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182-576: The Immaculate Conception is the belief that the Virgin Mary was free of original sin from the moment of her conception. It is one of the four Marian dogmas of the Catholic Church. Debated by medieval theologians, it was not defined as a dogma until 1854, by Pope Pius IX in the papal bull Ineffabilis Deus . While the Immaculate Conception asserts Mary's freedom from original sin,

364-537: A wedding at Cana by turning water into wine. Subsequently, there are events when Mary is mentioned along with the Jesus' brothers . According to Epiphanius , Origen and Eusebius , these "brothers" would be sons of Joseph from a previous marriage. This view is still the official position of the Eastern Orthodox churches. Following Jerome , those would be actually Jesus' cousins, children of Mary's sister. This remains

546-465: A Franciscan Scotist and devoted Immaculist, placed it on the Roman calendar (i.e., list of church festivals and observances) via the bull Cum praexcelsa . Thereafter in 1481 and 1483, in response to the polemic writings of the prominent Thomist , Vincenzo Bandello , Pope Sixtus IV published two more bulls which forbade anybody to preach or teach against the Immaculate Conception, or for either side to accuse

728-548: A Joachimite tract and John of Parma was seen as favoring the condemned theology of Joachim of Fiore . To protect the Order from its enemies, John was forced to step down and recommended Bonaventure as his successor. Bonaventure saw the need to unify the Order around a common ideology and both wrote a new life of the founder and collected the Order's legislation into the Constitutions of Narbonne , so called because they were ratified by

910-471: A Rule in 1221 which he revised and had approved in 1223. After about 1221, the day-to-day running of the Order was in the hands of Brother Elias of Cortona , an able friar who was elected as leader of the friars a few years after Francis's death (1232) but who aroused much opposition because of his autocratic leadership style. He planned and built the Basilica of San Francesco d'Assisi in which Francis of Assisi

1092-555: A basis for reunion, and they were actually accepted by a general chapter at Assisi in 1430; but the majority of the Conventual houses refused to agree to them, and they remained without effect. At John of Capistrano 's request Eugene IV issued a bull ( Ut sacra minorum , 1446) aimed at the same result, but again nothing was accomplished. Equally unsuccessful were the attempts of the Franciscan Pope Sixtus IV , who bestowed

1274-535: A century of the death of Francis, members of the Third Order began to live in common, in an attempt to follow a more ascetical way of life. Angela of Foligno (+1309) was foremost among those who achieved great depths in their lives of prayer and service of the poor, while living in community with other women of the Order. Among the men, the Third Order Regular of St. Francis of Penance was formed in 1447 by

1456-411: A certain historical interest, since it shows the natural antipathy of the older Benedictine monasticism to the plebeian mendicant orders. The group was tonsured and Francis was ordained as a deacon, allowing him to proclaim Gospel passages and preach in churches during Mass. Francis had to suffer from the dissensions just alluded to and the transformation they effected in the original constitution of

1638-420: A chapter which they held certain stricter regulations in regard to fasting and the reception of alms, which departed from the spirit of the original rule. It did not take Francis long, on his return, to suppress this insubordinate tendency but he was less successful in regard to another of an opposite nature which soon came up. Elias of Cortona originated a movement for the increase of the worldly consideration of

1820-483: A common interpretation of the 1223 Rule it sent a delegation including Anthony of Padua to Pope Gregory IX for an authentic interpretation of this piece of papal legislation. The bull Quo elongati of Gregory IX declared that the Testament of St. Francis was not legally binding and offered an interpretation of poverty that would allow the Order to continue to develop. Gregory IX authorized agents of

2002-465: A decision in the main favoring his views, and the papal constitution Exivi de paradiso (1313) was on the whole conceived in the same sense. Clement's successor, Pope John XXII (1316–34), favored the laxer or conventual party. By the bull Quorundam exigit he modified several provisions of the constitution Exivi , and required the formal submission of the Spirituals. Some of them, encouraged by

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2184-459: A long time constituted their principle. Under Pope Clement V (1305–14) this party succeeded in exercising some influence on papal decisions. In 1309 Clement had a commission sit at Avignon for the purpose of reconciling the conflicting parties. Ubertino of Casale , the leader, after Olivi's death, of the stricter party, who was a member of the commission, induced the Council of Vienne to arrive at

2366-433: A message asking for him ... And looking at those who sat in a circle around him, Jesus said, 'These are my mother and my brothers. Whoever does the will of God is my brother, and sister, and mother'." Mary is also depicted as being present in a group of women at the crucifixion standing near the disciple whom Jesus loved along with Mary of Clopas and Mary Magdalene , to which list Matthew 27:56 adds "the mother of

2548-540: A new religious order. The original Rule of Saint Francis approved by the Pope did not allow ownership of property, requiring members of the order to beg for food while preaching. The austerity was meant to emulate the life and ministry of Jesus Christ . Franciscans traveled and preached in the streets, while staying in church properties. Clare of Assisi , under Francis's guidance, founded the Poor Clares (Order of Saint Clare) of

2730-414: A number of artistic masterpieces based on the use of these same symbols. The popularity of this particular representation of The Immaculate Conception spread across the rest of Europe, and has since remained the best known artistic depiction of the concept: in a heavenly realm, moments after her creation, the spirit of Mary (in the form of a young woman) looks up in awe at (or bows her head to) God. The Moon

2912-601: A number of goddesses, such as Isis , or Ishtar . Titles in use vary among Anglicans , Lutherans and other Protestants , as well as Mormons , Catholics , Orthodox and other Christians . The three main titles for Mary used by the Orthodox are Theotokos ( Θεοτόκος or "God-bearer"), Aeiparthenos ( ἀειπαρθένος ) which means ever-virgin, as confirmed in the Second Council of Constantinople in 553, and Panagia ( Παναγία ) meaning "all-holy". Catholics use

3094-720: A papal decree that united several communities of hermits following the Third Order Rule into a single Order with its own Minister General. Today it is an international community of friars who desire to emphasize the works of mercy and on-going conversion. The community is also known as the Franciscan Friars, TOR , and they strive to "rebuild the Church" in areas of high school and college education, parish ministry, church renewal, social justice, campus ministry, hospital chaplaincies, foreign missions, and other ministries in places where

3276-476: A perceived lack of biblical support for many traditional Christian dogmas pertaining to her. The multiple forms of Marian devotions include various prayers and hymns , the celebration of several Marian feast days in liturgy , the veneration of images and relics , the construction of churches dedicated to her and pilgrimages to Marian shrines . Many Marian apparitions and miracles attributed to her intercession have been reported by believers over

3458-647: A popular subject in literature, but its abstract nature meant it was late in appearing as a subject in art. During the Medieval period it was depicted as " Joachim and Anne Meeting at the Golden Gate ", meaning Mary's conception through the chaste kiss of her parents at the Golden Gate in Jerusalem; the 14th and 15th centuries were the heyday for this scene, after which it was gradually replaced by more allegorical depictions featuring an adult Mary. The definitive iconography for

3640-634: A religious order in its own right under its own minister General and particular type of governance. They all live according to a body of regulations known as the Rule of Saint Francis. The Second Order, most commonly called Poor Clares in English-speaking countries, consists of only one branch of religious sisters. The order is called the Order of St. Clare (OSC), but prior to 1263 they were called "The Poor Ladies", "The Poor Enclosed Nuns", and "The Order of San Damiano". The Franciscan third order , known as

3822-503: A sexual union which was sinless because it was pure and free of sexual lust. In the 16th and especially the 17th centuries there was a proliferation of Immaculatist devotion in Spain, leading the Habsburg monarchs to demand that the papacy elevate the belief to the status of dogma. In France in 1830 Catherine Labouré (May 2, 1806 – December 31, 1876) saw a vision of Mary standing on a globe while

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4004-519: A vast number of privileges on both of the original mendicant orders, but by this very fact lost the favor of the Observants and failed in his plans for reunion. Julius II succeeded in reducing some of the smaller branches, but left the division of the two great parties untouched. This division was finally legalized by Leo X , after a general chapter held in Rome in 1517, in connection with the reform-movement of

4186-419: A voice commanded her to have a medal made in imitation of what she saw. The medal said "O Mary, conceived without sin, pray for us who have recourse to thee", which was a confirmation of Mary herself that she was conceived without sin, confirming the Immaculate Conception. Her vision marked the beginning of a great 19th-century Marian revival. In 1849 Pope Pius IX issued the encyclical Ubi primum soliciting

