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111-476: The Mongols are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia , China ( Inner Mongolia and other 11 autonomous territories ), as well as Buryatia and Kalmykia republics of Russia . The Mongols are the principal member of the large family of Mongolic peoples . The Oirats and the Buryats are classified either as distinct ethno-linguistic groups or subgroups of Mongols. The Mongols are bound together by

222-538: A Jizhong Zhoushu in ten fascicles and Kong Zhao's annotated Zhoushu in eight. The (1345) History of Song and subsequent dynastic histories only list the Jizhong Zhoushu in ten fascicles. Shaughnessy concludes that two separate versions existed up until the Tang period, the eight-fascicle Kong Zhao zhu Zhoushu ( 孔晁注周書 ) and the ten-fascicle Jizhong Zhoushu ( 汲冢周書 ). These two textual versions were assimilated during

333-524: A Zhoushu in ten fascicles ( juan ), and notes it derived from the Jizhong discovery of Jin dynasty period. Yan Shigu (581–645), annotating Yiwenzhi , states that of the 71 Yizhoushu chapters only 45 are extant. However, Liu Zhiji (661–721) claims that all 71 original chapters were extant. The Old Book of Tang (945) bibliography lists an 8-fascicle Zhoushu with annotations by Kong Zhao ( 孔晁 , mid-3rd century). The New Book of Tang (1060) lists both

444-575: A common writing system reflected in the histories of Japan and Korea . The relationship between China and its cultural influence on East Asia has been compared to the historical influence of Greco-Roman civilization on Europe and the Western World . Major characteristics exported by China towards Japan and Korea include shared vocabulary based on Chinese script, as well as similar social and moral philosophies derived from Confucianist thought. Han characters and Written Chinese became

555-554: A common heritage and ethnic identity . Their indigenous dialects are collectively known as the Mongolian language . The contiguous geographical area in which the Mongols primarily live is referred to as the Mongol heartland , especially in history books. The ancestors of the modern-day Mongols are referred to as Proto-Mongols . Broadly defined, the term includes the Mongols proper (also known as

666-481: A distinctive "Basal-East Asian population" referred to as ' East- and Southeast Asian lineage ' (ESEA); which is ancestral to modern East Asians, Southeast Asians , Polynesians , and Siberians , originated in Mainland Southeast Asia at ~50,000 BC, and expanded through multiple migration waves southwards and northwards respectively. This ESEA lineage gave rise to various sublineages, and is also ancestral to

777-591: A literal meaning. This would account for those chapters of the Yi Zhou shu that seem entirely unrelated or only tentatively related to the main themes of the work. Jizhong Zhoushu (or Jizhong Zhou shu , 汲冢周書 ) derives from a second tradition that the text was found among the manuscripts on bamboo slips unearthed in the ( c. 279 CE) Jizhong discovery of the tomb of King Xiang of Wei ( 衛襄王 , r. 311–296 BCE). Shaughnessy concludes that since "both of these traditions can be shown to be without foundation", and since all

888-706: A mixed Xiongnu-Donghu ancestry for some tribes (e.g. the Khitan ). The Donghu are mentioned by Sima Qian as already existing in Inner Mongolia north of Yan in 699–632 BCE along with the Shanrong . Unofficial Chinese sources such as Yi Zhou Shu ("Lost Book of Zhou") and the Classic of Mountains and Seas project the Donghu's activities back to the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BCE). However,

999-488: A reading of yi as "remnant; leftover" (cf. yijing 逸經 "classical texts not included in the orthodox classics"). This dubious tradition began with Liu Xiang (79–8 BCE) describing the text as: "The solemn statements and orders of the Zhou period; they are in fact the residue of the hundred pian [chapters] discussed by Confucius." McNeal translates differently, "[The Yi Zhou shu ] may well be what remained after Confucius edited

1110-787: A result, some Mongol leaders, especially those of Outer Mongolia, decided to seek Mongolian independence. After the Xinhai Revolution , the Mongolian Revolution on 30 November 1911 in Outer Mongolia ended an over 200-year rule of the Qing dynasty. With the independence of Outer Mongolia, the Mongolian army controlled Khalkha and Khovd regions (modern day Uvs , Khovd , and Bayan-Ölgii provinces ), but Northern Xinjiang (the Altai and Ili regions of

1221-637: A second revival between 1977 and 1992, and a third decline between 1995 and 2012. However, in spite of the decline of the Mongolian language in some of Inner Mongolia's urban areas and educational spheres, the ethnic identity of the urbanized Chinese-speaking Mongols is most likely going to survive due to the presence of urban ethnic communities. The multilingual situation in Inner Mongolia does not appear to obstruct efforts by ethnic Mongols to preserve their language. Although an unknown number of Mongols in China, such as

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1332-657: A small army and 200 Kalmyk soldiers defeated 1,700 Soviet soldiers in Durvud province of Kalmykia but the Oirats' state was destroyed by the Soviet Army in 1930. Kalmykian nationalists and Pan-Mongolists attempted to migrate Kalmyks to Mongolia in the 1920s. Mongolia suggested to migrate the Soviet Union's Mongols to Mongolia in the 1920s but Russia refused the suggestion. Stalin deported all Kalmyks to Siberia in 1943 and around half of

1443-467: A sovereign state or merge Inner Mongolia with Mongolia. Mongolian is the official national language of Mongolia, where it is spoken by nearly 2.8 million people (2010 estimate), and the official provincial language of China's Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region , where there are at least 4.1 million ethnic Mongols. Across the whole of China, the language is spoken by roughly half of the country's 5.8 million ethnic Mongols (2005 estimate) However,

1554-426: A textual "core" treating governmental and military topics. The remaining 27 Yizhoushu chapters are heterogeneous. Some describe historical events ranging from King Wen of Zhou (r. 1099–1050 BCE) down to King Jing of Zhou (Gui) (r. 544–520 BCE); supplementary chapters record topics such as astronomy (52 Shixun 時訓 ) and posthumous names (54 Shifa 謚法 ). McNeal disagrees with Shaughnessy's claim that "there

1665-708: A tribe of Shiwei . It resurfaced in the late 11th century during the Khitan -ruled Liao dynasty . After the fall of the Liao in 1125, the Khamag Mongols became a leading tribe on the Mongolian Plateau . However, their wars with the Jurchen -ruled Jin dynasty and the Tatar confederation had weakened them. In the thirteenth century, the word Mongol grew into an umbrella term for a large group of Mongolic-speaking tribes united under

1776-592: Is a compendium of Chinese historical documents about the Western Zhou period (1046–771 BCE). Its textual history began with a (4th century BCE) text/compendium known as the Zhou Shu ("Book of Zhou"), which was possibly not differentiated from the corpus of the same name in the extant Book of Documents . Western Han dynasty (202 BCE–CE 9) editors listed 70 chapters of the Yi Zhou Shu , of which 59 are extant as texts, and

1887-678: Is attested by the preserved textual quotes, most of which are ascribed to Jin personae. A number of thematic parallels are found between Yizhoushu and the Wenzi , which is reported to be also produced in Jin. The bibliography sections ( yiwenzhi 藝文志 ) of the Twenty-four Histories provide valuable diachronic data. The (111 CE) Book of Han imperial Bibliography records the Zhoushu , or Zhoushiji 周史記 , in 71 chapters. The (636) Book of Sui lists

1998-500: Is called the 抱經堂本 "Baojing Study version". The (1919) Sibu congkan 四部叢刊 collection reproduced the earliest edition, a (1543) version by Zhang Bo ( 章檗 ) printed at the Jiaxing provincial academy. Compared with most other Chinese classics , the Yizhoushu has been neglected by scholars, both Chinese and Western. McNeal suggests, "A bias against the work, perhaps originating in part from

2109-427: Is no discernible organization of the text," and contends, "there is in fact a chronological presentation of material throughout the progression of most of the chapters." For instance, 18 chapter titles use one of the paired words wen 文 "civil; literary" and wu 武 "military; martial" – a literary reference to the Zhou founders King Wen and King Wu . At least 28 of the 59 extant chapters "are unambiguously set in

2220-415: Is the characteristic physiological facial flushing response to drinking alcohol experienced by 36% of East Asians. Around 80% of East Asians carry an allele of the gene coding for the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase called ADH1B*2 , which results in the alcohol dehydrogenase enzyme converting alcohol to toxic acetaldehyde more quickly than other gene variants common outside of East Asia. According to

2331-472: Is the title of the Book of Zhou history about the later Northern Zhou dynasty (557–581). Yizhoushu (or Yi Zhou shu ) adds yi 逸 "escape; flee; neglect; missing; lost; remain" to the title, which scholars interpret in two ways. Either "Lost Book(s) of Zhou", with a literal translation of yi as "lost" (cf. yishu 逸書 "lost books; ancient works no longer in existence"). Or "Remaining Book(s) of Zhou", with

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2442-525: The Bamboo Annals . Shaughnessy explains that "the Yi Zhou shu was extant as an integral text, known as the Zhou shu 周書 , throughout the nearly six centuries from King Xiang 's burial in 296 B.C. through the opening of the tomb in 280 A.D." Some chapters (e.g., 62 Shifang 職方 ) have internal evidence of being written after the 221 BCE Qin dynasty unification. Second, it is unlikely that Kong Zhao, author of

2553-516: The Shi ji account on Zhou history, and the Yizhoushu "Ke Yin" (#36) and "Duoyi" (#44) chapters are basically incorporated into the Shi ji in their full form. The observation was made by Ding Fu ( 丁黼 ). Among the excavated sources on Yizhoushu : The Shi fu ( 世浮 ) document was condemned by Mencius and ignored by Sima Qian , which is probably part of the reason it is found in the Yizhoushu today instead of

2664-755: The Zuozhuan , Hanfeizi , and Zhanguoce . Second, no later than the early 1st century BCE, another editor, possibly the preface's author, composed a redaction with 70 chapters and a preface (modeled upon the Old Texts preface to the Shangshu ). Some secondary chapters are earlier than the core and others are later. For instance, Chapter 32 Wushun 武順 uses the term di 帝 " emperor "; McNeal interprets it as "a late third-century BC date", when di came to mean " Emperor of China ". Qing historian Zhu Youceng ( 朱右曾 , 19th century) claimed that, though possibly not produced in

2775-606: The Ainu , Bai , Hui , Manchus , Mongols (and other Mongolic peoples ), Qiang , Ryukyuans , and Tibetans . The major East Asian language families that form the traditional linguistic core of East Asia are the Sinitic , Japonic , and Koreanic families. Other language families include the Tibeto-Burman , Ainu languages , Mongolic , Tungusic , Turkic , Hmong-Mien , Tai–Kadai , Austronesian , and Austroasiatic . Throughout

2886-585: The Book of Documents . After its compilation, the Yizhoushu was condemned as inadequate representation of history by the traditional Confucian scholars of the late imperial period, beginning from the Song dynasty (Ding Fu, Hong Mai). Their standpoints were characterized by merging of moralistic judgement into textual criticism. Most pronounced condemnation came from Fang Xiaoru (1357–1402). Fang claimed that Yi Zhou Shu contained "exaggerations" and "immoral" notions ascribed to

2997-693: The Dai Khitai in Afghanistan. With the expansion of the Mongol Empire, the Mongolic peoples settled over almost all Eurasia and carried on military campaigns from the Adriatic Sea to Indonesian Java and from Japan to Palestine . They simultaneously became Padishahs of Persia , Emperors of China , and Great Khans of the Mongols, and one ( Al-Adil Kitbugha ) became Sultan of Egypt . The Mongolic peoples of

3108-510: The Golden Horde established themselves to govern Russia by 1240. By 1279, they conquered the Song dynasty and brought all of China proper under the control of the Yuan dynasty . ... from Chinggis up high down to the common people, all are shaven in the style pojiao . As with small boys in China, they leave three locks, one hanging from the crown of their heads. When it has grown some, they clip it;

3219-509: The Hoabinhian hunter-gatherers of Southeast Asia and the ~40,000 year old Tianyuan lineage found in Northern China , but already differentiated and distinct from European-related and Australasian-related lineages, found in other regions of prehistoric Eurasia. The ESEA lineage trifurcated from an earlier "eastern non-African" (ENA) or "East-Eurasian" meta-population, which also contributed to

3330-693: The Japanese writing system . In Korea, however, Sejong the Great invented the hangul alphabet, which has since been used as the fundamental linguistic basis for formulating the Korean language . In Japan, much of the Japanese language is written in hiragana , katakana in addition to Chinese characters . In Mongolia, the script used there is the Cyrillic script along with the Mongolian script system. A review paper by Melinda A. Yang (in 2022) summarized and concluded that

3441-745: The Khalkha Mongols ), Buryats , Oirats , the Kalmyks and the Southern Mongols. The latter comprises the Abaga Mongols , Abaganar , Aohans , Arkhorchin, Asud , Baarins , Chahars , Darkhan ( Shar Darkhad ), Dörvön Khüükhed, Eastern Dorbets , Gorlos Mongols , Ikhmyangan, Jalaids, Jaruud, Kharchins , Khishigten , Khorchins , Khuuchid, Muumyangan, Naimans , Onnigud, Ordos , Sunud, Tumed , Urad and Üzemchins . The designation "Mongol" briefly appeared in 8th century records of Tang China to describe

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3552-756: The Ming dynasty . After the fall of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, the Mongols continued to rule the Northern Yuan in northern China and the Mongolian steppe. However, the Oirads began to challenge the Eastern Mongols under the Borjigin monarchs in the late 14th century and Mongolia was divided into two parts: Western Mongolia ( Oirats ) and Eastern Mongolia ( Khalkha , Inner Mongols , Barga , Buryats ). The earliest written references to

3663-642: The Mongolia-Russia border . Oka Buryats revolted in 1767 and Russia completely conquered the Buryat region in the late 18th century. Russia and Qing were rival empires until the early 20th century, however, both empires carried out united policy against Central Asians. The Qing Empire conquered Upper Mongolia or the Oirat's Khoshut Khanate in the 1720s and 80,000 people were killed. By that period, Upper Mongolian population reached 200,000. The Dzungar Khanate conquered by

3774-466: The Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission , lie dormant. Agin-Buryat Okrug and Ust-Orda Buryat Okrugs merged with Irkutsk Oblast and Chita Oblast in 2008 despite Buryats' resistance. Small scale protests occurred in Inner Mongolia in 2011 . The Inner Mongolian People's Party is a member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization and its leaders are attemptin to establish

3885-468: The Northern Song period (960–1279), and the loss of eleven chapters occurred before the middle Southern Song (1127–1279). Both these traditions, associating the extant Yizhoushu to Jizhong texts or Kong's edition, have dubious historicity. First, contemporary research on the Yizhoushu has conclusively demonstrated that the received text could not have been recovered from King Xiang's tomb along with

3996-787: The Shiwei (a subtribe called the "Shiwei Menggu" is held to be the origin of the Genghisid Mongols). Besides these three Xianbei groups, there were others such as the Murong , Duan and Tuoba . Their culture was nomadic, their religion shamanism or Buddhism and their military strength formidable. There is still no direct evidence that the Rouran spoke Mongolic languages , although most scholars agree that they were Proto-Mongolic. The Khitan, however, had two scripts of their own and many Mongolic words are found in their half-deciphered writings. Geographically,

4107-785: The Shiwei . The Khitans, who were independent after their separation from the Kumo Xi (of Wuhuan origin) in 388, continued as a minor power in Manchuria until one of them, Abaoji (872–926), established the Liao dynasty (916–1125). The destruction of Uyghur Khaganate by the Kirghiz resulted in the end of Turkic dominance in Mongolia. According to historians, Kirghiz were not interested in assimilating newly acquired lands; instead, they controlled local tribes through various manaps (tribal leaders). The Khitans occupied

4218-595: The Soviet–Japanese War of 1945 (Mongolian name: Liberation War of 1945 ). Japan forced Inner Mongolian and Barga people to fight against Mongolians but they surrendered to Mongolians and started to fight against their Japanese and Manchu allies. Marshal Khorloogiin Choibalsan called Inner Mongolians and Xinjiang Oirats to migrate to Mongolia during the war but the Soviet Army blocked Inner Mongolian migrants' way. It

4329-600: The Tuoba Xianbei ruled the southern part of Inner Mongolia and northern China, the Rouran ( Yujiulü Shelun was the first to use the title khagan in 402) ruled eastern Mongolia, western Mongolia, the northern part of Inner Mongolia and northern Mongolia, the Khitan were concentrated in eastern part of Inner Mongolia north of Korea and the Shiwei were located to the north of the Khitan. These tribes and kingdoms were soon overshadowed by

4440-687: The Xiongnu , whose identity is still debated today. Although some scholars maintain that they were proto-Mongols , they were more likely a multi-ethnic group of Mongolic and Turkic tribes . It has been suggested that the language of the Huns was related to the Xiongnu. The Donghu, however, can be much more easily labeled proto-Mongol since the Chinese histories trace only Mongolic tribes and kingdoms ( Xianbei and Wuhuan peoples) from them, although some historical texts claim

4551-468: The Yakuts after their migration to northern Siberia and about 30% of Yakut words have Mongol origin. However, remnants of the Yuan imperial family retreated north to Mongolia in 1368, retaining their language and culture. There were 250,000 Mongols in southern China and many Mongols were massacred by the rebel army. The survivors were trapped in southern China and eventually assimilated. The Dongxiangs , Bonans , Yugur and Monguor people were invaded by

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4662-596: The Yi Zhou Shu . The reference is valuable since it differentiates the Yi Zhou Shu from the corpus of other documents called shu and possibly refers to its educational function. Zhoushu (or Zhou shu ) – combining Zhou 周 " Zhou dynasty " and shu 書 "writing; document; book; letter" – is the earliest record of the present title. Depending upon the semantic interpretation of shu , Zhoushu can be translated "Book(s) of Zhou" (cf. Hanshu 漢書 Book of Han ) or "Documents of Zhou" (cf. Shujing 書經 Book of Documents ). In Modern Standard Chinese usage, Zhoushu

4773-522: The Zhoushu or Yizhoushu text consisted of 10 fascicles ( juan 巻 "scroll; volume; book; fascicle") with 70 chapters ( pian 篇 "article; section; chapter") and a preface. Eleven chapters were lost around the 12th century CE, and only the titles survive. The extant text has 59 chapters and a preface, with a commentary for 42 chapters attributed to the Jin dynasty scholar Kong Zhao ( 孔晁 , fl. 256–266). Based upon linguistic and thematic consistencies, modern scholarship reveals that 32 chapters constitute

4884-435: The (97,000–98,000) Kalmyks deported to Siberia died before being allowed to return home in 1957. The government of the Soviet Union forbade teaching the Kalmyk language during the deportation. The Kalmyks' main purpose was to migrate to Mongolia and many Kalmyks joined the German Army. Marshal Khorloogiin Choibalsan attempted to migrate the deportees to Mongolia and he met with them in Siberia during his visit to Russia. Under

4995-446: The 14–16th centuries, however, the Ming dynasty was defeated by the Oirat, Southern Mongol, Eastern Mongol and united Mongol armies. Esen's 30,000 cavalries defeated 500,000 Chinese soldiers in the 1449 Tumu Crisis . Within eighteen months of his defeat of the titular Khan Taisun, in 1453, Esen himself took the title of Great Khan (1454–1455) of the Great Yuan . The Khalkha emerged during the reign of Dayan Khan (1479–1543) as one of

5106-491: The 15th century and this conflict weakened Mongol strength. In 1688, the Western Mongol Dzungar Khanate 's king Galdan Boshugtu attacked Khalkha after murder of his younger brother by Tusheet Khan Chakhundorj (main or Central Khalkha leader) and the Khalkha-Oirat War began. Galdan threatened to kill Chakhundorj and Zanabazar (Javzandamba Khutagt I, spiritual head of Khalkha) but they escaped to Sunud (Inner Mongolia). Many Khalkha nobles and folks fled to Inner Mongolia because of

5217-401: The 17th century: Outer Mongolia (Khalkha), Inner Mongolia (Inner Mongols) and the Buryat region in southern Siberia . The last Mongol khagan was Ligdan in the early 17th century. He got into conflicts with the Manchus over the looting of Chinese cities, and managed to alienate most Mongol tribes. In 1618, Ligdan signed a treaty with the Ming dynasty to protect their northern border from

5328-526: The Bogd Khan regime. Russia encouraged Mongolia to become an autonomous region of China in 1914. Mongolia lost Barga , Dzungaria, Tuva , Upper Mongolia and Inner Mongolia in the 1915 Treaty of Kyakhta . In October 1919, the Republic of China occupied Mongolia after the suspicious deaths of Mongolian patriotic nobles. On 3 February 1921 the White Russian army—led by Baron Ungern and mainly consisting of Mongolian volunteer cavalries, and Buryat and Tatar cossacks —liberated Ulaanbaatar . Baron Ungern's purpose

5439-463: The Buryat population in Russia died in the 1900s–1950s. 10,000 Buryats of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic were massacred by Stalin's order in the 1930s. In 1919 the Buryats established a small theocratic Balagad state in Kizhinginsky District of Russia and it fell in 1926. In 1958, the name "Mongol" was removed from the name of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. On 22 January 1922 Mongolia proposed to migrate

5550-416: The Communists were unable to defeat Japan and Kuomintang . Mongolia and Soviets supported the Uyghur and Kazakh separatist movement during the 1930s and 1940s. By 1945, the Soviets refused to support them after its alliance with the Chinese Communist Party and Mongolia interrupted its relations with the separatists under pressure. Xinjiang Oirat militant groups operated together the Turkic peoples but

5661-417: The Great said: "The headwaters of the Yenisei River must be Russian land". The Russian Empire sent the Kalmyks and Buryats to war to reduce the populations ( World War I and other wars). During the 20th century, Soviet scientists attempted to convince the Kalmyks and Buryats that they're not Mongols during (demongolization policy). 35,000 Buryats were killed during a rebellion in 1927, and around one-third of

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5772-457: The Hu (胡) were not mentioned among the non-Shang fang (方 "border-region"; modern term fāngguó 方國 "fang-countries") in the extant oracle bones from the Shang period. The Xianbei formed part of the Donghu confederation, and possibly had in earlier times some independence within the Donghu confederation as well as from the Zhou dynasty. During the Warring States the poem " The Great Summons " ( Chinese : 大招 ; pinyin : Dà zhāo ) in

5883-436: The Kalmyks died soon (killed by the Manchus). Russia states that Buryatia voluntarily merged with Russia in 1659 due to Mongolian oppression and the Kalmyks voluntarily accepted Russian rule in 1609 but only Georgia voluntarily accepted Russian rule. In the early 20th century, the late Qing government encouraged Han Chinese settlement of Mongolian lands under the name of " New Policies " or "New Administration" (xinzheng). As

5994-400: The Kalmyks during the Kalmykian Famine but bolshevik Russia refused. 71,000–72,000 (93,000?; around half of the population) Kalmyks died during the Russian famine of 1921–22 . The Kalmyks revolted against the Soviet Union in 1926, 1930 and 1942–1943. In 1913, Nicholas II , tsar of Russia, said: "We need to prevent from Volg Tatars . But the Kalmyks are more dangerous than them because they are

6105-436: The Kazakhs to migrate westwards. In 1687, he besieged the City of Turkistan . Under the leadership of Abul Khair Khan , the Kazakhs won major victories over the Dzungars at the Bulanty River in 1726, and at the Battle of Anrakay in 1729. The Khalkha eventually submitted to Qing rule in 1691 by Zanabazar 's decision, thus bringing all of today's Mongolia under the rule of the Qing dynasty but Khalkha de facto remained under

6216-480: The Law of the Russian Federation of April 26, 1991 "On Rehabilitation of Exiled Peoples," repressions against Kalmyks and other peoples were qualified as acts of genocide. On 3 October 2002 the Ministry of Foreign Affairs announced that Taiwan recognizes Mongolia as an independent country, although no legislative actions were taken to address concerns over its constitutional claims to Mongolia. Offices established to support Taipei's claims over Outer Mongolia, such as

6327-413: The Liao dynasty led by Yelü Dashi fled west through Mongolia after being defeated by the Jurchen -led Jin dynasty and founded the Qara Khitai (Western Liao dynasty) in 1124 while still maintaining control over western Mongolia. In 1218, Genghis Khan incorporated the Qara Khitai after which the Khitan passed into obscurity. Some remnants surfaced as the Qutlugh-Khanid dynasty (1222–1306) in Iran and

6438-446: The Manchus attack in exchange for thousands of taels of silver. By the 1620s, only the Chahars remained under his rule. The Chahar army was defeated in 1625 and 1628 by the Inner Mongol and Manchu armies due to Ligdan's faulty tactics. The Qing forces secured their control over Inner Mongolia by 1635, and the army of the last khan Ligdan moved to battle against Tibetan Gelugpa sect (Yellow Hat sect) forces. The Gelugpa forces supported

6549-431: The Manchus, while Ligdan supported Kagyu sect (Red Hat sect) of Tibetan Buddhism . Ligden died in 1634 on his way to Tibet . By 1636, most Inner Mongolian nobles had submitted to the Qing dynasty founded by the Manchus. Inner Mongolian Tengis noyan revolted against the Qing in the 1640s and the Khalkha battled to protect Sunud. Western Mongol Oirats and Eastern Mongolian Khalkhas vied for domination in Mongolia since

6660-418: The Mongols so send them to war to reduce the population". On 23 April 1923 Joseph Stalin , communist leader of Russia, said: "We are carrying out wrong policy on the Kalmyks who related to the Mongols. Our policy is too peaceful". In March 1927, Soviet deported 20,000 Kalmyks to Siberia, the tundra and Karelia .The Kalmyks founded the sovereign Republic of Oirat-Kalmyk on 22 March 1930. The Oirats' state had

6771-481: The Oirats and Khalkhas before the war. Galdan Boshugtu sent his army to "liberate" Inner Mongolia after defeating the Khalkha's army and called Inner Mongolian nobles to fight for Mongolian independence. Some Inner Mongolian nobles, Tibetans , Kumul Khanate and some Moghulistan 's nobles supported his war against the Manchus, however, Inner Mongolian nobles did not battle against the Qing. There were three khans in Khalkha and Zasagt Khan Shar (Western Khalkha leader)

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6882-423: The Oirats did not have the leading role due to their small population. Basmachis or Turkic and Tajik militants fought to liberate Soviet Central Asia until 1942. On February 2, 1913, the Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet was signed. Mongolian agents and Bogd Khan disrupted Soviet secret operations in Tibet to change its regime in the 1920s. On October 27, 1961,

6993-400: The Qing dynasty in 1755–1758 because of their leaders and military commanders conflicts. Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the Dzungar population were destroyed by a combination of warfare and disease during the Qing conquest of the Dzungar Khanate in 1755–1758. Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide , has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars

7104-462: The Qing empire), Upper Mongolia , Barga and Inner Mongolia came under control of the newly formed Republic of China . On February 2, 1913, the Bogd Khanate of Mongolia sent Mongolian cavalries to "liberate" Inner Mongolia from China. Russia refused to sell weapons to the Bogd Khanate, and the Russian czar, Nicholas II , referred to it as "Mongolian imperialism". Additionally, the United Kingdom urged Russia to abolish Mongolian independence as it

7215-430: The Tsarist government imposed a council on the Kalmyk Khan, thereby diluting his authority, while continuing to expect the Kalmyk Khan to provide cavalry units to fight on behalf of Russia. The Russian Orthodox church , by contrast, pressured Buddhist Kalmyks to adopt Orthodoxy. In January 1771, approximately 200,000 (170,000) Kalmyks began the migration from their pastures on the left bank of the Volga to Dzungaria, through

7326-489: The Tumets, may have completely or partially lost the ability to speak their language, they are still registered as ethnic Mongols and continue to identify themselves as ethnic Mongols. The children of inter-ethnic Mongol-Chinese marriages also claim to be and are registered as ethnic Mongols. East Asian people The major ethnic groups that form the core of traditional East Asia are the Han Chinese , Koreans , and Yamato . Other ethnic groups of East Asia include

7437-421: The United Nations recognized Mongolian independence and granted the nation full membership in the organization. The powerful states of Russia and China have committed many abuses against Mongols in their homeland, including war crimes and crimes against humanity, sometimes characterized as cultural genocide , with targets among the Mongol language, culture, tradition, history, religion, and ethnic identity. Peter

7548-409: The Xiongnu, killing 2000, after having received generous gifts from Emperor Guangwu of Han . The Xianbei reached their peak under Tanshihuai Khan (reigned 156–181) who expanded the vast, but short lived, Xianbei state (93–234). Three prominent groups split from the Xianbei state as recorded by the Chinese histories: the Rouran (claimed by some to be the Pannonian Avars ), the Khitan people and

7659-424: The ages, the greatest influence on East Asia historically has been from China , where the span of its cultural influence is generally known as the Sinosphere laid the foundation for East Asian civilization. Chinese culture not only served as the foundation for its own society and civilization, but for also that of its East Asian neighbors, Japan and Korea. The knowledge and ingenuity of Chinese civilization and

7770-624: The analysis by HapMap project, another allele responsible for the flush reaction, the rs671 (ALDH2*2) of the ALDH2 is rare among Europeans and Sub-Saharan Black Africans, while 30% to 50% of people of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean ancestry have at least one ALDH2*2 allele. The reaction has been associated with lower than average rates of alcoholism, possibly due to its association with adverse effects after drinking alcohol. Yi Zhou Shu The Yi Zhou Shu ( traditional Chinese : 逸周書 ; simplified Chinese : 逸周书 ; Wade–Giles : I Chou shu ; lit. 'Lost Book of Zhou')

7881-502: The anthology Verses of Chu mentions small-waisted and long-necked Xianbei women, and possibly also the book Discourses of the States , which states that during the reign of King Cheng of Zhou (reigned 1042–1021 BCE) the Xianbei came to participate at a meeting of Zhou subject-lords at Qiyang (岐阳) (now Qishan County ) but were only allowed to perform the fire ceremony under the supervision of Chu since they were not vassals (诸侯) by enfeoffment and establishment . The Xianbei chieftain

7992-622: The areas vacated by the Turkic Uyghurs bringing them under their control. The Yenisei Kirghiz state was centered on Khakassia and they were expelled from Mongolia by the Khitans in 924. Beginning in the 10th century, the Khitans, under the leadership of Abaoji , prevailed in several military campaigns against the Tang dynasty ' s border guards, and the Xi , Shiwei and Jurchen nomadic groups. Remnants of

8103-551: The bamboo strips. Yizhoushu commentaries began with Kong Zhao in the 3rd century and continue in the present day. Kong's commentary is extant for 42 of the 59 chapters, and has been included in most editions. Qing dynasty (1644–1912) scholarship produced valuable Yizhoushu commentaries and editions. The text-critical edition of Lu Wenchao ( 盧文弨 , 1717–1796) was based on eight Yuan dynasty and Ming dynasty versions, and includes twelve earlier Qing commentaries. The (1936) Sibu beiyao 四部備要 series reprinted Lu's edition, which

8214-467: The canonical dynastic Twenty-Four Histories . This early Chinese historical text has four titles: Zhou zhi , Zhou shu "Documents/Book of Zhou", Yi Zhoushu "Lost/Leftover Documents/Book of Zhou", and Jizhong Zhou shu "Ji Tomb Documents/Book of Zhou". Zhou zhi 周志 appears once throughout the transmitted texts: in the Zuo zhuan (Duke Wen of Lu 's 2nd year - 625 BCE), along the quote presently found in

8325-515: The classics of Chinese literature and culture were seen as the foundations for a civilized life in East Asia. China served as a vehicle through which the adoption of Confucian ethical philosophy, Chinese calendar systems, political and legal systems, architectural style, diet, terminology, institutions, religious beliefs, imperial examinations that emphasized a knowledge of Chinese classics, political philosophy and culture, as well as historically sharing

8436-488: The concept was highlighted by the famous ancient military strategist and politician Jiang Ziya or Tai Gong 太公 , who is known through the writings of Su Qin (380–284 BCE) from the School of Diplomacy or "School of Vertical and Horizontal [Alliances]". According to Chinese scholars, possible transmission line of the earliest Yizhoushu chapters went through the state of Jin ( 晉 ) and its subsequently divided territories. It

8547-530: The earliest commentary, consulted the Jizhong documents. The dates of Kong's life are uncertain, but he was a close contemporary of Wang Su (195–256), and the last historical reference to him was in an imperial invitation of 266. Shaughnessy says Kong's commentary was added to the text "sometime in the middle of the third century A.D., but certainly before the 280 opening of King Xiang's tomb." Histories listed many scholars – but not Kong Zhao – who worked on deciphering

8658-414: The earliest textual citations refer to it as Zhoushu , there is now a "general scholarly consensus" that the title should in fact read simply as Zhou shu . However, since Zhou shu also figures as the section of the Book of Documents , the name "Yizhoushu" has obtained broad currency as safely marking the differentiation. English translations of the Yi Zhou shu title include: In the 1st century BCE,

8769-532: The early Zhou, Yizhoushu had no features of the Warring States or Qin–Han forgery. The philosophical lineage of the Yizhoushu within the Hundred Schools of Thought remains uncertain. According to McNeal, several schools (including one branch of Confucianism ) emphasized the concept of wen and wu as "the civil and martial spheres of government as comprising a comprehensive totality." In particular,

8880-423: The exact number of Mongolian speakers in China is unknown, as there is no data available on the language proficiency of that country's citizens. The use of Mongolian in China, specifically in Inner Mongolia, has witnessed periods of decline and revival over the last few hundred years. The language experienced a decline during the late Qing period, a revival between 1947 and 1965, a second decline between 1966 and 1976,

8991-454: The formation of Ancient Ancestral South Indians (AASI) as well as to Australasians. The majority of East Asians have the ABCC11 gene (80-95%), which greatly reduces body odor and codes for dry-type earwax. It is believed that this reduction in body odor may be an adaptation to colder climates by ancient Northeast Asian ancestors, although this is not definitively proven. Alcohol flush reaction

9102-511: The fundamental linguistic basis as well as the unifying linguistic feature in East Asian writing system as the vehicle for exporting Chinese culture to its East Asian neighbors. Chinese characters became the unifying language of bureaucratic politics and religious expression in East Asia. The Chinese script was passed on first to Korea and then to Japan , where Han characters acted as the major underlying fundamental linguistic basis constituent of

9213-536: The government's new policy and Soviets. The government and Soviet soldiers defeated the rebels in October. The Buryats started to migrate to Mongolia in the 1900s due to Russian oppression. Joseph Stalin 's regime stopped the migration in 1930 and started a campaign of ethnic cleansing against newcomers and Mongolians. During the Stalinist repressions in Mongolia , almost all adult Buryat men and 22,000–33,000 Mongols (3–5% of

9324-409: The hundred chapters [of the Shang shu ]". Since the canonical Shang shu in circulation had 29 chapters, McNeal proposes, Perhaps sometime during the early Western Han the transmitted version of the Zhou shu was expanded so as to produce a text of exactly seventy-one chapters, so that, added to the twenty-nine chapters of the Shang shu , the so-called "hundred chapters of the shu " could be given

9435-447: The misconception that it comprised those Zhou documents that Confucius deemed unfit for inclusion in his canonical edition of the Shang shu 尚書 , or Venerated Documents (which includes a section called "Zhou Documents" itself), has contributed to the relative neglect of this text." The text close to the known version of Yizhoushu was known to Sima Qian : numerous parallels are found in

9546-435: The past sages (bringing "Shi fu" chapter as an example for the first, and "Guan ren", "Da wu", "Da ming" for the second). He concluded on those grounds that they could not have been authentic Zhou documents, and thus Liu Xiang's claim that they had been left over by Confucius was necessarily false. Yegor Grebnev has recently shown that the "Shi fu" chapter is a compilation of a number of pre-existing texts. The organization of

9657-624: The plough in Middle Mongol language sources appear towards the end of the 14th c. In 1434, Eastern Mongol Taisun Khan 's (1433–1452) Oirat prime minister Togoon Taish reunited the Mongols after killing Adai Khan in Khorchin . Togoon died in 1439 and his son Esen Taish became ruler of Northern Yuan dynasty. Esen later unified the Mongol tribes. The Ming dynasty attempted to invade the Northern Yuan in

9768-579: The population of Mongolia is only hundred thousands". The proportion of victims in relation to the population of the country is much higher than the corresponding figures of the Great Purge in the Soviet Union. The Manchukuo (1932–1945), puppet state of the Empire of Japan (1868–1947) invaded Barga and some part of Inner Mongolia with Japanese help. The Mongolian army advanced to the Great Wall of China during

9879-424: The pre-dynastic reigns of Kings Wen and Wu or during the immediate time of the conquest of Shang ." According to Shaughnessy, the Yizhoushu underwent two textual redactions . First, sometime in the late 4th or early 3rd century BCE, an anonymous editor compiled the 32 "core" chapters. These have linguistic and intellectual features characteristic of Warring States writings, and were quoted in classics such as

9990-562: The present-day Xianbei (鮮卑). Again in Inner Mongolia another closely connected core Mongolic Xianbei region was the Upper Xiajiadian culture (1000–600 BCE) where the Donghu confederation was centered. After the Donghu were defeated by Xiongnu king Modu Chanyu , the Xianbei and Wuhuan survived as the main remnants of the confederation. Tadun Khan of the Wuhuan (died 207 AD) was the ancestor of

10101-458: The proto-Mongolic Kumo Xi . The Wuhuan are of the direct Donghu royal line and the New Book of Tang says that in 209 BCE, Modu Chanyu defeated the Wuhuan instead of using the word Donghu. The Xianbei, however, were of the lateral Donghu line and had a somewhat separate identity, although they shared the same language with the Wuhuan. In 49 CE the Xianbei ruler Bianhe (Bayan Khan?) raided and defeated

10212-456: The rest only as chapter titles. Such condition is described for the first time by Wang Shihan ( 王士漢 ) in 1669. Circulation ways of the individual chapters before that point (merging of different texts or single text's editions, substitution, addition, conflation with commentaries etc.) are subject to scholarly debates. Traditional Chinese historiography classified the Yi Zhou Shu as a zashi ( 雜史 ) or "unofficial history" and excluded it from

10323-694: The rise of the First Turkic Khaganate in 555, the Uyghur Khaganate in 745 and the Yenisei Kirghiz states in 840. The Tuoba were eventually absorbed into China. The Rouran fled west from the Göktürks and either disappeared into obscurity or, as some say, invaded Europe as the Avars under their Khan, Bayan I . Some Rouran under Tatar Khan migrated east, founding the Tatar confederation , who became part of

10434-605: The rule of Genghis Khan . There are several proposals for the ethnonym Mongol's etymology: In various times Mongolic peoples have been equated with the Scythians , the Magog , and the Tungusic peoples . Based on Chinese historical texts the ancestry of the Mongolic peoples can be traced back to the Donghu , a nomadic confederation occupying eastern Mongolia and Manchuria . The Donghu neighboured

10545-399: The rule of Galdan Boshugtu Khaan until 1696. The Mongol-Oirat's Code (a treaty of alliance) against foreign invasion between the Oirats and Khalkhas was signed in 1640, however, the Mongols could not unite against foreign invasions. Chakhundorj fought against Russian invasion of Outer Mongolia until 1688 and stopped Russian invasion of Khövsgöl Province . Zanabazar struggled to bring together

10656-589: The sides of Lake Baikal were separated from Mongolia. In 1689 the Treaty of Nerchinsk established the northern border of Manchuria north of the present line. The Russians retained Trans-Baikalia between Lake Baikal and the Argun River north of Mongolia. The Treaty of Kyakhta (1727) , along with the Treaty of Nerchinsk, regulated the relations between Russian and Qing empires until the mid-nineteenth century, and established

10767-483: The six tumens of the Eastern Mongolic peoples. They quickly became the dominant Mongolic clan in Mongolia proper. He reunited the Mongols again. In 1550, Altan Khan led a Khalkha Mongol raid on Beijing. The Mongols voluntarily reunified during Eastern Mongolian Tümen Zasagt Khan rule (1558–1592) for the last time (the Mongol Empire united all Mongols before this). Eastern Mongolia was divided into three parts in

10878-552: The strands lower on both sides they plait to hang down on the shoulders. With the breakup of the empire, the dispersed Mongolic peoples quickly adopted the mostly Turkic cultures surrounding them and were assimilated, forming parts of Afghanistan's Hazaras , Azerbaijanis , Uzbeks , Karakalpaks , Tatars , Bashkirs , Turkmens , Uyghurs , Nogays , Kyrgyzs , Kazakhs , Caucasus peoples , Iranian peoples and Moghuls ; linguistic and cultural Persianization also began to be prominent in these territories. Some Mongols assimilated into

