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72-476: King was a member of an Irish bardic family, who were residents of the barony of Kilcoursey , County Offaly , known as Fox's Country. They were poets, scribes, and drafted legal documents for their patrons, mainly the families of Fox and Mageoghegan. Writing in 2001, McCaughy states "What we can say is that the Muircheartach Ó Cionga that we are concerned with in this study was one of a learned poetic family of

144-517: A child with words but without the element of water, and then with water but without the words. Baptised another with gloves on. In administering the Holy Communion he did not use the appointed words but said, "Eat this according to our Saviour’s meaning." Committed a battery and bloodshed. Suffers his children to go to mass. When his son asked him for money, he said, "Poor slave; woe’s me, that am going to hell to get you maintenance", insinuating that he

216-576: A clerk in the court of Chancery , was said to have been descended from one, Neville, who came over (to Ireland) with King John in the capacity of usher and had changed his name to that of his office. James was taught to read by two aunts who had been blind from infancy, to whom he ever afterward looked back with affection and respect. From eight to thirteen years of age he attended the school kept by Fullerton and Hamilton, private emissaries of James VI of Scotland, sent to keep up his influence in Ireland, in view of

288-453: A considerable property, not to marry any other than Dr. Usher, "should he propose himself." [1] 1619 Ussher travelled to England, where he remained for two years. His and Phoebe's only child was Elizabeth Ussher (1619–93), who married Sir Timothy Tyrrell , of Oakley, Buckinghamshire . She was the mother of James Tyrrell . Dr. Ussher became prominent after meeting James I . In 1621 James I nominated Ussher Bishop of Meath . He became

360-764: A famous one). For example, William Shakespeare and Rabindranath Tagore are respectively known as "the Bard of Avon" (often simply "the Bard") and "the Bard of Bengal". In 16th-century Scotland, it turned into a derogatory term for an itinerant musician; nonetheless it was later romanticised by Sir Walter Scott (1771–1832). The English term bard is a loan word from the Celtic languages : Gaulish : bardo- ('bard, poet'), Middle Irish : bard and Scottish Gaelic : bàrd ('bard, poet'), Middle Welsh : bardd ('singer, poet'), Middle Breton : barz ('minstrel'), Old Cornish : barth ('jester'). The ancient Gaulish * bardos

432-439: A four-year interregnum between Lord Deputies from 1629 on, there was an increase in efforts to impose religious conformity on Ireland. In 1633, Ussher wrote to the new Archbishop of Canterbury , William Laud , in an effort to gain support for the imposition of recusancy fines on Irish Catholics. Thomas Wentworth , who arrived as the new Lord Deputy in Ireland in 1633, deflected the pressure for conformity by stating that firstly,

504-672: A national figure in Ireland, becoming Privy Councillor in 1623 and an increasingly substantial scholar. A noted collector of Irish manuscripts, he made them available for research to fellow scholars such as his friend, Sir James Ware . From 1623 until 1626 he was again in England and was excused from his episcopal duties to study church history. He was nominated Primate of All Ireland and Archbishop of Armagh in 1625 and succeeded Christopher Hampton , who had succeeded Ussher's uncle Henry twelve years earlier. After his consecration in 1626, Ussher found himself in turbulent political times. Tension

576-613: A new edition of a work first published in 1622, his "Discourse on the Religion Anciently Professed by the Irish", a ground-breaking study of the early Irish church , which sought to demonstrate how it differed from Rome and was, instead, much closer to the later Protestant church. This was to prove highly influential, establishing the idea that the Church of Ireland was the true successor of the early Celtic church. In 1639, he published

648-548: A previous Vice-Provost , Luke Challoner, and published his first work. In 1615, he was closely involved with the drawing up of the first confession of faith of the Church of Ireland, the Irish Articles of Religion . James was born in the parish of St. Nicholas, to Arland Ussher (1545-1598) and Margaret Ussher (nee Stanihurst) (1547-1601). It is recorded in Alfred Webb's, A Compendium of Irish Biography (1878) that his father,

720-541: A royalist stronghold. Though Charles severely tested Ussher's loyalty by negotiating with the Catholic Irish, the Primate remained committed to the royal cause, though as the king's fortunes waned Ussher had to move on to Bristol , Cardiff , and then to St Donat's . In June 1646, he returned to London under the protection of his friend, Elizabeth, Dowager Countess of Peterborough , in whose houses he stayed from then on. He

792-622: A warm-up for his most famous work, the Annales veteris testamenti, a prima mundi origine deducti ("Annals of the Old Testament, deduced from the first origins of the world"), which appeared in 1650, and its continuation, Annalium pars posterior , published in 1654. In this work, he calculated the date of the Creation to have been nightfall on 22 October 4004 BC. (Other scholars, such as Cambridge academic, John Lightfoot , calculated their own dates for

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864-582: A whole chapter to the imaginative but invented stories of King Lucius and the creation of a Christian episcopate in Britain. In 1640, Ussher left Ireland for England for what turned out to be the last time. In the years before the Wars of the Three Kingdoms , his reputation as a scholar and his moderate Calvinism meant that his opinion was sought by both King and Parliament. After Ussher lost his home and income through

936-409: A witness for dowager Lady Lambert in the 1630s). He appears to have been among the native grantees who received land in the plantation of his locality around the year 1620. The Franciscan Paul King was his nephew. King was employed from 1627 by William Bedell (later Bishop of Kilmore ) to teach Irish to himself and students at Trinity College, Dublin . Under Bedell's influence, King conformed to

1008-691: Is a local poet who composes works in a traditional style relating to that community. Notable village bards include Dòmhnall Ruadh Chorùna and Dòmhnall Ruadh Phàislig  [ gd ] . A number of bards in Welsh mythology have been preserved in medieval Welsh literature such as the Red Book of Hergest , the White Book of Rhydderch , the Book of Aneirin and the Book of Taliesin . The bards Aneirin and Taliesin may be legendary reflections of historical bards active in

1080-418: Is an oral repository and professional story teller , verse-maker, music composer, oral historian and genealogist , employed by a patron (such as a monarch or chieftain) to commemorate one or more of the patron's ancestors and to praise the patron's own activities. With the decline of a living bardic tradition in the modern period , the term has loosened to mean a generic minstrel or author (especially

1152-628: Is attested as bardus ( sing. ) in Latin and as bárdoi ( plur. ) in Ancient Greek. It also appears as a stem in bardo-cucullus ('bard's hood'), bardo-magus ('field of the bard'), barditus (a song to fire soldiers), and in bardala (' crested lark ', a singing bird). All of these terms come from the Proto-Celtic noun *bardos ('poet-singer, minstrel'), itself derived, with regular Celtic sound shift * gʷ > * b , from

1224-468: Is found in the Book of Invasions , in a story about the Irish colony of Tuatha Dé Danann (Tribe of Goddess Danu), also called Danonians. They became the aos sí (folk of the mound), comparable to Norse alfr and British fairy . During the tenth year of the reign of the last Belgic monarch, the people of the colony of Tuatha Dé Danann, as the Irish called it, invaded and settled in Ireland. They were divided into three tribes—the tribe of Tuatha who were

1296-498: Is that Ussher thought that the Epistle of Ignatius to Polycarp was also inauthentic; most modern scholars believe it to be a genuine production of Ignatius, however. Ussher now concentrated on his research and writing and returned to the study of chronology and the church fathers . After a 1647 work on the origin of the Creeds , Ussher published a treatise on the calendar in 1648. This was

1368-611: The Antichrist . Ussher had an obsession with "Jesuits disguised as" Covenanters in Scotland, highwaymen when he was robbed, non-conformists in England, it was a remarkable list. However, Ussher also wrote extensively on theology, patristics and ecclesiastical history, and these subjects gradually displaced his anti-Catholic work. After Convocation in 1634, Ussher left Dublin for his episcopal residence at Drogheda , where he concentrated on his archdiocese and his research. In 1631, he produced

