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40-453: Francis Walker (31 July 1809 – 5 October 1874) was an English entomologist . He was born in Southgate, London , on 31 July 1809 and died at Wanstead , England on 5 October 1874. He was one of the most prolific authors in entomology , and stirred controversy during his later life as his publications resulted in a huge number of junior synonyms . However, his assiduous work on the collections of

80-469: A "good" or "useful" taxon is commonly taken to be one that reflects evolutionary relationships . Many modern systematists, such as advocates of phylogenetic nomenclature , use cladistic methods that require taxa to be monophyletic (all descendants of some ancestor). Therefore, their basic unit, the clade , is equivalent to the taxon, assuming that taxa should reflect evolutionary relationships. Similarly, among those contemporary taxonomists working with

120-528: A code of ethical behavior" (ESA Certification Corporation). Individuals who are planning to become Certified IPM Technicians (CITs), need to obtain at around 1-4 years of experience in pest management and successfully pass an exam, that is based on the information, that they are acquainted with (ESA Certification Corporation). Like in Public Health Entomology (PHE), those who want to become Certified IPM Technicians (CITs) also have to "agree to ascribe to

160-499: A code of ethical behavior" (ESA Certification Corporation). These individuals must also be approved to use pesticides (ESA Certification Corporation). For those who plan on becoming Board Certified Entomologists (BCEs), individuals have to pass two exams and "agree to ascribe to a code of ethical behavior" (ESA Certification Corporation). As with this, they also have to fulfill a certain amount of educational requirements every 12 months (ESA Certification Corporation). Forensic entomology

200-635: A cross-section of topics as diverse as molecular genetics , environmental archaeology , behavior , neuroscience , biomechanics , biochemistry , systematics , physiology , developmental biology , ecology , morphology , and paleontology . Over 1.3   million insect species have been described, more than two-thirds of all known species. Some insect species date back to around 400   million years ago. They have many kinds of interactions with humans and other forms of life on Earth. For example, species such as P. pyralis conduct bioluminescent reactions in their light-emitting organs, which have been

240-467: A narrow set of ranks is challenged by users of cladistics ; for example, the mere 10 ranks traditionally used between animal families (governed by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN)) and animal phyla (usually the highest relevant rank in taxonomic work) often cannot adequately represent the evolutionary history as more about a lineage's phylogeny becomes known. In addition,

280-427: A rank above, the prefix sub- indicates a rank below. In zoology , the prefix infra- indicates a rank below sub- . For instance, among the additional ranks of class are superclass, subclass and infraclass. Rank is relative, and restricted to a particular systematic schema. For example, liverworts have been grouped, in various systems of classification, as a family, order, class, or division (phylum). The use of

320-722: A taxon is given a formal scientific name , its use is then governed by one of the nomenclature codes specifying which scientific name is correct for a particular grouping. Initial attempts at classifying and ordering organisms (plants and animals) were presumably set forth in prehistoric times by hunter-gatherers, as suggested by the fairly sophisticated folk taxonomies. Much later, Aristotle, and later still, European scientists, like Magnol , Tournefort and Carl Linnaeus 's system in Systema Naturae , 10th edition (1758), , as well as an unpublished work by Bernard and Antoine Laurent de Jussieu , contributed to this field. The idea of

360-468: A unit-based system of biological classification was first made widely available in 1805 in the introduction of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 's Flore françoise , and Augustin Pyramus de Candolle 's Principes élémentaires de botanique . Lamarck set out a system for the "natural classification" of plants. Since then, systematists continue to construct accurate classifications encompassing the diversity of life; today,

400-429: A unit. Although neither is required, a taxon is usually known by a particular name and given a particular ranking , especially if and when it is accepted or becomes established. It is very common, however, for taxonomists to remain at odds over what belongs to a taxon and the criteria used for inclusion, especially in the context of rank-based (" Linnaean ") nomenclature (much less so under phylogenetic nomenclature ). If

440-411: Is a branch of forensic science that studies insects found on corpses or elsewhere around crime scenes. This includes studying the types of insects commonly found on cadavers , their life cycles, their presence in different environments, and how insect assemblages change with decomposition . Medical entomology is focused upon insects and arthropods that impact human health. Veterinary entomology

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480-434: Is included in this category, because many animal diseases can "jump species" and become a human health threat, for example, bovine encephalitis. Medical entomology also includes scientific research on the behavior, ecology, and epidemiology of arthropod disease vectors , and involves a tremendous outreach to the public, including local and state officials and other stake holders in the interest of public safety. Anthecology

520-649: Is the sheer volume of his work. An unsigned obituary began "More than twenty years too late for his scientific reputation, and after having done an amount of injury almost inconceivable in its immensity, Francis Walker has passed from among us". Edward Newman , in contrast described him as the "most voluminous and most industrious writer on Entomology this country has ever produced" and said of him "I never met anyone who possessed more correct, more diversified, or more general information, or who imparted that information to others with greater readiness and kindness." Kenneth G.V. Smith wrote: [Walker's] 'Catalogues of Insects in

560-428: Is the study of pollination and the relationships between flowers and their pollinators . It has received increasing attention in the interest of agriculture science amid the impacts of pollinator decline from human actions. Many entomologists specialize in a single order or even a family of insects, and a number of these subspecialties are given their own informal names, typically (but not always) derived from

600-459: Is to him [Gray] that the Public owe the admirable helps to the study of natural history which have been afforded by the series of inventories, guides, and nomenclatures, the publication of which began, at his instance, in the year 1844, and has been unceasingly pursued. A mere list of the various printed synopses which have grown out of Dr. Gray's suggestion of 1844 would fill many such pages as that which

640-517: The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (1999) defines a A taxon can be assigned a taxonomic rank , usually (but not necessarily) when it is given a formal name. " Phylum " applies formally to any biological domain , but traditionally it was always used for animals, whereas "division" was traditionally often used for plants , fungi , etc. A prefix is used to indicate a ranking of lesser importance. The prefix super- indicates

680-700: The National Museum of Ireland , Dublin; Zoologische Staatssammlung München and the School of Medicine, Cairo, Egypt . Francis Walker was the son of John Walker of Arnos Grove , who was a fellow of the Royal Society , the Linnean Society and the Royal Horticultural Society . Born into a wealthy and educated Quaker family, Francis spent the years 1816 (when he was seven years old) to 1820 (when he

720-619: The Royal Entomological Society in London in 1833, one of the earliest such societies in the world; earlier antecedents, such as the Aurelian society date back to the 1740s. In the late 19th century, the growth of agriculture, and colonial trade spawned the "era of economic entomology" which created the professional entomologist associated with the rise of the university and training in the field of biology. Entomology developed rapidly in

760-494: The 19th and 20th centuries and was studied by large numbers of people, including such notable figures as Charles Darwin , Jean-Henri Fabre , Vladimir Nabokov , Karl von Frisch (winner of the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine ), and twice Pulitzer Prize winner E. O. Wilson . There has also been a history of people becoming entomologists through museum curation and research assistance, such as Sophie Lutterlough at

800-524: The British Museum (Natural History). For a recent balanced account of this remarkable man see Graham (1979). partial (Walker wrote over 300 scientific papers and notes). — and Entomologist Like several of the other fields that are categorized within zoology , entomology is a taxon -based category; any form of scientific study in which there is a focus on insect-related inquiries is, by definition, entomology. Entomology, therefore, overlaps with

840-519: The British Museum Collections' will always stand as a tribute to his industry. Walker (1836) also described the Diptera from Captain P. P. King 's collection made on the first surveying voyage of Adventure and Beagle . Fortunately, many of his descriptions of Darwin's insects will endure because they were of little-known groups from little-worked regions and most of his types are still in

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880-474: The British Museum had great significance. Between June 1848 and late 1873 Walker was contracted by John Edward Gray Director of the British Museum to catalogue their insects (except Coleoptera ) that is Orthoptera , Neuroptera , Hemiptera , Diptera , Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera . Walker largely accomplished this and (Edwards, 1870) wrote of the plan and by implication those who implemented it: It

920-560: The Entomological Society of America have varying credential requirements. These different programs are known as Public Health Entomology (PHE), Certified IPM Technicians (CITs), and Board Certified Entomologists (BCEs) (ESA Certification Corporation). To be qualified in public health entomology (PHE), one must pass an exam on the types of arthropods that can spread diseases and lead to medical complications (ESA Certification Corporation). These individuals also have to "agree to ascribe to

960-637: The Entomological Society of America launched a new professional certification program for the pest control industry called the Associate Certified Entomologist (ACE). To qualify as a "true entomologist" an individual would normally require an advanced degree, with most entomologists pursuing a PhD. While not true entomologists in the traditional sense, individuals who attain the ACE certification may be referred to as ACEs or Associate Certified Entomologists. As such, other credential programs managed by

1000-519: The Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History . Insect identification is an increasingly common hobby, with butterflies and (to a lesser extent) dragonflies being the most popular. Most insects can easily be allocated to order , such as Hymenoptera (bees, wasps, and ants) or Coleoptera (beetles). However, identifying to genus or species is usually only possible through the use of identification keys and monographs . Because

1040-424: The class Insecta contains a very large number of species (over 330,000 species of beetles alone) and the characteristics distinguishing them are unfamiliar, and often subtle (or invisible without a microscope), this is often very difficult even for a specialist. This has led to the development of automated species identification systems targeted on insects, for example, Daisy , ABIS, SPIDA and Draw-wing. In 1994,

1080-558: The class rank is quite often not an evolutionary but a phenetic or paraphyletic group and as opposed to those ranks governed by the ICZN (family-level, genus-level and species -level taxa), can usually not be made monophyletic by exchanging the taxa contained therein. This has given rise to phylogenetic taxonomy and the ongoing development of the PhyloCode , which has been proposed as a new alternative to replace Linnean classification and govern

1120-544: The collections of the Entomological Club founded in 1826 by George Samouelle and Edward Newman among others. He relied on family money for his main income. In 1834, Walker, a lifelong friend of another Quaker Edward Newman , took up the editorship of the Entomological Magazine unpaid for one year. In 1837, he began working on a contract basis for the British Museum where he remained until 1863. Walker

1160-498: The collectors tended to be from the aristocracy, and there developed a trade involving collectors around the world and traders. This has been called the "era of heroic entomology". William Kirby is widely considered as the father of entomology in England. In collaboration with William Spence , he published a definitive entomological encyclopedia, Introduction to Entomology , regarded as the subject's foundational text. He also helped found

1200-641: The general mass of visitors. As a result of the catalogues an immense amount of material was added to the collections. Collaborating with Alexander Henry Haliday , a lifelong friend, he was one of the first students of the Chalcidoidea . He was also a close friend of John Curtis . Walker was a member of the Entomological Society . Walker's specimens are in the Natural History Museum , London; Hope Department of Entomology , University of Oxford;

1240-473: The individual entitled to that name. No man can be truly called an entomologist, sir; the subject is too vast for any single human intelligence to grasp." — Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. , The Poet at the Breakfast Table . Taxa In biology , a taxon ( back-formation from taxonomy ; pl. : taxa ) is a group of one or more populations of an organism or organisms seen by taxonomists to form

Francis Walker (entomologist) - Misplaced Pages Continue

1280-412: The modern sense began only relatively recently, in the 16th century. Ulisse Aldrovandi 's De Animalibus Insectis (Concerning Insect Animals) was published in 1602. Microscopist Jan Swammerdam published History of Insects , correctly describing the reproductive organs of insects and metamorphosis . In 1705, Maria Sibylla Merian published the book Metamorphosis Insectorum Surinamensium about

1320-610: The reader has now before him. The consequence is, that in no department of the Museum can the student, as yet, economise his time as he can economise it in the Natural-History Department. Printed , not Manuscript, Catalogues mean time saved; disappointment avoided; study fructified. No literary labour brings so little of credit as does the work of the Catalogue-maker. None better deserves the gratitude of scholars, as well as of

1360-448: The scientific name of the group: Like other scientific specialties, entomologists have a number of local, national, and international organizations. There are also many organizations specializing in specific subareas. Here is a list of selected very large insect collections, housed in museums, universities, or research institutes. "I suppose you are an entomologist?" "Not quite so ambitious as that, sir. I should like to put my eyes on

1400-526: The subject of much research, especially in recent years. