Rees-Mogg , have been called "new nationalists". Donald Trump 's rise to

10220-767: The Czech Republic, Greek Solution , Alliance for the Union of Romanians , Revival in Bulgaria, the Swiss People's Party and Reform UK (formerly the Brexit Party ) began to grow in popularity, in large part due to increasing opposition to immigration from the Middle East and Africa, rising Euroscepticism and discontent with the economic policies of the European Union. From the 1990s, right-wing populist parties became established in

10366-486: The European Union (" Brexit ") has been described as a milestone of neo-nationalism. Owen Matthews noted similarities in motives for support of the Brexit movement and Donald Trump in the United States. He wrote in Newsweek that supporters of both are motivated by "a yearning to control immigration, reverse globalization and restore national greatness by disengaging from the wide, threatening world". Matt O'Brien wrote of

10512-584: The Indian Home Minister (assumed office in 2019), and has been touted as a potential successor to Modi as Prime Minister. Yogi Adityanath , Chief Minister of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh (assumed office in 2017), has also been identified as a neo-nationalist. He has also been touted as a future Prime Minister of the country. Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu (assumed office from 2009 to 2021),

10658-556: The Islamic world in the 1980s such as the Iranian Revolution set a start of increased immigration towards Western European states. The problems that immigrants encountered in relation to their arrival, accommodation, and integration within the domestic society of the hosting state motivated restructure of the political agenda and policy adjustments that integrated the diversity of immigrants. The inclusion of "foreign principles" next to

10804-523: The Kingdom's economic and foreign policies, and represents a shift away from the Kingdom's earlier dependence on religion for legitimacy. Many of the country's foreign policy actions from 2017 onwards, such as its blockade of Qatar and its diplomatic dispute with Canada have been described as motivated by this nationalism. The policies of Mohammad bin Salman's administration have been heavily influenced by his adviser Saud al-Qahtani , who has been described as

10950-459: The Middle East, people prefer traditional beliefs and are less tolerant of liberal values. Protestant Europe , at the other extreme, adheres more to secular beliefs and liberal values. Alone among high-income countries, the United States is exceptional in its adherence to traditional beliefs, in this case Christianity. In political science , a political ideology is a certain ethical set of ideals , principles , doctrines , myths , or symbols of

11096-579: The Spectacle . The American philosopher Eric Hoffer identified several elements that unify followers of a particular ideology: Ronald Inglehart of the University of Michigan is author of the World Values Survey , which, since 1980, has mapped social attitudes in 100 countries representing 90% of global population. Results indicate that where people live is likely to closely correlate with their ideological beliefs. In much of Africa, South Asia and

11242-495: The United States, supporting Ukraine in response to the Russian invasion of the country . He is also distancing Argentina from geopolitical ties with China. He has been variously described as far right, far-right populist, right-wing libertarian, ultraconservative , and ultra-liberal . A philosophical anarcho-capitalist who is for practical purposes a minarchist , Milei advocates minimal government, focusing on justice and security, with

11388-537: The West's current economic settlement. They are suspicious of "cosmopolitan and globalizing agendas". Populist parties use crises in their domestic governments to enhance anti-globalist reactions; these include refrainment towards trade and anti-immigration policies. The support for these ideologies commonly comes from people whose employment might have low occupational mobility. This makes them more likely to develop an anti-immigrant and anti-globalization mentality that aligns with

11534-427: The West. [...] [Their] 'direct' conception of democracy differs from the 'liberal' one that has flourished across the West following the defeat of fascism and which has gradually become more elitist in character." Furthermore, national populists question what they call the "erosion of the nation-state", "hyper ethnic change" and the "capacity to rapidly absorb [high] rates of immigration", the "highly unequal societies" of

11680-467: The adoption of system-justifying worldviews . Psychologists generally agree that personality traits , individual difference variables, needs, and ideological beliefs seem to have something in common. Just-world theory posits that people want to believe in a fair world for a sense of control and security and generate ideologies in order to maintain this belief, for example by justifiying inequality or unfortunate events. A critique of just world theory as

11826-555: The anti-parliamentarian Ligue des Patriotes , led by Boulanger , Déroulède , and Barrès , called for a "plebiscitary republic", with the president elected by universal suffrage , and the popular will expressed not through elected representatives (the "corrupted elites"), but rather via "legislative plebiscites", another name for referendums. It also evolved to antisemitism after the Dreyfus affair (1894). Modern national populism—what Pierro Ignazi called "post-industrial parties"—emerged in

11972-434: The best economic system (e.g. capitalism , socialism , etc.). Sometimes the same word is used to identify both an ideology and one of its main ideas. For instance, socialism may refer to an economic system, or it may refer to an ideology that supports that economic system. Post 1991, many commentators claim that we are living in a post-ideological age, in which redemptive, all-encompassing ideologies have failed. This view

12118-529: The categorisation of Islam as having an anti-democratic and anti-modern character that is at odds with the Western liberal democracy . After the September 11 attacks , this image of Islam became dominant. The sense of the "Islamic threat" to de modern societies, and their culture that spread along the Western European states resulted in the rise of national awareness and pride in terms of culture and folklore and

12264-477: The changes that the third phase of globalization brought to the West European states. The European Union integration and enlargement gave rise to a series of economic, social, and political changes causing uncertainties on an individual and collective level. Empowerment of the European Union by extending its members and the referendums on European Constitution formed the idea of a transnational quasi-state and

12410-408: The coalition government, asking new election to take "full powers", but Conte formed a new government between Five Star Movement (M5S) and Democratic Party (PD). At the head of this new cabinet, Conte toned down his neo-nationalist rhetoric. In the 2022 Italian general election , the neo-nationalist Brothers of Italy emerged as the most voted party and its leader, Giorgia Meloni , became

12556-416: The collective, the people and the nation. Individuals are thus constituted as a mass who share a single common significant categorical quality – they are nationals, members of the nation. ... In this conception, the individual and the nation are inextricably intertwined, the line between them blurred. As suggested by philosophers of fascism ... the state is realized in the people and the people are realized in

12702-587: The commitment to an existing one. Zizek calls this "a post-modernist trap". Peter Sloterdijk advanced the same idea already in 1988. Studies have shown that political ideology is somewhat genetically heritable . When a political ideology becomes a dominantly pervasive component within a government, one can speak of an ideocracy . Different forms of government use ideology in various ways, not always restricted to politics and society. Certain ideas and schools of thought become favored, or rejected, over others, depending on their compatibility with or use for

12848-427: The commodity becomes the "essential category" of society, i.e. when the process of commodification has been consummated to its fullest extent, the image of society propagated by the commodity (as it describes all of life as constituted by notions and objects deriving their value only as commodities tradeable in terms of exchange value ), colonizes all of life and reduces society to a mere representation, The Society of

12994-437: The country's Liberal Party has been described as a leading new nationalist. Bolsonaro's ideology and policies have been heavily influenced by his adviser, nationalist thinker Olavo de Carvalho . Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping 's concept of " Chinese Dream " has been described as an expression of new nationalism. His form of nationalism stresses pride in the historic Chinese civilisation, embracing

13140-825: The country. Right-wing populism is growing in Hungary at present because its origins can be found in the post-communist era, particularly in the economic and political chaos of the 1990s. In the early 2000s, the Jobbik Party , formally known as the Movement for a Better Hungary, emerged and rapidly became the country's most successful far-right political party. Jobbik, which was founded in 2003, exploited anti-Semitic and anti-Roma feelings to rally support, as well as strong nationalist rhetoric and hostility to capitalism and liberalism. The party's successful use of internet channels to attract and mobilize young people resulted in tremendous popularity and influence. Viktor Orbán 's Fidesz Party

13286-414: The culture and interests of the nation, and promise to give voice to a people who feel that they have been neglected, even held in contempt, by distant and often corrupt elites." They are part of a "growing revolt against mainstream politics and liberal values. This challenge is in general not anti-democratic. Rather, national populists are opposed to certain aspects of liberal democracy as it has evolved in