1440-571: The Church of Ireland and was ordained a priest on 23 September 1633. This provided him with an income while he translated the Old Testament and Apocrypha into Irish, having been selected as an acknowledged master of the language, in both prose and verse. It was eventually published (without Apocrypha) in 1685 by Robert Boyle under the title Leabhuir na Seintiomna ar na ttarruing go Gaidhlig trechiram & dhithracht an Doctuir Uilliam Bedel/The Books of

1512-581: The Gorsedd by Iolo Morganwg in 1792. Wales in the twentieth century is a leading Celtic upholder of the bardic tradition. The annual National Eisteddfod of Wales ( Eisteddfod Genedlaethol Cymru ) (which was first held in 1880) is held in which bards are chaired (see Category:Chaired bards ) and crowned (see Category:Crowned bards ). The Urdd National Eisteddfod is also held annually. And many schools hold their own annual eisteddfodau which emulate bardic traditions. Several published research studies into

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1584-553: The Irish language for use in church services by William Bedell , the Bishop of Kilmore , has been refuted. Ussher certainly preferred to be a scholar when he could be. He engaged in extensive disputations with Roman Catholic theologians, and even as a student he challenged a Jesuit relative, Henry Fitzsimon (Ussher's mother was Catholic), to dispute publicly the identification of the Pope with

1656-556: The Irish parliament . Ussher's father, Arland Ussher, was a clerk in chancery who married Stanihurst's daughter, Margaret (by his first wife Anne Fitzsimon), who was reportedly a Roman Catholic. Ussher's younger and only surviving brother, Ambrose , became a distinguished scholar of Arabic and Hebrew . According to his chaplain and biographer, Nicholas Bernard , the elder brother was taught to read by two blind, spinster aunts. A gifted polyglot , he entered Dublin Free School and then

1728-493: The Irish uprising of 1641, Parliament voted him a pension of £400 while the King awarded him the income and property of the vacant See of Carlisle . Despite their occasional differences, he remained a loyal friend to Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford , and when the latter was sentenced to death by Parliament, pleaded with the King not to allow the execution of the verdict: unlike some of his episcopal colleagues, he insisted that

1800-618: The Proto-Indo-European compound *gʷrH-dʰh₁-o-s , which literally means 'praise-maker'. It is cognate with Sanskrit : gṛṇā́ti ('calls, praise'), Latin : grātus ('grateful, pleasant, delightful'), Lithuanian : gìrti ('praise'), and Armenian : kardam ('raise voice'). In the words of the Oxford English Dictionary , the bards were an "ancient Celtic order of minstrel-poets, whose primary function appears to have been to compose and sing (usually to

1872-527: The Werburgh Street Theatre . Ussher soon found himself at odds with the rise of Arminianism and Wentworth and Laud's desire for conformity between the Church of England and the more Calvinistic Church of Ireland . Ussher resisted this pressure at a convocation in 1634, ensuring that the English Articles of Religion were adopted as well as the Irish articles, not instead of them, and that

1944-604: The fantasy genre in the 1960s to 1980s, for example as the ' Bard ' class in Dungeons & Dragons and Pathfinder , Bard by Keith Taylor (1981), Bard: The Odyssey of the Irish by Morgan Llywelyn (1984), in video games in fantasy settings such as The Bard's Tale (1985), and in modern literature and TV like The Witcher books by Andrzej Sapkowski (1986–2013) show by Lauren Schmidt Hissrich (2019). As of 2020, an online trend to cover modern songs using medieval style musical instruments and composition, including rewriting

2016-537: The 6th and 7th centuries. Very little historical information about Dark Age Welsh court tradition survives, but the Middle Welsh material came to be the nucleus of the Matter of Britain and Arthurian legend as they developed from the 13th century. The (Welsh) Laws of Hywel Dda, originally compiled around 900, identify a bard as a member of a king's household. His duties, when the bodyguard were sharing out booty , included

2088-482: The Church of Ireland itself would have to be properly resourced, and he set about its re-endowment. He settled the long-running primacy dispute between the sees of Armagh and Dublin in Armagh's favour. The two clashed on the subject of the theatre: Ussher had the usual Puritan antipathy to the stage, whereas Wentworth was a keen theatre-goer, and against Ussher's opposition, oversaw the foundation of Ireland's first theatre,

2160-504: The Creation is today considered a fringe activity, in Ussher's time such a calculation was still regarded as an important task, one also attempted by many Post-Reformation scholars, such as Joseph Justus Scaliger and physicist Isaac Newton . Ussher's chronology represented a considerable feat of scholarship: it demanded great depth of learning in what was then known of ancient history, including

2232-450: The Creation.) The time of the Ussher chronology is frequently misquoted as being 9 a.m., noon or 9 p.m. on 23 October. See the related article on the chronology for a discussion of its claims and methodology. Ussher's work is now used to support Young Earth Creationism , which holds that the universe was created thousands of years ago (rather than billions). But while calculating the date of

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2304-553: The Hebrew text of the Old Testament. In 1656, he went to stay in the Countess of Peterborough's house in Reigate , Surrey. On 19 March, he felt a sharp pain in his side after supper and took to his bed. His symptoms seem to have been those of a severe internal haemorrhage. Two days later he died, aged 75. His last words were reported as: "O Lord, forgive me, especially my sins of omission". His body

2376-561: The Irish canons had to be redrafted based on the English ones rather than replaced by them. Theologically, he was a Calvinist although on the matter of the atonement he was (somewhat privately) a hypothetical universalist . His most significant influence in this regard was John Davenant , later an English delegate to the Synod of Dort , who managed to significantly soften that Synod's teaching regarding limited atonement. In 1633, Ussher had supported

2448-425: The King was absolutely bound in conscience by his promise to Strafford that whatever happened his life would be spared. The King did not take his advice, but clearly afterwards regretted not doing so, as is shown by his reference on the scaffold to Strafford's death as "that unjust sentence which I suffered to take effect". In early 1641 Ussher developed a mediatory position on church government, which sought to bridge

2520-525: The King. They did, however, have an afterlife, being published in England and Scotland well into the eighteenth century. In all, he wrote or edited five books relating to episcopacy. As the middle ground between King and Parliament vanished in 1641–1642, Ussher was forced, reluctantly, to choose between his Calvinist allies in parliament and his instinctive loyalty to the monarchy. Eventually, in January 1642 (having asked parliament's permission), he moved to Oxford,

2592-486: The Old Testament translated into Irish by the care and diligence of Doctor William Bedel. Bedell wrote to James Ussher : "We haue brought Mr King to read an houre every day to those that are already chosen, to frame them to the right pronunciation and exercise of the language, to which purpose we haue gotten a few coppies of the booke of Common prayer, and do begin with the Catechisme which is therein .... The translation of

2664-460: The Psalmes into prose and verse, whereof I spoke to your Grace, would be a good worke, and Mr King has giuen us an assay in the first psalme ..." By the end of his life, serious questions had arisen concerning King's fitness to be a Church of Ireland minister . He was accused of secretly attending Catholic mass with his family, inappropriately administering baptism and holy communion . A sum of

2736-480: The Welsh bardic tradition have been published. They include Williams (1850), Parry-Williams (1947), Morgan (1983) and Jones (1986). Doubtless research studies have also been published in the current century. From its frequent use in romanticism, 'The Bard' became attached as a title to various poets From its Romanticist usage, the notion of the bard as a minstrel with qualities of a priest, magician or seer also entered

2808-615: The appointment of Archbishop Laud as Chancellor of the University of Dublin . He had hoped that Laud would help to impose order on what was, Ussher accepted, a somewhat mismanaged institution. Laud did that, rewriting the charter and statutes to limit the authority of the fellows, and ensure that the appointment of the provost was under royal control. In 1634, he imposed on the college an Arminian provost, William Chappell , whose theological views, and peremptory style of government, were antithetical to everything for which Ussher stood. By 1635, it

2880-703: The axe fell. Ussher wrote two treatises on the epistles of Ignatius of Antioch while doing his work on church hierarchy. They were scholarly achievements that modern experts largely concur with. In Ussher's time, the only collection of Ignatius's writing easily available was the Long Recension, a set of 16 epistles. Ussher closely examined it and found problems that had gone uncommented on for centuries: differences in tone, theology, and apparent anachronistic references to theological disputes and structures that did not exist during Ignatius's time. Additionally, medieval authors commenting on Ignatius did not appear to be reading

2952-413: The bard would then compose a satire (c.f. fili , fáith ). In other Indo-European societies, the same function was fulfilled by skalds , rhapsodes , minstrels and scops , among others. A hereditary caste of professional poets in Proto-Indo-European society has been reconstructed by comparison of the position of poets in medieval Ireland and in ancient India in particular. Bards (who are not

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3024-471: The distinction between filid (pl. of fili ) and bards was a creation of Christian Ireland, and that the filid were more associated with the church. By the Early Modern Period, these names came to be used interchangeably. Irish bards formed a professional hereditary caste of highly trained, learned poets. The bards were steeped in the history and traditions of clan and country, as well as in

3096-521: The face of its target. The bardic system lasted until the mid-17th century in Ireland and the early 18th century in Scotland. In Ireland, their fortunes had always been linked to the Gaelic aristocracy, which declined along with them during the Tudor Reconquest . The early history of the bards can be known only indirectly through mythological stories. The first mention of the bardic profession in Ireland

3168-513: The family was chiefly employed by the chiefs of the MacDonalds of Clanranald . Members of the family were also recorded as musicians in the early 16th century, and as clergymen possibly as early as the early 15th century. The last of the family to practise classical Gaelic poetry was Domhnall MacMhuirich, who lived on South Uist in the 18th century. In Gaelic-speaking areas , a village bard or village poet ( Scottish Gaelic : bàrd-baile )

3240-565: The gap between the Laudians, who believed in an episcopalian church hierarchy (bishops), and the Presbyterians, who wanted to abolish episcopacy entirely. His proposals, not published until 1656, after his death, as The Reduction of Episcopacy, proposed a compromise where bishops operated in a Presbyterian synodal system, were initially designed to support a rapprochement between Charles and the parliamentarian leadership in 1641, but were rejected by

3312-598: The generally accepted date for the Nativity of Jesus ; moreover, he calculated, Solomon's Temple was completed in the year 3000 from creation, so that there were exactly 1,000 years from the temple to Jesus, who was thought to be the 'fulfilment' of the Temple. In 1655, Ussher published his last book, De Graeca Septuaginta Interpretum Versione , the first serious examination of the Septuagint , discussing its accuracy as compared with

3384-496: The genuine letters of the church father, Ignatius of Antioch , and for his chronology that sought to establish the time and date of the creation as "the entrance of the night preceding the 23rd day of October... the year before Christ 4004"; that is, around 6 pm on 22 October 4004 BC, per the proleptic Julian calendar . Ussher was born in Dublin to a well-to-do family. His maternal grandfather, James Stanihurst , had been speaker of

3456-400: The harp) verses celebrating the achievements of chiefs and warriors, and who committed to verse historical and traditional facts, religious precepts, laws, genealogies, etc." In medieval Gaelic and Welsh society, a bard ( Scottish and Irish Gaelic) or bardd ( Welsh ) was a professional poet, employed to compose elegies for his lord . If the employer failed to pay the proper amount,

3528-408: The lyrics in a medieval style, is known as bardcore . In 2023 Google released its AI chatbot Bard . James Ussher James Ussher (or Usher ; 4 January 1581 – 21 March 1656) was the Church of Ireland Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of All Ireland between 1625 and 1656. He was a prolific Irish scholar and church leader, who today is most famous for his identification of

3600-406: The man who translated God’s Word into Irish deserves better treatment. I pray you do him justice." King died shortly after, survived by his wife, Margery, and their children. Mrs. King was supported by James Ussher , Bishop Anthony Martin of Meath and Sir James Ware in a land dispute with William Bayly, who in 1638 had seized a benefice of King's. Bard In Celtic cultures , a bard

3672-512: The matters objected against Murtagh King alleged that: "He is ignorant of the Bible .... Cannot read distinctly and intelligibly. Causeth his parish clerk, who is a layman, to execute the office of priest. Left his congregation desolate in a church one Sunday, and went to the alehouse. Another Sunday, refused to perform service, saying his occasions led to the mass house. Went to Mass on the Sunday. Baptised

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3744-652: The members of the MacMhuirich family, who flourished from the 15th to the 18th centuries. The family was centred in the Hebrides , and claimed descent from a 13th-century Irish bard who, according to legend, was exiled to Scotland. The family was at first chiefly employed by the Lords of the Isles as poets, lawyers, and physicians. With the fall of the Lordship of the Isles in the 15th century,

3816-458: The memorization of such materials by the use of metre , rhyme and other formulaic poetic devices. In medieval Ireland, bards were one of two distinct groups of poets, the other being the fili . According to the Early Irish law text on status, Uraicecht Becc , bards were a lesser class of poets, not eligible for higher poetic roles as described above. However, it has also been argued that

3888-453: The most substantial history of Christianity in Britain to that date, Britannicarum ecclesiarum antiquitates  – the antiquities of the British churches. It was an astonishing achievement in one respect – in gathering together so many previously unpublished manuscript sources. Ussher was very reluctant to arrive at firm judgements as to the sources' authenticity – hence his devotion of

3960-512: The name who are referred to quite frequently in the sources, some of whose poetry survives (a good deal of it religious), and that they are located in the barony of Kilcoursey in Fox’s Country." Muircheartach first apparent appearances are as Murtagh O Kinge of Kilcolly and Murtho O King of Fox's County in fiants of the 1590s. In the 1610s he was an agent and receiver to Lord Lambert's lands near Athlone , County Westmeath (he appeared as

4032-539: The newly founded (1591) Trinity College Dublin on 9 January 1594, at the age of thirteen (not an unusual age at the time). He had received his Bachelor of Arts degree by 1598 and was a fellow and MA by 1600 (though Bernard claims he did not gain his MA till 1601). In May 1602, he was ordained in the Trinity College Chapel as a deacon in the Protestant , established , Church of Ireland (and possibly priest on

4104-614: The nobility, the tribe of De who were the priests (those devoted to serving God or De) and the tribe of Danann, who were the bards. This account of the Tuatha Dé Danann must be considered legendary; however the story was an integral part of the oral history of Irish bards themselves. One of the most notable bards in Irish mythology was Amergin Glúingel , a bard, druid and judge for the Milesians . The best-known group of bards in Scotland were

4176-533: The poem The Bards of Wales by the Hungarian poet János Arany in 1857, as a way of encoded resistance to the suppressive politics of his own time. However, the poetic and musical traditions were continued throughout the Middle Ages, e.g., by noted 14th-century poets Dafydd ap Gwilym and Iolo Goch . Also the tradition of regularly assembling bards at an eisteddfod never lapsed and was strengthened by formation of

4248-492: The prospect of his succeeding to the throne of England and Ireland." James's abilities, diligence, and loving disposition from youth are described as "attracting the esteem of all with whom he came in contact." He became one of the first and leading scholars of Trinity College, Dublin (opened 1593). In the beginning of 1614 he married his cousin, Phoebe, daughter of his maternal unlce Dr Lucas Challanor. Webb tells how Phoebe had been enjoined by her fathers will, bequeathing her

4320-475: The result being the "Judgement of the Arch-Bishops and Bishops of Ireland". This begins: The religion of the papists is superstitious and idolatrous; their faith and doctrine erroneous and heretical; their church in respect of both, apostatical; to give them, therefore, a toleration, or to consent that they may freely exercise their religion, and profess their faith and doctrine, is a grievous sin. The Judgement

4392-487: The rise of the Persians, Greeks and Romans, as well as expertise in the Bible, biblical languages, astronomy, ancient calendars and chronology. Ussher's account of historical events for which he had multiple sources other than the Bible is usually in close agreement with modern accounts – for example, he placed the death of Alexander in 323 BC and that of Julius Caesar in 44 BC. Ussher's last biblical co-ordinate

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4464-420: The same as the Irish filidh or fili ) were those who sang the songs recalling the tribal warriors' deeds of bravery as well as the genealogies and family histories of the ruling strata among Celtic societies. The pre-Christian Celtic people recorded no written histories; however, Celtic peoples did maintain an intricate oral history committed to memory and transmitted by bards and filid. Bards facilitated

4536-615: The same day, while Martin Gorst says that he became a priest on 20 December 1601 ) by his uncle Henry Ussher , the Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of All Ireland. Ussher went on to become Chancellor of St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin in 1605 and Prebend of Finglas . He became Professor of Theological Controversies at Trinity College and a Bachelor of Divinity in 1607, Doctor of Divinity in 1612, and then Vice-Chancellor in 1615 and vice-provost in 1616. In 1613, he married Phoebe, daughter of

4608-537: The same letters of the Long Recension. Ussher researched and found a shorter set, usually called the Middle Recension, and argued that only the letters contained in it were authentically Ignatius's. The unknown compiler of the Long Recension edited Ignatius's work and included some of his own, and seems to have had Arian tendencies. He published this Latin edition of the genuine Ignatian works in 1644. The only major difference between Ussher's stance and modern scholars

4680-418: The singing of the sovereignty of Britain—possibly why the genealogies of the British high kings survived into the written historical record. A large number of Welsh bards were blind people . The royal form of bardic tradition ceased in the 13th century, when the 1282 Edwardian conquest permanently ended the rule of the Welsh princes. The legendary suicide of The Last Bard (c. 1283), was commemorated in

4752-443: The technical requirements of a verse technique that was syllabic and used assonance , half rhyme and alliteration , among other conventions. As officials of the court of king or chieftain, they performed a number of official roles. They were chroniclers and satirists whose job it was to praise their employers and damn those who crossed them. It was believed that a well-aimed bardic satire, glam dicenn , could raise boils on

4824-509: Was apparent that Ussher had lost de facto control of the church to John Bramhall , Bishop of Derry , in everyday matters and to Laud in matters of policy. William M. Abbott, Associate Professor of History at Fairfield University , argues that he was an effective and politically important bishop and archbishop. The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography notes that he was reactive and sought conciliation rather than confrontation. The story that he successfully opposed attempts to reintroduce

4896-504: Was conformable against his conscience." Bedell defended him, concerned that attacks on King's character would detract from the reputation of the translation, and said as much in a letter to Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford , dated December 1638. "Mr King is a much more competent man than he is represented to be. He has few matches as an Irish scholar in the kingdom. He has now been imprisoned for four or five months, and that most unjustly, and has been too sick to defend himself. Surely

4968-685: Was deprived of the See of Carlisle by Parliament on 9 October 1646, as the English episcopacy was abolished for the duration of the Commonwealth and the Protectorate . He became a preacher at Lincoln's Inn early in 1647, and despite his royalist loyalties was protected by his friends in Parliament. He watched the execution of Charles I from the roof of the Countess of Peterborough's home in London but fainted before

5040-644: Was not published until it was read out at the end of a series of sermons against the Graces given at Dublin in April 1627. Following Thomas Wentworth 's attainder in April 1641, King Charles and the Privy Council of England instructed the Irish Lords Justices on 3 May 1641 to publish the required Bills to enact the Graces. However, the law reforms were not properly implemented before the rebellion in late 1641. During

5112-446: Was rising between England and Spain, and to secure Ireland Charles I offered Irish Catholics a series of concessions, including religious toleration, known as The Graces , in exchange for money for the upkeep of the army. Ussher was a convinced Calvinist and viewed with dismay the possibility that people he regarded as papists might achieve any sort of power. He called a secret meeting of the Irish bishops in his house in November 1626,

5184-688: Was the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II , and beyond this point, he had to rely on other considerations. Faced with inconsistent texts of the Torah , each with a different number of years between the Genesis flood narrative and Creation, Ussher chose the Masoretic version, which claims an unbroken history of careful transcription stretching back centuries – but his choice was confirmed for him, because it placed Creation exactly four thousand years before 4 BC,

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