4368-491: A wide variety of titles for Mary, and these titles have in turn given rise to many artistic depictions. The title Theotokos , which means "God-bearer", was recognized at the Council of Ephesus in 431. The direct equivalents of title in Latin are Deipara and Dei Genitrix , although the phrase is more often loosely translated into Latin as Mater Dei ("Mother of God"), with similar patterns for other languages used in

4550-602: Is Life of the Virgin , attributed to the 7th-century saint Maximus the Confessor , which portrays her as a key element of the early Christian Church after the death of Jesus. Christian Marian perspectives include a great deal of diversity. While some Christians such as Catholics and Eastern Orthodox have well established Marian traditions, Protestants at large pay scant attention to Mariological themes. Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Anglican, and Lutherans venerate

4732-665: Is a common figure of speech in Arabic ) as per a Hadith from the Islamic prophet Muhammad explaining Mary was indeed named after Miriam. The canonical Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles are the primary sources of historical information about Mary. They are almost contemporary sources, as the synoptic Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles are generally considered dating from around AD 66–90, while

4914-416: Is a difference between the usage of the term "blessed" as pertaining to Mary and its usage as pertaining to a beatified person. "Blessed" as a Marian title refers to her exalted state as being the greatest among the saints; for a person who has been declared beatified, on the other hand, "blessed" simply indicates that they may be venerated despite not being canonized . Catholic teachings make clear that Mary

5096-516: Is also called "Tahira" , meaning "one who has been purified" and representing her status as one of two humans in creation to not be touched by Satan at any point, the other being Jesus. In the Quran , she is described both as "the daughter of Imran" and "the sister of Aaron", alluding to Miriam from the Hebrew Bible . However, the title of "the sister of Aaron" is confirmed to be metaphorical (which

5278-437: Is buried, a building which includes the friary Sacro Convento , still today the spiritual centre of the Order. In the external successes of the brothers, as they were reported at the yearly general chapters, there was much to encourage Francis. Caesar of Speyer , the first German provincial , a zealous advocate of the founder's strict principle of poverty, began in 1221 from Augsburg , with twenty-five companions, to win for

5460-628: Is in the epistle to the Galatians , which was written before the gospels . She is referred to as "a woman" and is not named: "But when the fullness of time had come, God sent his Son, born of a woman, born under the law" (Galatians 4:4). Mary is mentioned several times in the canonical Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles: In the Book of Revelation , also part of the New Testament , the " woman clothed with

5642-450: Is meritorious and holy; Christ, also, showing the way of perfection, taught it by word and confirmed it by example, and the first founders of the church militant, as they had drawn it from the fountainhead itself, distributed it through the channels of their teaching and life to those wishing to live perfectly." Although Exiit qui seminat banned disputing about its contents, the decades that followed saw increasingly bitter disputes about

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5824-769: Is not considered divine and prayers to her are not answered by her, but rather by God through her intercession. The four Catholic dogmas regarding Mary are: her status as Theotokos , or Mother of God; her perpetual virginity; the Immaculate Conception; and her bodily Assumption into Heaven. The Blessed Virgin Mary , the mother of Jesus has a more central role in Roman Catholic teachings and beliefs than in any other major Christian group. Not only do Roman Catholics have more theological doctrines and teachings that relate to Mary, but they have more feasts, prayers, devotional and venerative practices than any other group. The Catechism of

6006-492: Is often referred to by the honorific title "Sayyidatuna" , meaning "Our Lady"; this title is in parallel to "Sayyiduna" ("Our Lord"), used for the prophets. A related term of endearment is "Siddiqah" , meaning "she who confirms the truth" and "she who believes sincerely completely". Another title for Mary is "Qānitah" , which signifies both constant submission to God and absorption in prayer and invocation in Islam. She

6188-635: Is salvation". After Mary continued in the " blood of her purifying " another 33 days, for a total of 40 days, she brought her burnt offering and sin offering to the Temple in Jerusalem (Luke 2:22), so the priest could make atonement for her. They also presented Jesus – "As it is written in the law of the Lord, Every male that openeth the womb shall be called holy to the Lord" (Luke 2:23; Exodus 13:2; 23:12–15; 22:29; 34:19–20; Numbers 3:13; 18:15). After

6370-466: Is sinful, to celebrate Mary's conception was to celebrate a sinful event. The feast of Mary's conception originated in the Eastern Church in the 7th century, reached England in the 11th, and from there spread to Europe, where it was given official approval in 1477 and extended to the whole church in 1693; the word "immaculate" was not officially added to the name of the feast until 1854. The doctrine of

6552-439: Is under her feet and a halo of twelve stars surround her head, possibly a reference to "a woman clothed with the sun" from Revelation 12:1–2 . Additional imagery may include clouds, a golden light, and putti . In some paintings the putti are holding lilies and roses , flowers often associated with Mary. Eastern Orthodoxy never accepted Augustine's specific ideas on original sin, and in consequence did not become involved in

6734-569: The Magnificat . Mary's participation in the processes of salvation and redemption has also been emphasized in the Catholic tradition, but they are not doctrines. Pope John Paul II 's 1987 encyclical Redemptoris Mater began with the sentence: "The Mother of the Redeemer has a precise place in the plan of salvation." In the 20th century, both popes John Paul II and Benedict XVI emphasized

6916-448: The Expositio regulae written by David of Augsburg soon after 1260. The successor to Bonaventure, Jerome of Ascoli or Girolamo Masci (1274–79), (the future Pope Nicholas IV ), and his successor, Bonagratia of Bologna (1279–85), also followed a middle course. Severe measures were taken against certain extreme Spirituals who, on the strength of the rumor that Pope Gregory X

7098-519: The Bishop of Assisi , Guido, then Cardinal Giovanni di San Paolo and finally Innocent himself, was their utter loyalty to the Catholic Church and the clergy. Innocent III was not only the pope reigning during the life of Francis of Assisi, but he was also responsible for helping to construct the church Francis was being called to rebuild. Innocent III and the Fourth Lateran Council helped maintain

7280-522: The Capuchin Poor Clares ( OSC Cap. – founded 1538), and the Poor Clares of Perpetual Adoration ( PCPA – founded 1854). The Third Order of Saint Francis comprises people who desired to grow in holiness in their daily lives without entering monastic life. After founding the Friars Minor and seeing a need, Francis created a way of life to which married men and women, as well as the single and

7462-411: The Council of Trent , held between 1545 and 1563, had previously affirmed her freedom from personal sin . The Immaculate Conception became a popular subject in literature, but its abstract nature meant it was late in appearing as a subject in works of art. The iconography of Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception shows Mary standing, with arms outstretched or hands clasped in prayer. The feast day of

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7644-615: The Fifth Lateran Council , had once more declared the impossibility of reunion. The less strict principles of the Conventuals, permitting the possession of real estate and the enjoyment of fixed revenues, were recognized as tolerable, while the Observants, in contrast to this usus moderatus , were held strictly to their own usus arctus or pauper . All of the groups that followed the Franciscan Rule literally were united to

7826-616: The Franciscans . This order is a mendicant religious order of men, some of whom trace their origin to Francis of Assisi. Their official Latin name is the Ordo Fratrum Minorum . Francis thus referred to his followers as "Fraticelli", meaning "Little Brothers". Franciscan brothers are informally called friars or the Minorites . The modern organization of the Friars Minor comprises three separate families or groups, each considered

8008-677: The Latin Church . However, this same phrase in Greek ( Μήτηρ Θεοῦ ), in the abbreviated form ΜΡ ΘΥ , is an indication commonly attached to her image in Byzantine icons . The Council stated that the Church Fathers "did not hesitate to speak of the holy Virgin as the Mother of God". Some Marian titles have a direct scriptural basis. For instance, the title "Queen Mother" has been given to Mary, as she

8190-517: The Liturgy of the Hours , included offices venerating Mary's immaculate conception on the feast of the Immaculate Conception. An example is the antiphon that begins: " Tota pulchra es, Maria, et macula originalis non est in te " ("You are all beautiful, Mary, and the original stain [of sin] is not in you". It continues: "Your clothing is white as snow, and your face is like the sun. You are all beautiful, Mary, and

8372-564: The Order of Saint Clare , are members of a contemplative order of nuns in the Catholic Church . The Poor Clares were the second Franciscan order to be established. Founded by Clare of Assisi and Francis of Assisi on Palm Sunday in the year 1212, they were organized after the Order of Friars Minor (the first order), and before the Third Order of Saint Francis. As of 2011 there were over 20,000 Poor Clare nuns in over 75 countries throughout

8554-570: The Roman Emperor Augustus required that Joseph return to his hometown of Bethlehem to register for a Roman census . While he was there with Mary, she gave birth to Jesus; but because there was no place for them in the inn, she used a manger as a cradle. It is not told how old Mary was at the time of the Nativity, but attempts have been made to infer it from the age of a typical Jewish mother of that time. Mary Joan Winn Leith represents

8736-504: The Third Order of Saint Francis , has many men and women members, separated into two main branches: The 2013 Annuario Pontificio gave the following figures for the membership of the principal male Franciscan orders:. The coat of arms that is a universal symbol of Franciscan "contains the Tau cross , with two crossed arms: Christ's right hand with the nail wound and Francis' left hand with

8918-555: The Tribe of Levi . Some of those who believe that the relationship with Elizabeth was on the maternal side, believe that Mary, like Joseph, was of the royal Davidic line and so of the Tribe of Judah , and that the genealogy of Jesus presented in Luke 3 from Nathan , is in fact the genealogy of Mary, while the genealogy from Solomon given in Matthew 1 is that of Joseph. (Aaron's wife Elisheba

9100-489: The gospel of John would date from AD 90–110. They provide limited information about Mary, as they primarily focus on the teaching of Jesus and on his apostles . The historical reliability of the Gospels and historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles are subject to debate, as it was common practice in early Christian writings to mix historical facts with legendary stories. The earliest New Testament account of Mary

9282-625: The secular clergy , could belong and live according to the Gospel. The Secular Franciscan Order , prior to 1978 also known as the Third Order Secular of Saint Francis, is an order founded by Francis in 1212 for brothers and sisters who do not live in a religious community. Members of the order continue to live secular lives, however they do gather regularly for fraternal activities. In the United States alone there are 17,000 professed members of

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9464-684: The " Conventuals " (formed 1517) and " Capuchins " (1520). The Order of Friars Minor, in its current form, is the result of an amalgamation of several smaller orders completed in 1897 by Pope Leo XIII . The latter two, the Capuchin and Conventual, remain distinct religious institutes within the Catholic Church, observing the Rule of Saint Francis with different emphases. Conventual Franciscans are sometimes referred to as minorites or greyfriars because of their habit . In Poland and Lithuania they are known as Bernardines , after Bernardino of Siena , although

9646-634: The 11th. It was suppressed there after the Norman Conquest (1066), and the first thorough exposition of the doctrine was a response to this suppression. It continued to spread through the 15th century despite accusations of heresy from the Thomists and strong objections from several prominent theologians. Beginning around 1140 Bernard of Clairvaux , a Cistercian monk, wrote to Lyons Cathedral to express his surprise and dissatisfaction that it had recently begun to be observed there, but in 1477 Pope Sixtus IV ,

9828-627: The 14th century Codex Casanatensis for use by Inquisitors in Tuscany. As well as acting as prosecutors, many friars, particularly those associated with the Spiritual Franciscans and even some Observants , were also subject to interrogation and prosecution by the Inquisition at various stages in the 13th and 14th centuries. Notable cases from the Spirituals include Angelo da Clareno and Bernard Délicieux . Notable examples of Observants include

10010-544: The 1960s before declining after the 1970s. The Order is headed by a Minister General, who since July 2021 is Father Massimo Fusarelli. The Order of Friars Minor Conventual ( OFM Conv. ) consists of 290 houses worldwide with a total of almost 5000 friars. They have experienced growth in this century throughout the world. They are located in Italy, the United States, Canada, Australia, and throughout Latin America, and Africa. They are

10192-690: The Bavarian and his pope had to flee Rome before an attack by Robert, King of Naples . Only a small part of the Franciscan Order joined the opponents of John XXII, and at a general chapter held in Paris in 1329 the majority of all the houses declared their submission to the Pope. With the bull Quia vir reprobus of 16 November 1329, John XXII replied to Michael of Cesena's attacks on Ad conditorem canonum , Quum inter nonnullos , and Quia quorundam . In 1330, Antipope Nicholas V submitted, followed later by

10374-535: The Beghards, was suppressed by the Inquisition during the controversies under John XXII. This was founded in the hermitage of St. Bartholomew at Brugliano near Foligno in 1334. The congregation was suppressed by the Franciscan general chapter in 1354; reestablished in 1368 by Paolo de' Trinci of Foligno; confirmed by Gregory XI in 1373, and spread rapidly from Central Italy to France, Spain, Hungary, and elsewhere. Most of

10556-439: The Catholic Church states: "The Church's devotion to the Blessed Virgin is intrinsic to Christian worship." For centuries, Catholics have performed acts of consecration and entrustment to Mary at personal, societal and regional levels. These acts may be directed to the Virgin herself, to the Immaculate Heart of Mary and to the Immaculate Conception . In Catholic teachings, consecration to Mary does not diminish or substitute

10738-426: The Celestines was separated from the Franciscan section, and the latter was formally suppressed by Pope Boniface VIII in 1302. The leader of the Observantists, Olivi, who spent his last years in the Franciscan house at Tarnius and died there in 1298, had pronounced against the extremer "Spiritual" attitude, and given an exposition of the theory of poverty which was approved by the more moderate Observantists, and for

10920-493: The Cenacle and gave it to the Franciscans. Pope Clement VI by the Bulls Gratias agimus and Nuper charissimae (1342) declared the Franciscans as the official custodians of the Holy Places in the name of the Catholic Church. The Franciscan Custody of the Holy Land is still in force today. Elias was a lay friar, and encouraged other laymen to enter the order. This brought opposition from many ordained friars and ministers provincial, who also opposed increased centralization of

11102-407: The Church' and 'truth about man. ' " There is significant diversity in the Marian doctrines attributed to her primarily by the Catholic Church. The key Marian doctrines held primarily in Catholicism can be briefly outlined as follows: The acceptance of these Marian doctrines by Roman Catholics and other Christians can be summarized as follows: The title "Mother of God" ( Theotokos ) for Mary

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11284-410: The Conventuals, including the quasi-Observantist brothers living under the rule of the Conventual ministers (Martinianists or Observantes sub ministris ), such as the male Colletans, later led by Boniface de Ceva in his reform attempts principally in France and Germany; the reformed congregation founded in 1426 by the Spaniard Philip de Berbegal and distinguished by the special importance they attached to

11466-423: The Dragon underfoot. Luke 1:28 , and specifically the phrase "full of grace" by which Gabriel greeted Mary, was another reference to her Immaculate Conception: "she was never subject to the curse and was, together with her Son, the only partaker of perpetual benediction". Ineffabilis Deus was one of the pivotal events of the papacy of Pius, pope from 16 June 1846 to his death on 7 February 1878. Four years after

11648-452: The East historically regarded her as Christotokos , a term still used in Assyrian Church of the East liturgy. Other Protestant views on Mary vary, with some holding her to have lesser status. She has the highest position in Islam among all women and is mentioned numerous times in the Quran , including in a chapter named after her . She is also revered in the Baháʼí Faith and the Druze Faith . The synoptic Gospels name Mary as

11830-399: The Enclosed Garden from the Song of Songs , and many more passages. From this wealth of support the pope's advisors singled out Genesis 3:15 : "The most glorious Virgin ... was foretold by God when he said to the serpent: 'I will put enmity between you and the woman, ' " a prophecy which reached fulfilment in the figure of the Woman in the Revelation of John , crowned with stars and trampling

12012-411: The Franciscans in New Spain began in 1523, when three Flemish friars—Juan de Ayora, Pedro de Tecto, and Pedro de Gante—reached the central highlands. Their impact as missionaries was limited at first, since two of them died on Cortés 's expedition to Central America in 1524, but Fray Pedro de Gante initiated the evangelization process and studied the Nahuatl language through his contacts with children of

12194-410: The Franciscans. The extreme poverty required of members was relaxed in the final revision of the Rule in 1223. The degree of observance required of members remained a major source of conflict within the order, resulting in numerous secessions. The Order of Friars Minor, previously known as the "Observant" branch, is one of the three Franciscan First Orders within the Catholic Church, the others being

12376-470: The Gospels of Matthew and Luke consider Jesus' conception not the result of intercourse, and assert that Mary had "no relations with man" before Jesus' birth. This alludes to the belief that Mary conceived Jesus through the action of God the Holy Spirit, and not through intercourse with Joseph or anyone else. The doctrines of the Assumption or Dormition of Mary relate to her death and bodily assumption to heaven. Roman Catholic Church has dogmatically defined

12558-455: The Hearts of Jesus and Mary ). Major Marian devotions include: Seven Sorrows of Mary , Rosary and scapular , Miraculous Medal and Reparations to Mary . The months of May and October are traditionally "Marian months" for Roman Catholics; the daily rosary is encouraged in October and in May Marian devotions take place in many regions. Popes have issued a number of Marian encyclicals and Apostolic Letters to encourage devotions to and

12740-406: The Immaculate Conception caused a virtual civil war between Franciscans and Dominicans during the Middle Ages, with Franciscan ' Scotists ' in its favour and Dominican ' Thomists ' against it. The English ecclesiastic and scholar Eadmer ( c.  1060  – c.  1126 ) reasoned that it was possible that Mary was conceived without original sin in view of God's omnipotence, and that it

12922-402: The Immaculate Conception is December 8. Many Protestant churches rejected the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception as unscriptural, though some Anglicans accept it as a pious devotion . Opinions on the Immaculate Conception in Oriental Orthodoxy are divided: Shenouda III , Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church , and the Patriarch Ignatius Zakka I of the Syriac Orthodox Church opposed

13104-569: The Immaculate Conception is December 8. The Roman Missal and the Roman Rite Liturgy of the Hours include references to Mary's immaculate conception in the feast of the Immaculate Conception. Its celebration seems to have begun in the Eastern church in the 7th century and may have spread to Ireland by the 8th, although the earliest well-attested record in the Western church is from England early in

13286-486: The Immaculate Conception. By the 4th century the idea that Mary was free from sin was generally more widespread, but original sin raised the question of whether she was also free of the sin passed down from Adam. The question became acute when the feast of her conception began to be celebrated in England in the 11th century, and the opponents of the feast of Mary's conception brought forth the objection that as sexual intercourse

13468-521: The Immaculately Conceived One, is closely associated with Lourdes . The Loreto Litanies included the official Latin Marian title of Regina sine labe originali concepta (Queen conceived without original sin), which had been granted by Pope Gregory XVI (1831-1846) from 1839 onwards to some dioceses, thus several years before the proclamation of the dogma. The Immaculate Conception became

13650-663: The Indian elite from the city of Tetzcoco . Later, in May 1524, with the arrival of the Twelve Apostles of Mexico , led by Martín de Valencia . There they built the Convento Grande de San Francisco , which became Franciscan headquarters for New Spain for the next three hundred years. The Order of Friars Minor ( OFM ) has 1,500 houses in about 100 provinces and custodiae , with about 16,000 members. In 1897, Pope Leo XIII combined

13832-521: The Lord. Let it be done unto me according to your word." Joseph planned to quietly divorce her, but was told her conception was by the Holy Spirit in a dream by "an angel of the Lord"; the angel told him to not hesitate to take her as his wife, which Joseph did, thereby formally completing the wedding rites. Since the angel Gabriel had told Mary that Elizabeth—having previously been barren—was then miraculously pregnant, Mary hurried to see Elizabeth, who

14014-450: The Marian focus of the Catholic Church. Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) suggested a redirection of the whole church towards the program of Pope John Paul II in order to ensure an authentic approach to Christology via a return to the "whole truth about Mary," writing: "It is necessary to go back to Mary if we want to return to that 'truth about Jesus Christ,' 'truth about

14196-571: The New Testament. In Christianity, Mary is commonly referred to as the Virgin Mary, in accordance with the belief that the Holy Spirit impregnated her, thereby conceiving her first-born son Jesus miraculously , without sexual relations with her betrothed Joseph, "until her son [Jesus] was born". The word "until" has inspired considerable analysis on whether Joseph and Mary produced siblings after

14378-461: The Observantist houses joined this congregation by degrees, so that it became known simply as the "brothers of the regular Observance." It acquired the favor of the popes by its energetic opposition to the heretical Fraticelli , and was expressly recognized by the Council of Constance (1415). It was allowed to have a special vicar-general of its own and legislate for its members without reference to

14560-448: The Observantist party with his own order of hermits (see Celestines ) was scarcely more successful. Only a part of the Spirituals joined the new order, and the secession scarcely lasted beyond the reign of the hermit-pope. Pope Boniface VIII annulled Celestine's bull of foundation with his other acts, deposed the general Raymond Gaufredi , and appointed a man of laxer tendency, John de Murro , in his place. The Benedictine section of

14742-529: The Observants, Discalced (Alcantarines), Recollects, and Riformati into one order under general constitutions. While the Capuchins and Conventuals wanted the reunited Observants to be referred to as The Order of Friars Minor of the Leonine Union, they were instead called simply the Order of Friars Minor . Despite the tensions caused by this forced union the Order grew from 1897 to reach a peak of 26,000 members in

14924-542: The Observants, and the right to elect the Minister General of the Order , together with the seal of the Order, was given to this united grouping. This grouping, since it adhered more closely to the rule of the founder, was allowed to claim a certain superiority over the Conventuals. The Observant general (elected now for six years, not for life) inherited the title of "Minister-General of the Whole Order of St. Francis" and

15106-446: The Order and the adaptation of its system to the plans of the hierarchy which conflicted with the original notions of the founder and helped to bring about the successive changes in the rule already described. Francis was not alone in opposition to this lax and secularizing tendency. On the contrary, the party which clung to his original views and after his death took his "Testament" for their guide, known as Observantists or Zelanti ,

15288-400: The Order at its chapter held at Narbonne , France, in 1260. In the chapter of Pisa three years later Bonaventure's Legenda maior was approved as the only biography of Francis and all previous biographies were ordered to be destroyed. Bonaventure ruled (1257–74) in a moderate spirit, which is represented also by various works produced by the order in his time – especially by

15470-468: The Order but also led the Order towards a greater clericalization. The new Pope Innocent IV supported them in this. In a bull of November 14, 1245, this pope even sanctioned an extension of the system of financial agents, and allowed the funds to be used not simply for those things that were necessary for the friars but also for those that were useful. The Observantist party took a strong stand in opposition to this ruling and agitated so successfully against

15652-582: The Order the land watered by the Rhine and the Danube . In 1224 Agnellus of Pisa led a small group of friars to England. The branch of the Order arriving in England became known as the "greyfriars". Beginning at Greyfriars at Canterbury , the ecclesiastical capital, they moved on to London , the political capital, and Oxford , the intellectual capital. From these three bases the Franciscans swiftly expanded to embrace

15834-463: The Order to have custody of such funds where they could not be spent immediately. Elias pursued with great severity the principal leaders of the opposition, and even Bernardo di Quintavalle , the founder's first disciple, was obliged to conceal himself for years in the forest of Monte Sefro . The conflict between the two parties lasted many years and the Zelanti won several notable victories in spite of

16016-450: The Order. Gregory IX declared his intention to build a splendid church to house the body of Francis and the task fell to Elias, who at once began to lay plans for the erection of a great basilica at Assisi, to enshrine the remains of the Poverello . In order to build the basilica, Elias proceeded to collect money in various ways to meet the expenses of the building. Elias thus also alienated

16198-438: The Order. He died in 1253, after succeeding by recantation in obtaining the removal of his censures. Under John of Parma, who enjoyed the favor of Innocent IV and Pope Alexander IV , the influence of the Order was notably increased, especially by the provisions of the latter pope in regard to the academic activity of the brothers. He not only sanctioned the theological institutes in Franciscan houses, but did all he could to support

16380-671: The Theotokos. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church celebrates the Feast of the Immaculate Conception on Nehasie 7 (August 13). In the mid-19th century, some Catholics who were unable to accept the doctrine of papal infallibility left the Roman Church and formed the Old Catholic Church . This movement rejects the Immaculate Conception. Protestants overwhelmingly condemned the promulgation of Ineffabilis Deus as an exercise in papal power, and

16562-525: The Virgin Mary. This veneration especially takes the form of prayer for intercession with her Son, Jesus Christ. Additionally, it includes composing poems and songs in Mary's honor, painting icons or carving statues of her, and conferring titles on Mary that reflect her position among the saints. In the Catholic Church, Mary is accorded the title "Blessed" ( beata , μακάρια , makaria ) in recognition of her assumption to Heaven and her capacity to intercede on behalf of those who pray to her. There

16744-490: The beginning simply by preaching and acting as living examples of the Gospel life. As official Inquisitors, they were authorized to use torture to extract confessions, as approved by Pope Innocent IV in 1252 while John of Parma was General Minister. The Franciscans were involved in the torture and trials of Jews, Muslims, and other heretics throughout the Middle Ages and wrote their own manuals to guide Inquisitors, such as

16926-405: The betrothal, after which the bride legally belonged to the bridegroom, though she did not live with him till about a year later, when the marriage was celebrated. The angel Gabriel announced to her that she was to be the mother of the promised Messiah by conceiving him through the Holy Spirit, and, after initially expressing incredulity at the announcement, she responded, "I am the handmaid of

17108-459: The biblical accounts, although it is held by Catholics that she is again portrayed as the heavenly woman in the Book of Revelation . Her death is not recorded in the scriptures, but Orthodox tradition, tolerated also by Catholics, has her first dying a natural death, known as the Dormition of Mary , and then, soon after, her body itself also being assumed (taken bodily) into Heaven . Belief in

17290-842: The birth of Jesus or not. Among her many other names and titles are the Blessed Virgin Mary (often abbreviated to "BVM" after the Latin Beata Maria Virgo ), Saint Mary (occasionally), the Mother of God (primarily in Western Christianity ), the Theotokos (primarily in Eastern Christianity ), Our Lady (Medieval Italian : Madonna ), and Queen of Heaven ( Regina caeli ; see also here ). The title " queen of heaven " had previously been used as an epithet for

17472-559: The bishops of the church for their views on whether the doctrine should be defined as dogma; ninety percent of those who responded were supportive, although the Archbishop of Paris, Marie-Dominique-Auguste Sibour , warned that the Immaculate Conception "could be proved neither from the Scriptures nor from tradition". In 1854 the Immaculate Conception dogma was proclaimed with the bull Ineffabilis Deus . We declare, pronounce, and define that

17654-415: The brotherhood making it a regular order under strict supervision from Rome. Exasperated by the demands of running a growing and fractious Order, Francis asked Pope Honorius III for help in 1219. He was assigned Cardinal Ugolino as protector of the Order by the pope. Francis resigned the day-to-day running of the Order into the hands of others but retained the power to shape the Order's legislation, writing

17836-423: The centuries. She has been a traditional subject in arts , notably in Byzantine art , medieval art and Renaissance art . Mary's name in the original manuscripts of the New Testament was based on her original Aramaic name מרים , transliterated as Maryam or Mariam . The English name Mary comes from the Greek Μαρία , a shortened form of the name Μαριάμ . Both Μαρία and Μαριάμ appear in

18018-538: The church in Europe. Innocent probably saw in them a possible answer to his desire for an orthodox preaching force to counter heresy. Many legends have clustered around the decisive audience of Francis with the pope. The realistic account in Matthew Paris , according to which the pope originally sent the shabby saint off to keep swine, and only recognized his real worth by his ready obedience, has, in spite of its improbability,

18200-618: The conventual part of the Order. Through the work of such men as Bernardino of Siena , Giovanni da Capistrano , and Dietrich Coelde (b. 1435? at Munster; was a member of the Brethren of the Common Life , died December 11, 1515), it gained great prominence during the 15th century. By the end of the Middle Ages, the Observantists, with 1,400 houses, comprised nearly half of the entire Order. Their influence brought about attempts at reform even among

18382-679: The corporeal assumption of Mary is a dogma of the Catholic Church , in the Latin and Eastern Catholic Churches alike, and is believed as well by the Eastern Orthodox Church , the Oriental Orthodox Church , and parts of the Anglican Communion and Continuing Anglican movement . According to the apocryphal Gospel of James , Mary was the daughter of Joachim and Anne . Before Mary's conception, Anne had been barren and

18564-660: The death of its founder in 1481; the Amadeists, founded by the noble Portuguese Amadeo, who entered the Franciscan order at Assisi in 1452, gathered around him a number of adherents to his fairly strict principles (numbering finally twenty-six houses), and died in the odor of sanctity in 1482. Projects for a union between the two main branches of the Order were put forth not only by the Council of Constance but by several popes, without any positive result. By direction of Pope Martin V , John of Capistrano drew up statutes which were to serve as

18746-685: The depiction of "Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception" seems to have been finally established by the painter and theorist Francisco Pacheco in his "El arte de la pintura" of 1649: a beautiful young girl of 12 or 13, wearing a white tunic and blue mantle, rays of light emanating from her head ringed by twelve stars and crowned by an imperial crown, the Sun behind her and the Moon beneath her feet. Pacheco's iconography influenced other Spanish artists or artists active in Spain such as El Greco , Bartolomé Murillo , Diego Velázquez , and Francisco Zurbarán , who each produced

18928-492: The division between brothers occupied in manual labor and those employed on spiritual missions as a corruption of the fundamental principles of the Order. They were not won over by the conciliatory attitude of the next general, Raymond Gaufredi (1289–96), and of the Franciscan Pope Nicholas ;IV (1288–92). The attempt made by the next pope, Celestine V , an old friend of the order, to end the strife by uniting

19110-576: The doctrine itself as unscriptural, for it denied that all had sinned and rested on the Latin translation of Luke 1:28 (the "full of grace" passage) that the original Greek did not support. Protestants, therefore, teach that Mary was a sinner saved through grace, like all believers. The Catholic–Lutheran dialogue 's statement The One Mediator, the Saints, and Mary , issued in 1990 after seven years of study and discussion, conceded that Lutherans and Catholics remained separated "by differing views on matters such as

19292-778: The doctrine of the Assumption, which was done in 1950 by Pope Pius XII in Munificentissimus Deus . Whether Mary died or not is not defined dogmatically, however, although a reference to the death of Mary is made in Munificentissimus Deus . In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Assumption of the Virgin Mary is believed, and celebrated with her Dormition , where they believe she died. Franciscan Francis began preaching around 1207 and traveled to Rome to seek approval from Pope Innocent III in 1209 to form

19474-505: The doctrine which holds that the most Blessed Virgin Mary, in the first instance of her conception, by a singular grace and privilege granted by Almighty God, in view of the merits of Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the human race, was preserved free from all stain of original sin, is a doctrine revealed by God and therefore to be believed firmly and constantly by all the faithful. Dom Prosper Guéranger , Abbot of Solesmes Abbey , who had been one of

19656-518: The dogma was slow and elaborate and it was more the fruit of popular devotion than scholarly. The Immaculate Conception became a popular subject in literature and art, and some devotees went so far as to hold that Anne had conceived Mary by kissing her husband Joachim, and that Anne's father and grandmother had likewise been conceived without sexual intercourse, although Bridget of Sweden ( c.  1303 –1373) told how Mary herself had revealed to her that Anne and Joachim conceived their daughter through

19838-405: The dogmas of the Immaculate Conception and papal infallibility as "Roman novelties" and called on the Roman church to return to the faith of the early centuries. Eastern Orthodox Bishop Kallistos Ware comments that "the Latin dogma seems to us not so much erroneous as superfluous". The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Churches believe in the Immaculate Conception of

20020-402: The early 1500s, made no explicit declaration on the subject but exempted her from the universality of original sin; and also affirmed that she remained during all her life free from all stain of sin, even the venial one.; by 1571 the revised Roman Breviary set out an elaborate celebration of the Feast of the Immaculate Conception on 8 December. According to Patrizia Granziera , the creation of

20202-488: The ex-general Michael, and finally, just before his death, by Ockham. Out of all these dissensions in the 14th century sprang a number of separate congregations, or almost sects, to say nothing of the heretical parties of the Beghards and Fraticelli , some of which developed within the Order on both hermit and cenobitic principles and may here be mentioned: The Clareni or Clarenini was an association of hermits established on

20384-503: The excesses of the Spirituals, who contended eagerly for the view that Christ and his apostles had possessed absolutely nothing, either separately or jointly, and who were citing Exiit qui seminat in support of their view. In 1317, John XXII formally condemned the group of them known as the Fraticelli. On 26 March 1322, with Quia nonnunquam , he removed the ban on discussion of Nicholas III's bull and commissioned experts to examine

20566-560: The faithful through the teaching of the ordinary magisterium. Finally, it is necessary that it be attested by the liturgy, and the Fathers and Doctors of the Church . Guéranger maintained that these conditions were met and that the definition was therefore possible. Ineffabilis Deus found the Immaculate Conception in the Ark of Salvation ( Noah's Ark ), Jacob's Ladder , the Burning Bush at Sinai,

20748-440: The favor shown to their opponents by the papal administration, until finally the reconciliation of the two points of view was seen to be impossible and the order was actually split into halves. Elias governed the Order from the center, imposing his authority on the provinces (as had Francis). A reaction to this centralized government was led from the provinces of England and Germany. At the general chapter of 1239, held in Rome under

20930-503: The fictitious structure that gave the appearance of absolute poverty to the life of the Franciscan friars. Influential members of the order protested, such as the minister general Michael of Cesena , the English provincial William of Ockham , and Bonagratia of Bergamo . In 1324, Louis the Bavarian sided with the Spirituals and accused the pope of heresy. In reply to the argument of his opponents that Nicholas III's bull Exiit qui seminat

21112-423: The first rule which Francis gave them (probably as early as 1209) which seems to have been nothing more than a collection of Scriptural passages emphasizing the duty of poverty. In spite of some similarities between this principle and some of the fundamental ideas of the followers of Peter Waldo , the brotherhood of Assisi succeeded in gaining the approval of Pope Innocent III . What seems to have impressed first

21294-605: The form of poverty to be observed by Franciscans, with the Spirituals (so called because associated with the Age of the Spirit that Joachim of Fiore had said would begin in 1260) pitched against the Conventual Franciscans . Pope Clement V 's bull Exivi de Paradiso of 20 November 1312 failed to effect a compromise between the two factions. Clement V's successor, Pope John XXII was determined to suppress what he considered to be

21476-533: The formal liturgy. The Immaculata prayer , composed by Maximillian Kolbe , is a prayer of entrustment to Mary as the Immaculata. A novena of prayers, with a specific prayer for each of the nine days has been composed under the title of the Immaculate Conception Novena . Ave Maris Stella is the vesper hymn of the feast of the Immaculate Conception. The hymn Immaculate Mary , addressed to Mary as

21658-634: The four burned during the suppression of the Observant houses in 1318 mentioned above. Some 300,000 Jews, up to a quarter of the Spanish population, had to convert to Catholicism or flee Spain, or were killed in the Spanish Inquisition . The Inquisition spread to the new world during the Age of Discovery to root out heretics, leading further persecution and execution (e.g., Mexican Inquisition ). The work of

21840-855: The friars in the Mendicant Controversy, when the secular Masters of the University of Paris and the Bishops of France combined to attack the mendicant orders . It was due to the action of Alexander IV 's envoys, who were obliged to threaten the university authorities with excommunication, that the degree of doctor of theology was finally conceded to the Dominican Thomas Aquinas and the Franciscan Bonaventure (1257), who had previously been able to lecture only as licentiates. The Franciscan Gerard of Borgo San Donnino at this time issued

22022-609: The idea of Mary as the New Eve, drawing comparison to Eve , while yet immaculate and incorrupt – that is to say, not subject to original sin. Holweck adds that Ephrem the Syrian said she was as innocent as Eve before the Fall . Ambrose asserted Mary's incorruptibility, attributing her virginity to grace and immunity from sin. Severus, Bishop of Antioch , concurred affirming Mary's purity and immaculateness. John Damascene extended

22204-518: The idea of poverty based on belief that Christ and the apostles owned nothing. The experts disagreed among themselves, but the majority condemned the idea on the grounds that it would condemn the church's right to have possessions. The Franciscan chapter held in Perugia in May 1322 declared on the contrary: "To say or assert that Christ, in showing the way of perfection, and the Apostles, in following that way and setting an example to others who wished to lead

22386-412: The idea of preservative redemption as being a more perfect one: to have been preserved free from original sin was a greater grace than to be set free from sin". In 1439, the Council of Basel , in schism with Pope Eugene IV who resided at the Council of Florence , declared the Immaculate Conception a " pious opinion " consistent with faith and Scripture; the Council of Trent , held in several sessions in

22568-793: The invocation of saints, the Immaculate Conception and the Assumption of Mary "; the final report of the Anglican–Roman Catholic International Commission (ARCIC), created in 1969 to further ecumenical progress between the Catholic Church and the Anglican Communion, similarly recorded the disagreement of the Anglicans with the doctrine, although Anglo-Catholics may hold the Immaculate Conception as an optional pious belief. Virgin Mary Mary (Hebrew: מרים Miryam)

22750-613: The largest in number in Poland because of the work and inspiration of Maximilian Kolbe . The Order of Friars Minor Capuchin ( OFM Cap. ) are the youngest branch of Franciscans, founded in 1525 by Matteo Serafini ( Matteo Bassi , Matteo da Bascio), an Observant friar, who felt himself called to an even stricter observance of Franciscan austerity. With the support of the Papal Court, the new branch received early recognition and grew fast, first in Italy and after 1574 all over Europe and throughout

22932-484: The later developments that took place in the Catholic Church, including the Immaculate Conception, although Eastern Orthodoxy affirms Mary's purity and preservation from sin . In 1894, when Pope Leo XIII addressed the Eastern church in his encyclical Praeclara gratulationis , Ecumenical Patriarch Anthimos , in 1895, replied with an encyclical approved by the Constantinopolitan Synod in which he stigmatised

23114-471: The lax General that in 1247, at a chapter held in Lyon, France—where Innocent IV was then residing—he was replaced by the strict Observantist John of Parma (1247–57) and the Order refused to implement any provisions of Innocent IV that were laxer than those of Gregory IX. Elias, who had been excommunicated and taken under the protection of Frederick II , was now forced to give up all hope of recovering his power in

23296-600: The little hood ( cappuciola ); the Neutri, a group of reformers originating about 1463 in Italy, who tried to take a middle ground between the Conventuals and Observantists, but refused to obey the heads of either, until they were compelled by the pope to affiliate with the regular Observantists, or with those of the Common Life; the Caperolani, a congregation founded about 1470 in North Italy by Peter Caperolo , but dissolved again on

23478-464: The love of God, but enhances it, for all consecration is ultimately made to God. Following the growth of Marian devotions in the 16th century, Catholic saints wrote books such as Glories of Mary and True Devotion to Mary that emphasized Marian veneration and taught that "the path to Jesus is through Mary". Marian devotions are at times linked to Christocentric devotions (such as the Alliance of

23660-451: The main promoters of the dogmatic statement, wrote Mémoire sur l'Immaculée Conception , explaining what he saw as its basis: For the belief to be defined as a dogma of faith [...] it is necessary that the Immaculate Conception form part of Revelation , expressed in Scripture or Tradition, or be implied in beliefs previously defined. Needed, afterward, is that it be proposed to the faith of

23842-404: The miraculous birth of Jesus with a merely remarkable one for his mother. Anne and her husband, Joachim , are infertile, but God hears their prayers and Mary is conceived. According to Stephen J. Shoemaker , within the Gospel of James, the conception occurs without sexual intercourse between Anne and Joachim, which fits well with the Gospel of James' persistent emphasis on Mary's sacred purity, but

24024-639: The mother of Jesus. The gospels of Matthew and Luke describe Mary as a virgin who was chosen by God to conceive Jesus through the Holy Spirit . After giving birth to Jesus in Bethlehem , she raised him in the city of Nazareth in Galilee , and was in Jerusalem at his crucifixion and with the apostles after his ascension . Although her later life is not accounted in the Bible , Roman Catholic , Eastern Orthodox , and some Protestant traditions believe that her body

24206-493: The official Roman Catholic position. For Helvidius , those would be full siblings of Jesus, born to Mary and Joseph after the firstborn Jesus. This has been the most common Protestant position. The hagiography of Mary and the Holy Family can be contrasted with other material in the Gospels. These references include an incident which can be interpreted as Jesus rejecting his family in the New Testament: "And his mother and his brothers arrived, and standing outside, they sent in

24388-458: The order. Members of the Order live according to a Rule composed by St Francis in 1221. The Rule was slightly modified through the centuries and was replaced at the turn of the 20th century by Pope Leo XIII , himself a member of the Order. A new and current Rule was approved by Pope Paul VI in 1978, and the Third Order was renamed the Secular Franciscan Order. It is an international organization with its own Minister General based in Rome. Within

24570-506: The original stain [of sin] is not in you. You are the glory of Jerusalem, you are the joy of Israel, you give honour to our people. You are all beautiful, Mary".) On the basis of the original Gregorian chant music, polyphonic settings have been composed by Anton Bruckner , Pablo Casals , Maurice Duruflé , Grzegorz Gerwazy Gorczycki , Ola Gjeilo , José Maurício Nunes Garcia , and Nikolaus Schapfl  [ de ] . Other prayers honouring Mary's immaculate conception are in use outside

24752-416: The other of heresy, on pains of excommunication. Pope Pius V kept the feast on the tridentine calendar but suppressed the word "immaculate". Gregory XV in 1622 prohibited any public or private assertion that Mary was conceived in sin. Urban VIII in 1624 allowed the Franciscans to establish a military order dedicated to the Virgin of the Immaculate Conception. Following the promulgation of Ineffabilis Deus

24934-401: The perfect life, possessed nothing either severally or in common, either by right of ownership and dominium or by personal right, we corporately and unanimously declare to be not heretical, but true and catholic." By the bull Ad conditorem canonum of 8 December 1322, John XXII, declaring it ridiculous to pretend that every scrap of food given to the friars and eaten by them belonged to

25116-441: The personal presidency of Gregory IX, Elias was deposed in favor of Albert of Pisa , the former provincial of England, a moderate Observantist. This chapter introduced General Statutes to govern the Order and devolved power from the Minister General to the Ministers Provincial sitting in chapter. The next two Ministers General, Haymo of Faversham (1240–44) and Crescentius of Jesi (1244–47), consolidated this greater democracy in

25298-457: The pope, refused to accept ownership over the goods of the Franciscans in the future and granted them exemption from the rule that absolutely forbade ownership of anything even in common, thus forcing them to accept ownership. And, on 12 November 1323, he issued the short bull Quum inter nonnullos which declared "erroneous and heretical" the doctrine that Christ and his apostles had no possessions whatever. John XXII's actions thus demolished

25480-430: The principal towns of England. The controversy about how to follow the Gospel life of poverty, which extends through the first three centuries of Franciscan history, began in the lifetime of the founder. The ascetic brothers Matthew of Narni and Gregory of Naples, a nephew of Cardinal Ugolino , were the two vicars-general to whom Francis had entrusted the direction of the order during his absence. They carried through at

25662-438: The proclamation of the dogma, in 1858, the young Bernadette Soubirous said that Mary appeared to her at Lourdes in southern France, to announce that she was the Immaculate Conception; the Catholic Church later endorsed the apparition as authentic. There are other (approved) Marian apparitions in which Mary identified herself as the Immaculate Conception, for example Our Lady of Gietrzwald in 1877, Poland. The feast day of

25844-571: The prophecies of Simeon and the prophetess Anna in Luke 2:25–38, the family "returned into Galilee, to their own city Nazareth". According to the gospel of Matthew , magi coming from Eastern regions arrived at Bethlehem where Jesus and his family were living, and worshiped him. Joseph was then warned in a dream that King Herod wanted to murder the infant, and the family fled by night to Egypt and stayed there for some time. After Herod's death in 4 BC, they returned to Nazareth in Galilee, rather than Bethlehem, because Herod's son Archelaus

26026-482: The province of Syria was established, with Brother Elias as Minister. By 1229 the friars had a small house near the fifth station of the Via Dolorosa . In 1272 sultan Baibars allowed the Franciscans to settle in the Cenacle on Mount Zion . Later on, in 1309, they also settled in the Holy Sepulchre and in Bethlehem . In 1335 the king of Naples Robert of Anjou ( Italian : Roberto d'Angiò ) and his wife Sancha of Majorca ( Italian : Sancia di Maiorca ) bought

26208-411: The question of poverty . In his 14 August 1279 bull Exiit qui seminat , Pope Nicholas III had confirmed the arrangement already established by Pope Innocent IV , by which all property given to the Franciscans was vested in the Holy See , which granted the friars the mere use of it. The bull declared that renunciation of ownership of all things "both individually but also in common, for God's sake,

26390-412: The river Clareno in the march of Ancona by Angelo da Clareno (1337). Like several other smaller congregations, it was obliged in 1568 under Pope Pius V to unite with the general body of Observantists. As a separate congregation, this originated through the union of a number of houses which followed Olivi after 1308. It was limited to southwestern France and, its members being accused of the heresy of

26572-405: The sister of Mary, mother of Jesus. According to the early 2nd century historian Hegesippus , Mary of Clopas was likely Mary's sister-in-law, understanding Clopas (Cleophas) to have been Joseph's brother. According to the writer of Luke, Mary was a relative of Elizabeth , wife of the priest Zechariah of the priestly division of Abijah , who was herself part of the lineage of Aaron and so of

26754-431: The sons of Zebedee", presumably the Salome mentioned in Mark 15:40. In Acts 1:12–26, especially verse 14, Mary is the only one other than the eleven apostles to be mentioned by name who abode in the upper room , when they returned from Mount Olivet . Her presence with the apostles during the Pentecost is not explicit, although it has been held as a fact by Christian tradition. From this time, she disappears from

26936-419: The stigmata wound." A sermon Francis heard in 1209 on Matthew 10:9 made such an impression on him that he decided to devote himself wholly to a life of apostolic poverty. Clad in a rough garment, barefoot, and, after the Evangelical precept, without staff or scrip, he began to preach repentance. He was soon joined by a prominent fellow townsman, Bernard of Quintavalle , who contributed all that he had to

27118-475: The story does not advance the idea of an immaculate conception. The author of the Gospel of James may have based this account of Mary's conception on that of John the Baptist as recounted in the Gospel of Luke . The Eastern Orthodox Church holds that "Mary is conceived by her parents as we are all conceived". According to church historian Frederick Holweck , writing in the Catholic Encyclopedia , Justin Martyr , Irenaeus , and Cyril of Jerusalem developed

27300-439: The strongly Observantist general Michael of Cesena , ventured to dispute the pope's right so to deal with the provisions of his predecessor. Sixty-four of them were summoned to Avignon and the most obstinate delivered over to the Inquisition, four of them being burned (1318). Shortly before this all the separate houses of the Observantists had been suppressed. A few years later a new controversy, this time theoretical, broke out on

27482-440: The sun " (Revelation 12:1, 12:5–6) is sometimes identified as Mary. The New Testament tells little of Mary's early history. The Gospel of Matthew does give a genealogy for Jesus by his father's paternal line, only identifying Mary as the wife of Joseph. John 19:25 states that Mary had a sister; semantically it is unclear if this sister is the same as Mary of Clopas , or if she is left unnamed. Jerome identifies Mary of Clopas as

27664-422: The supernatural influence of God to Mary's parents, suggesting they were purified by the Holy Spirit during her generation. According to Damascene, even the material of Mary's origin was deemed pure and holy. This perspective, which emphasized an immaculate active generation and the sanctity of the conceptio carnis , found resonance among some Western authors. Notably, the Greek Fathers did not explicitly discuss

27846-431: The teaching, while the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church accept it. Anne , the mother of Mary, first appears in the 2nd-century apocryphal Gospel of James . The author of the gospel borrowed from Greek tales of the childhood of heroes. For Jesus' grandmother the author drew on the more benign biblical story of Hannah—hence Anna—who conceived Samuel in her old age, thus reprising

28028-501: The term elsewhere refers to Cistercians instead. The name of the original order, Ordo Fratrum Minorum (Friars Minor, literally 'Order of Lesser Brothers') stems from Francis of Assisi's rejection of luxury and wealth. Francis was the son of a rich cloth merchant, but gave up his wealth to pursue his faith more fully. He had cut all ties that remained with his family, and pursued a life living in solidarity with his fellow brothers in Christ. In other words, he abandoned his life among

28210-415: The typically Franciscan phrase "immaculate conception" reasserted itself in the title and euchology (prayer formulae) of the feast. Pius IX solemnly promulgated a mass formulary drawn chiefly from one composed 400 years by a papal chamberlain at the behest of Sixtus IV , beginning "O God who by the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin". The Roman Rite liturgical books, including the Roman Missal and

28392-430: The universities (in Paris , for example, where Alexander of Hales was teaching) continued to develop. Contributions toward the promotion of the Order's work, and especially the building of the Basilica in Assisi, came in abundantly. Funds could only be accepted on behalf of the friars for determined, imminent, real necessities that could not be provided for from begging. When in 1230, the General Chapter could not agree on

28574-449: The veneration of the Virgin Mary. Catholics place high emphasis on Mary's roles as protector and intercessor and the Catechism refers to Mary as "honored with the title 'Mother of God', to whose protection the faithful fly in all their dangers and needs". Key Marian prayers include: Ave Maria , Alma Redemptoris Mater , Sub tuum praesidium , Ave maris stella , Regina caeli , Ave Regina caelorum and

28756-486: The view that Jewish girls typically married soon after the onset of puberty, while according to Amram Tropper, Jewish females generally married later in Palestine and the Western Diaspora than in Babylonia. Some scholars hold the view that among them it typically happened between their mid and late teen years or late teens and early twenties. After eight days, the boy was circumcised according to Jewish law and named " Jesus " ( ישוע , Yeshu'a ), which means " Yahweh

28938-405: The way of a somewhat sophistical distinction between possession and usufruct. The bull was received respectfully by Bonagratia and the next two generals, Arlotto of Prato (1285–87) and Matthew of Aqua Sparta (1287–89); but the Spiritual party under the leadership of the Bonaventuran pupil and apocalyptic Pierre Jean Olivi regarded its provisions for the dependence of the friars upon the pope and

29120-399: The wealthy and aristocratic classes (or Majori ) to live like the poor and peasants ( minori ). Francis adopted the simple tunic worn by peasants as the religious habit for his order, and had others who wished to join him do the same. Those who joined him became the original Order of Friars Minor. The First Order or the Order of Friars Minor, or Seraphic Order are commonly called simply

29302-471: The work, and by other companions, who are said to have reached the number of eleven within a year. The brothers lived in the deserted leper colony of Rivo Torto near Assisi ; but they spent much of their time traveling through the mountainous districts of Umbria , always cheerful and full of songs, yet making a deep impression on their hearers by their earnest exhortations. Their life was extremely ascetic, though such practices were apparently not prescribed by

29484-430: The world. The Capuchins eventually became a separate order in 1619. The name Capuchins refers to the particular shape of the long hood or capuce ; originally a popular nickname, it has become a part of the official name of the order. The order now exists in 106 countries all over the world, with around 10,500 brothers living in more than 1700 communities known as fraternities or friaries. The Poor Clares , officially

29666-446: The world. They follow several different observances and are organized into federations. The Poor Clares follow the Rule of St. Clare which was approved by Pope Innocent IV the day before Clare's death in 1253. The main branch of the Order ( OSC ) follows the observance of Pope Urban. Other branches established since that time, who operate under their own unique constitutions , are the Colettine Poor Clares ( PCC – founded 1410),

29848-420: The zealots in the order, who felt this was not in keeping with the founder's views upon the question of poverty. The earliest leader of the strict party was Brother Leo , a close companion of Francis during his last years and the author of the Speculum perfectionis , a strong polemic against the laxer party. Having protested against the collection of money for the erection of the basilica of San Francesco, it

30030-491: Was 12–14 years old. Her age during her pregnancy has varied up to 17 in apocryphal sources. In a large part, apocryphal texts are historically unreliable. According to ancient Jewish custom, Mary technically could have been betrothed at about 12, but some scholars hold the view that in Judea it typically happened later. Hyppolitus of Thebes says that Mary lived for 11 years after the death of her son Jesus, dying in 41 AD. The earliest extant biographical writing on Mary

30212-419: Was Leo who broke in pieces the marble box which Elias had set up for offertories for the completion of the basilica at Assisi . For this Elias had him scourged, and this outrage on St Francis's dearest disciple consolidated the opposition to Elias. Leo was the leader in the early stages of the struggle in the order for the maintenance of St Francis's ideas on strict poverty. At the chapter held in May 1227, Elias

30394-421: Was a first-century Jewish woman of Nazareth , the wife of Joseph and the mother of Jesus . She is an important figure of Christianity , venerated under various titles such as virgin or queen , many of them mentioned in the Litany of Loreto . The Eastern and Oriental Orthodox , Catholic , Anglican , and Lutheran churches believe that Mary, as mother of Jesus, is the Mother of God . The Church of

30576-450: Was also appropriate in view of her role as Mother of God : Potuit, decuit, fecit , "it was possible, it was fitting, therefore it was done". Others, including Bernard of Clairvaux (1090–1153) and Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), objected that if Mary were free of original sin at her conception then she would have no need of redemption, making Christ's saving redemption superfluous; they were answered by Duns Scotus (1264–1308), who "developed

30758-426: Was an almost universally held belief among Christians from the 2nd until the 19th century. It is included in the two most widely used Christian creeds , which state that Jesus "was incarnate of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary" (the Nicene Creed , in what is now its familiar form) and the Apostles' Creed . The Gospel of Matthew describes Mary as a virgin who fulfilled the prophecy of Isaiah 7:14, The authors of

30940-408: Was at least equal in numbers and activity to the followers of Elias. After an intense apostolic activity in Italy, in 1219 Francis went to Egypt with the Fifth Crusade to announce the Gospel to the Saracens . He met with the Sultan Malik al-Kamil , initiating a spirit of dialogue and understanding between Christianity and Islam . The Franciscan presence in the Holy Land started in 1217, when

31122-458: Was confirmed by the First Council of Ephesus , held at the Church of Mary in 431. The Council decreed that Mary is the Mother of God because her son Jesus is one person who is both God and man, divine and human. This doctrine is widely accepted by Christians in general, and the term "Mother of God" had already been used within the oldest known prayer to Mary, the Sub tuum praesidium , which dates to around 250 AD. The Virgin birth of Jesus

31304-414: Was far advanced in years. Mary was given to service as a consecrated virgin in the Temple in Jerusalem when she was three years old. This was in spite of the patent impossibility of its premise that a girl could be kept in the Temple of Jerusalem along with some companions. Some unproven apocryphal accounts, such as the apocryphal Gospel of James 8:2, state that at the time of her betrothal to Joseph, Mary

31486-487: Was fixed and irrevocable, John XXII issued the bull Quia quorundam on 10 November 1324 in which he declared that it cannot be inferred from the words of the 1279 bull that Christ and the apostles had nothing, adding: "Indeed, it can be inferred rather that the Gospel life lived by Christ and the Apostles did not exclude some possessions in common, since living 'without property' does not require that those living thus should have nothing in common." In 1328, Michael of Cesena

31668-419: Was granted the right to confirm the choice of a head for the Conventuals, who was known as "Master-General of the Friars Minor Conventual"—although this privilege never became practically operative. In about 1236 during the time of Elias of Cortona , Pope Gregory IX appointed the Franciscans, along with the Dominicans , as Inquisitors. The Franciscans had been involved in anti-heretical activities from

31850-448: Was intending at the Council of Lyon (1274–75) to force the mendicant orders to tolerate the possession of property, threatened both pope and council with the renunciation of allegiance. Attempts were made, however, to satisfy the reasonable demands of the Spiritual party, as in the bull Exiit qui seminat of Pope Nicholas III (1279), which pronounced the principle of complete poverty to be meritorious and holy, but interpreted it in

32032-410: Was living with her husband Zechariah in "the hill country..., [in] a city of Juda". Mary arrived at the house and greeted Elizabeth who called Mary "the mother of my Lord", and Mary spoke the words of praise that later became known as the Magnificat from her first word in the Latin version. After about three months, Mary returned to her own house. According to the gospel of Luke , a decree of

32214-414: Was of the tribe of Judah, so all their descendants are from both Levi and Judah.) Mary resided in "her own house" in Nazareth in Galilee , possibly with her parents, and during her betrothal—the first stage of a Jewish marriage . Jewish girls were considered marriageable at the age of twelve years and six months, though the actual age of the bride varied with circumstances. The marriage was preceded by

32396-629: Was raised into heaven at the end of her earthly life, which is known in Western Christianity as the Assumption of Mary and in Eastern Christianity as the Dormition of the Mother of God . Mary has been venerated since early Christianity , and is often considered to be the holiest and greatest saint . There is a certain diversity in the Mariology and devotional practices of major Christian traditions. The Catholic Church holds distinctive Marian dogmas , namely her Immaculate Conception and her bodily Assumption into heaven. Many Protestants hold less exalted views of Mary's role, often based on

32578-429: Was rejected in spite of his prominence, and Giovanni Parenti , Minister Provincial of Spain, was elected Minister General of the order. In 1232 Elias succeeded him, and under him the Order significantly developed its ministries and presence in the towns. Many new houses were founded, especially in Italy, and in many of them special attention was paid to education. The somewhat earlier settlements of Franciscan teachers at

32760-620: Was summoned to Avignon to explain the Order's intransigence in refusing the pope's orders and its complicity with Louis of Bavaria. Michael was imprisoned in Avignon, together with Francesco d'Ascoli, Bonagratia, and William of Ockham. In January of that year Louis of Bavaria entered Rome and had himself crowned emperor. Three months later he declared John XXII deposed and installed the Spiritual Franciscan Pietro Rainalducci as antipope . The Franciscan chapter that opened in Bologna on 28 May reelected Michael of Cesena, who two days before had escaped with his companions from Avignon. But in August Louis

32942-525: Was the mother of Jesus, sometimes referred to as the "King of Kings" due to his ancestral descent from King David . This is also based on the Hebrew tradition of the "Queen-Mother", the Gebirah or "Great Lady". Other titles have arisen from reported miracles , special appeals, or occasions for calling on Mary. In Islam , Mary is known as Maryam ( Arabic : مريم , romanized :  Maryam ), mother of Isa ( عيسى بن مريم , ʿĪsā ibn Maryām , lit.   ' Jesus, son of Mary ' ). She

33124-404: Was the ruler of Judaea. Mary is involved in the only event in Jesus' adolescent life that is recorded in the New Testament. At the age of 12, Jesus, having become separated from his parents on their return journey from the Passover celebration in Jerusalem, was found in the Temple among the religious teachers. Mary was present when, at her suggestion, Jesus worked his first miracle during

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