13432-637: The desire to delegitimize any particularistic attachment or form of solidarity, be it national, linguistic, religious, territorial, or ethnic." Regarding new nationalism, The Economist said that "Mr Trump needs to realise that his policies will unfold in the context of other countries' jealous nationalism" and called nationalism itself a "slippery concept" that is "easy to manipulate". They also repeatedly contrasted ethnic nationalism and civic nationalism and implied new nationalism could become "angry" and difficult to control, citing Chinese nationalism as an example. The president of Brazil Jair Bolsonaro of

13578-486: The digital era thanks to widely accessible means of content production and diffusion. These media and communication developments in the context of specific historical shifts in immigration and cultural politics have led to the association of right-wing populism with post-truth politics . German and French right-wing populism can be traced back to the period 1870–1900 in the aftermath of the Franco-Prussian War , with

13724-437: The earlier Frankfurt School added to the "general theory" of ideology a psychoanalytic insight that ideologies do not include only conscious but also unconscious ideas. French Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser proposed that ideology is "the imagined existence (or idea) of things as it relates to the real conditions of existence" and makes use of a lacunar discourse. A number of propositions, which are never untrue, suggest

13870-909: The early 1970s: the Progress Party , the ancestor of the Danish People's Party , and Anders Lange's Party in Norway. A new wave of right-wing populism arose after the September 11 attacks . "Neo-populists" are nationalist and Islamophobic politicians who aspire "to be the champions of freedoms for minorities (gays, Jews, women) against the Arab-Muslim masses"; a trend first embodied by the Dutch Pim Fortuyn List and later followed by Geert Wilders ' Party for Freedom and Jean Marie and his daughter Marine Le Pen 's National Rally . According to Jean-Yves Camus and Nicolas Lebourg , those parties are not

14016-454: The economic policies of former British prime minister Margaret Thatcher and called her "a great leader". In Brazil, right-wing populism began to rise roughly around the time Dilma Rousseff won the 2014 presidential election . In the Brazilian general election of 2014 , Levy Fidelix, from the Brazilian Labour Renewal Party , presented himself with a conservative speech and, according to him,

14162-494: The economic relationships, reflecting and perpetuating the interests of the dominant class. In the Marxist base and superstructure model of society, base denotes the relations of production and modes of production , and superstructure denotes the dominant ideology (i.e. religious, legal, political systems). The economic base of production determines the political superstructure of a society. Ruling class-interests determine

14308-528: The family, education, and religion. As societies changed throughout history, so did the ideologies that justified systems of inequality. Sociological examples of ideologies include racism , sexism , heterosexism , ableism , and ethnocentrism . Neo-nationalism Neo-nationalism , or new nationalism , is an ideology and political movement built on the basic characteristics of classical nationalism . It developed to its final form by applying elements with reactionary character generated as

14454-536: The former Mayor of Toronto Rob Ford ; and his brother, Ontario Premier Doug Ford . In August 2018, Conservative MP Maxime Bernier left the party, and the following month he founded the People's Party of Canada , which has self-described as "smart populism" and been described as a "right of centre, populist" movement. Bernier lost his seat in the 2019 Canadian federal elections, and the People's Party scored just above 1% of

14600-634: The former Belgian Vlaams Blok (which would include certain aspects of traditional extreme right parties), the Danish Progress Party , the Norwegian Progress Party and the Freedom Party of Austria in the second category. Right-wing populist parties in the English-speaking world include the UK Independence Party and Australia's One Nation . The U.S. Republican Party , Conservative Party of Canada , Conservative Party (UK) and

14746-415: The growing power of political, economic, and cultural elites" helped shape "conservative and right-wing movements" since the 1920s. Historical right-wing populist figures in both major parties in the United States have included Thomas E. Watson (D-GA), Strom Thurmond , Joseph McCarthy (R-WI), Barry Goldwater (R-AZ), George Wallace (D-AL), and Pat Buchanan (R-VA). Several of the prominent members of

14892-804: The historical right and post-industrial parties that had developed independently. He placed the British National Party , the National Democratic Party of Germany , the German People's Union , and the former Dutch Centre Party in the first category, whose prototype would be the disbanded Italian Social Movement . In contrast, he placed the French National Front , the German Republicans , the Dutch Centre Democrats ,