10989-717: The territories of their Bashkir and Kazakh enemies. The last Kalmyk khan Ubashi led the migration to restore Mongolian independence. Ubashi Khan sent his 30,000 cavalries to the Russo-Turkish War (1768–74) to gain weapon before the migration. The Empress Catherine the Great ordered the Russian army, Bashkirs and Kazakhs to exterminate all migrants and the Empress abolished the Kalmyk Khanate. The Kyrgyzs attacked them near Balkhash Lake . About 100,000–150,000 Kalmyks who settled on

11100-490: The total population; common citizens, monks, Pan-Mongolists, nationalists, patriots, hundreds of military officers, nobles, intellectuals and elite people) were shot dead under Soviet orders. Some authors also offer much higher estimates, up to 100,000 victims. Around the late 1930s the Mongolian People's Republic had an overall population of about 700,000 to 900,000 people. By 1939, Soviet said "We repressed too many people,

11211-738: The war. Few Khalkhas fled to the Buryat region and Russia threatened to exterminate them if they did not submit, but many of them submitted to Galdan Boshugtu. In 1683 Galdan 's armies reached Tashkent and the Syr Darya and crushed two armies of the Kazakhs . After that Galdan subjugated the Black Khirgizs and ravaged the Fergana Valley . From 1685 Galdan's forces aggressively pushed the Kazakhs. While his general Rabtan took Taraz , and his main force forced

11322-596: The west bank of the Volga River could not cross the river because the river did not freeze in the winter of 1771 and Catherine the Great executed influential nobles of them. After seven months of travel, only one-third (66,073) of the original group reached Dzungaria (Balkhash Lake, western border of the Qing Empire). The Qing Empire transmigrated the Kalmyks to five different areas to prevent their revolt and influential leaders of

11433-475: Was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence." The Dzungar population reached 600,000 in 1755. About 200,000–250,000 Oirats migrated from western Mongolia to Volga River in 1607 and established the Kalmyk Khanate .The Torghuts were led by their Tayishi, Kho Orluk . Russia was concerned about their attack but the Kalmyks became a Russian ally and a treaty to protect the southern Russian border

11544-566: Was Galdan's ally. Tsetsen Khan (Eastern Khalkha leader) did not engage in this conflict. While Galdan was fighting in Eastern Mongolia, his nephew Tseveenravdan seized the Dzungarian throne in 1689 and this event made Galdan impossible to fight against the Qing Empire. The Russian and Qing Empires supported his action because this coup weakened Western Mongolian strength. Galdan Boshugtu's army

11655-709: Was a part of a Pan-Mongolian plan and few Oirats and Inner Mongols ( Huuchids , Bargas, Tümeds , about 800 Uzemchins ) arrived . Inner Mongolian leaders carried out active policy to merge Inner Mongolia with Mongolia since 1911. They founded the Inner Mongolian Army in 1929 but the Inner Mongolian Army disbanded after ending World War II. The Japanese Empire supported Pan-Mongolism since the 1910s but there have never been active relations between Mongolia and Imperial Japan due to Russian resistance. The nominally independent Inner Mongolian Mengjiang state (1936–1945)

11766-841: Was appointed joint guardian of the ritual torch along with Chu viscount Xiong Yi . These early Xianbei came from the nearby Zhukaigou culture (2200–1500 BCE) in the Ordos Desert , where maternal DNA corresponds to the Mongol Daur people and the Tungusic Evenks . The Zhukaigou Xianbei (part of the Ordos culture of Inner Mongolia and northern Shaanxi ) had trade relations with the Shang. Liu Song dynasty commentator Pei Yin (裴駰), in his Jixie (集解), quoted Eastern Han dynasty scholar Fu Qian (服虔)'s assertion that Shanrong (山戎) and Beidi (北狄) are ancestors of

11877-663: Was concerned that "if Mongolians gain independence, then Central Asians will revolt". 10,000 Khalkha and Inner Mongolian cavalries (about 3,500 Inner Mongols) defeated 70,000 Chinese soldiers and controlled almost all of Inner Mongolia; however, the Mongolian army retreated due to lack of weapons in 1914. 400 Mongol soldiers and 3,795 Chinese soldiers died in this war. The Khalkhas, Khovd Oirats, Buryats, Dzungarian Oirats, Upper Mongols , Barga Mongols , most Inner Mongolian and some Tuvan leaders sent statements to support Bogd Khan's call of Mongolian reunification . In reality however, most of them were too prudent or irresolute to attempt joining

11988-459: Was defeated by the outnumbering Qing army in 1696 and he died in 1697. The Mongols who fled to the Buryat region and Inner Mongolia returned after the war. Some Khalkhas mixed with the Buryats. The Buryats fought against Russian invasion since the 1620s and thousands of Buryats were massacred. The Buryat region was formally annexed to Russia by treaties in 1689 and 1727, when the territories on both

12099-563: Was established with support of Japan in 1936; also, some Buryat and Inner Mongol nobles founded a Pan-Mongolist government with the support of Japan in 1919. The Inner Mongols established the short-lived Republic of Inner Mongolia in 1945. Another part of Choibalsan's plan was to merge Inner Mongolia and Dzungaria with Mongolia. By 1945, Chinese communist leader Mao Zedong requested the Soviets to stop Pan-Mongolism because China lost its control over Inner Mongolia and without Inner Mongolian support

12210-455: Was signed between the Kalmyk Khanate and Russia. In 1724 the Kalmyks came under control of Russia. By the early 18th century, there were approximately 300,000–350,000 Kalmyks and 15,000,000 Russians. The Tsardom of Russia gradually chipped away at the autonomy of the Kalmyk Khanate. These policies, for instance, encouraged the establishment of Russian and German settlements on pastures the Kalmyks used to roam and feed their livestock. In addition,

12321-665: Was to find allies to defeat the Soviet Union . The Statement of Reunification of Mongolia was adopted by Mongolian revolutionaries in 1921. The Soviet, however, considered Mongolia to be Chinese territory in 1924 during a secret meeting with the Republic of China. However, the Soviets officially recognized Mongolian independence in 1945 but carried out various policies (political, economic and cultural) against Mongolia until its fall in 1991 to prevent Pan-Mongolism and other irredentist movements . On 10 April 1932, Mongolians revolted against

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