15038-481: The homogeneous nation-state". Mudde further argues that "while nativism could include racist arguments, it can also be non-racist (including and excluding on the basis of culture or even religion)", and that the term nativism does not reduce the parties to mere single-issue parties, such as the term "anti-immigrant" does. In the maximum definition, to nativism is added authoritarianism—an attitude, not necessarily anti-democratic or autocratic, to prefer " law and order " and

15184-435: The idea of a single nation, neo-nationalists see the problems of identification and threatened identities. They call for the protection of symbolic heritage, like art and folk traditions, which is also common for cultural nationalism . Particularly notable expressions of new nationalism include the vote for Brexit in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum and the 2016 election of Donald Trump as

15330-442: The ideals of the populist party. Jean-Yves Camus and Nicolas Lebourg see "national populism" as an attempt to combine the socio-economical values of the left and political values of the right and the support for a referendary republic that would bypass traditional political divisions and institutions as they aim for the unity of the political (the demos ), ethnic (the ethnos ) and social (the working class ) interpretations of

15476-419: The ideologies, politics, and practices of right-wing populism and Extreme Right Wing Parties." Similarly, historian Rick Shenkman describes the ideology presented by right-wing populism as "a deadly mix of xenophobia, racism, and authoritarianism." Tamir Bar-On also concluded in 2018 that the literature generally places "nativism" or "ethnic nationalism" as the core concept of the ideology, which "implicitly posits

15622-643: The ideology that they are currently aware of. System justification theory posits that people tend to defend existing society, even at times against their interest, which in turn causes people to create ideological explanations to justify the status quo. Jost, Fitzimmons and Kay argue that the motivation to protect a preexisting system is due to a desire for cognitive consistency (being able to think in similar ways over time), reducing uncertainty and reducing effort, illusion of control and fear of equality. According to system justification theory, ideologies reflect ( unconscious ) motivational processes , as opposed to

15768-610: The impeachment of President Rousseff . Temer held 3% approval ratings in October 2017, facing a corruption scandal after accusations of obstructing justice and racketeering against him. He managed to avoid trial thanks to the support of the right-wing parties in the National Congress of Brazil . On the other hand, President of the Senate Renan Calheiros , acknowledged as one of the key figures behind Rousseff's destitution and

15914-431: The issue of patterning and contingent claims to truth. They wrote: "Ideologies are patterned clusters of normatively imbued ideas and concepts, including particular representations of power relations. These conceptual maps help people navigate the complexity of their political universe and carry claims to social truth." Studies of the concept of ideology itself (rather than specific ideologies) have been carried out under

16060-484: The leader of the Likud party, has been described both as promoting new nationalism, and as pursuing a foreign policy of close ties with other new nationalist leaders, including Trump, Orbán, Salvini, Putin, Modi, Bolsonaro, Duterte and Sisi. In 2019, Netanyahu has forged a political alliance with the ultranationalist Union of Right-Wing Parties . Italian Prime Minister Giuseppe Conte (assumed office in 2018), head of

16206-621: The leader of the Nationalist Movement Party (MHP), has been described as creating a "new nationalist front" by forming the People's Alliance with Erdoğan's AKP in 2018. The MHP is affiliated with the Grey Wolves paramilitary organisation, which Erdoğan has also expressed support for. The United Arab Emirates, under the leadership of Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi Mohammed bin Zayed (assumed office in 2004), has been described as propagating

16352-465: The legal concept of the nation as a polity, with the people as its members; in general, it rejects the rule of law. All of these attributes, as well as its favoring of strong political leadership, suggest right-wing populism's fascist leanings. Historian Federico Finchelstein defines populism as a form of authoritarian democracy while fascism is an ultraviolent dictatorship. According to Roger Eatwell and Matthew Goodwin , "National populists prioritize

16498-544: The legislatures of various democracies. Right-wing populism has remained the dominant political force in the Republican Party in the United States since the 2010s. Although extreme right-wing movements in the United States (where they are normally referred to as the " radical right ") are usually characterized as separate entities, some writers consider them to be a part of a broader, right-wing populist phenomenon. American businessman and media personality Donald Trump won

16644-525: The mainstream Liberal-National Coalition ., and Katter's Australian Party , led by Queensland MP Bob Katter . Furthermore, the main center-right party the Coalition has certain members belonging to the right-wing populist faction known as National Right including the current opposition leader Peter Dutton . The wave of refugees caused by the Syrian crisis has caused a wave of anti-immigration sentiment on

16790-605: The major factor for granting membership to the national family, which makes them fundamentally different from their predecessors in terms of inclusiveness. Writing for Politico , Michael Hirsh described new nationalism as "a bitter populist rejection of the status quo that global elites have imposed on the international system since the Cold War ended, and which lower-income voters have decided—understandably—is unfair." Michael Brendan Dougherty wrote in The Week that new nationalism

16936-522: The material world; and (2) the ideas that form in their minds due to those sensations. Tracy conceived ideology as a liberal philosophy that would defend individual liberty , property , free markets , and constitutional limits on state power. He argues that, among these aspects, ideology is the most generic term because the 'science of ideas' also contains the study of their expression and deduction. The coup d'état that overthrew Maximilien Robespierre allowed Tracy to pursue his work. Tracy reacted to

17082-422: The media. Former Pakistani prime minister Imran Khan (2018–2022), the leader of the then-ruling Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (Pakistan Movement for Justice) was compared to Donald Trump and described as a neo-nationalist populist during his tenure. Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte (assumed office in 2016) has been described as a new nationalist. His party PDP-Laban has adopted Filipino nationalism as

17228-587: The name of systematic ideology in the works of George Walford and Harold Walsby, who attempt to explore the relationships between ideology and social systems . David W. Minar describes six different ways the word ideology has been used: For Willard A. Mullins, an ideology should be contrasted with the related (but different) issues of utopia and historical myth . An ideology is composed of four basic characteristics: Terry Eagleton outlines (more or less in no particular order) some definitions of ideology: German philosopher Christian Duncker called for

17374-574: The nascence of two different trends in Germany and France: the Völkisch movement and Boulangism . Völkischen represented a romantic nationalist , racialist , and from the 1900s, antisemitic tendency in German society, as they idealized a bio-mystical "original nation" that still could be found in their views in the rural regions, a form of "primitive democracy freely subjected to their natural elites". In France,

17520-589: The new prime minister on 22 October 2022, at the head of what it was described as the most right-wing government in Italy since 1945. The 63rd Prime Minister Shinzō Abe (assumed office from 2012 to 2020), a member of the far-right organisation Nippon Kaigi , promoted ideas of new nationalism, as did the Liberal Democratic Party of Japan, which he led. Mexican President Andrés Manuel López Obrador (assumed office in 2018) has been described as Neo-nationalist and often dubbed as "Mexican Donald Trump" by

17666-410: The only right-wing candidate. He spoke for traditional family values and opposed abortion, legalization of marijuana, and same-sex marriage and proposed that homosexual individuals be treated far away from the good citizens' and workers' families. In the first round of the general election, Fidelix received 446,878 votes, representing 0.43% of the popular vote. Fidelix ranked 7th out of 11 candidates. In

17812-464: The past ... and without question it could happen in the future. This morphing of populism back into fascism is always a possibility, but it is very uncommon, and when it does happen, and populism becomes fully antidemocratic, it is no longer populism. Erik Berggren and Andres Neergard wrote in 2015 that "[m]ost researchers agree [...] that xenophobia , anti-immigration sentiments , nativism , ethno-nationalism are, in different ways, central elements in

17958-480: The policies of the center-right Progressive Conservative Party of Canada , which alienated many Blue Tories and led to a feeling of neglect in the West of Canada. Initially motivated by a single-issue desire to give a voice to Western Canada, the Reform Party expanded its platform to include a blend of socially conservative and right-wing populist policies. It grew from a fringe party into a major political force in

18104-421: The populist coalition Government of Change , and in particular former Deputy Prime Minister and Interior Minister and the League 's leader Matteo Salvini (2018–2019), were often described as new nationalists. While in office, Salvini was described by some media outlets as the most powerful politician in the country, and a "de facto prime minister". In August 2019, Salvini filed a motion of no confidence in

18250-518: The president of the United States. Several neo-nationalist politicians have come to power or run strongly during the 2010s and 2020s, including Giorgia Meloni in Italy, Marine Le Pen in France, Rodrigo Duterte and Bongbong Marcos in the Philippines, and Jair Bolsonaro in Brazil. Neo-nationalism is considered a pan-West European phenomenon. It has its origins in the post- Cold War period and

18396-568: The reigning social order. In The Anatomy of Revolution , Crane Brinton said that new ideology spreads when there is discontent with an old regime. The may be repeated during revolutions itself; extremists such as Vladimir Lenin and Robespierre may thus overcome more moderate revolutionaries. This stage is soon followed by Thermidor , a reining back of revolutionary enthusiasm under pragmatists like Napoleon and Joseph Stalin , who bring " normalcy and equilibrium". Brinton's sequence ("men of ideas> fanatics >practical men of action")

18542-493: The right – manifesting itself as the Tea Party movement". In 2010, David Barstow wrote in The New York Times : "The Tea Party movement has become a platform for conservative populist discontent". Some political figures closely associated with the Tea Party, such as U.S. Senator Ted Cruz and former U.S. Representative Ron Paul , have been described as appealing to right-wing populism. In the U.S. House of Representatives ,

18688-551: The ruling United Russia party, including now- SVR Director Sergey Naryshkin . Russia has been accused of supporting new nationalist movements across the Western World. The Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia, Mohammad bin Salman (assumed office in 2017), has been described by Kristin Diwan of The Arab Gulf States Institute as being attached to a "strong new nationalism". The "new Saudi nationalism" has been used to bolster support for

18834-493: The second round, Fidelix supported candidate Aécio Neves . In addition, according to the political analyst of the Inter-Union Department of Parliamentary Advice, Antônio Augusto de Queiroz, the National Congress elected in 2014 may be considered the most conservative since the "re-democratization" movement, noting an increase in the number of parliamentarians linked to more conservative segments, such as ruralists ,

18980-442: The shifts in the meaning of ideology , the modern meaning of the word was born when Napoleon used it to describe his opponents as "the ideologues". Tracy's major book, The Elements of Ideology , was soon translated into the major languages of Europe. In the century following Tracy, the term ideology moved back and forth between positive and negative connotations. During this next generation, when post-Napoleonic governments adopted

19126-449: The state. It is a symbiotic relation. Individuals are realized in their manifestation of the national characteristics and by their participation in the national mission. In so doing, individuals are at once defined and valued, recognized and glorified. (p.12) According to Rosenberg, right-wing populism accepts the primacy of "the people", but rejects liberal democracy's protection of the rights of minorities, and favors ethno-nationalism over

19272-469: The submission to authority—and populism —a "thin-centered ideology" that considers society to be ultimately separated into two homogeneous and antagonistic groups, "the pure people" versus "the corrupt elite", and which argues that politics should be an expression of the "general will of the people", regardless of human rights or constitutional guarantees. Cas Mudde and Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser reiterated in 2017 that within European right-wing populism, there

19418-405: The superstructure and the nature of the justifying ideology—actions feasible because the ruling class control the means of production . For example, in a feudal mode of production , religious ideology is the most prominent aspect of the superstructure, while in capitalist formations, ideologies such as liberalism and social democracy dominate. Hence the great importance of ideology justifies

19564-484: The system of ideas associated with it was coined in 1796 by Antoine Destutt de Tracy while in prison pending trial during the Reign of Terror , where he read the works of Locke and Étienne Bonnot de Condillac . Hoping to form a secure foundation for the moral and political sciences , Tracy devised the term for a "science of ideas", basing such upon two things: (1) the sensations that people experience as they interact with

19710-401: The systems of inequality that maintain their group's social power over non-dominant groups. Ideologies use a society's symbol system to organize social relations in a hierarchy , with some social identities being superior to other social identities, which are considered inferior. The dominant ideology in a society is passed along through the society's major social institutions, such as the media,

19856-417: The teachings of Confucius and other ancient Chinese sages, and thus rejecting the anti-Confucius campaign of Party chairman Mao Zedong . Egyptian President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi (assumed office in 2014), and Nation's Future Party has been described as a new nationalist. Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orbán (assumed office in 2010), the leader of the ruling Fidesz party, has been described as

20002-613: The terroristic phase of the revolution (during the Napoleonic regime as part of the Napoleonic Wars ) by trying to work out a rational system of ideas to oppose the irrational mob impulses that had nearly destroyed him. A subsequent early source for the near-original meaning of ideology is Hippolyte Taine 's work on the Ancien Régime , Origins of Contemporary France I. He describes ideology as rather like teaching philosophy via

20148-499: The tradition". Moreover, Charles Blattberg offers an account that distinguishes political ideologies from political philosophies . Slavoj Žižek argues how the very notion of post-ideology can enable the deepest, blindest form of ideology. A sort of false consciousness or false cynicism, engaged in for the purpose of lending one's point of view the respect of being objective, pretending neutral cynicism, without truly being so. Rather than help avoiding ideology, this lapse only deepens

20294-404: The traditional elements that constitute the character of the hosting state as criteria for policy led to the feeling of the threat neo-nationalist felt. This process was framed as " Islamization " and turned into the explanatory factor for a specific defensive collective behaviour. The conflicts and the violence that followed after the political destabilization in some of the Islamic states led to

20440-409: The use of nationalism as a core ideology of right-wing populism on the ground that there are also purely "civic" or "liberal" forms of nationalism, preferring instead the term " nativism ": a xenophobic form of nationalism asserting that "states should be inhabited exclusively by members of the native group ('the nation'), and that non-native elements (persons and ideas) are fundamentally threatening to

20586-488: The view that political convictions always reflect independent and unbiased thinking. According to semiotician Bob Hodge : [Ideology] identifies a unitary object that incorporates complex sets of meanings with the social agents and processes that produced them. No other term captures this object as well as 'ideology'. Foucault 's ' episteme ' is too narrow and abstract, not social enough. His 'discourse', popular because it covers some of ideology's terrain with less baggage,

20732-726: The vote; however, in the 2021 election, it saw improved performance and climbed to nearly 5% of the popular vote. Pierre Poilievre , who has been described as populist by some journalists, won the 2022 Conservative Party of Canada leadership election and became the leader of both the Conservative Party and the Official Opposition . Some journalists have compared Poilievre to American Republican populists such as Donald Trump and Ted Cruz , however many journalists have dismissed these comparisons due to Poilievre's pro-choice, pro-immigration, and pro-same-sex marriage positions. In

20878-399: The will of the people, renders it clear for everyone else and executes accordingly. Thus distinctions between the leadership, the people as a whole and individuals are blurred as their will is joined in a single purpose. (p.5) ... In this political cultural conception, individuals have a secondary and somewhat derivative status. They are rendered meaningful and valued insofar as they are part of

21024-602: The words of sociologist Jens Rydgren , "mobilize on xenophobic and racist public opinions without being stigmatized as racists." Sociologist Hande Eslen-Ziya argues that right-wing populist movements rely on "troll science", namely "(distorted) scientific arguments moulded into populist discourse" that creates an alternative narrative. In addition to rhetorical methods, right-wing populist movements have also flourished by using tools of digital media, including websites and newsletters, social media groups and pages, as well as Youtube channels and messaging chat groups. While immigration

21170-438: Was " ideology has no history ": while individual ideolog ies have histories, interleaved with the general class struggle of society, the general form of ideology is external to history. For Althusser, beliefs and ideas are the products of social practices, not the reverse. His thesis that " ideas are material " is illustrated by the "scandalous advice" of Pascal toward unbelievers: "Kneel and pray, and then you will believe." What

21316-461: Was a "theologically conservative Social Gospeler ". An article by National Public Radio 's Ron Elving likens the populism of Bryan to the later right-wing populism of Trump. In 2010, Rasmussen and Schoen characterized the Tea Party movement as "a right-wing anti-systemic populist movement". They added: "Today our country is in the midst of a...new populist revolt that has emerged overwhelmingly from

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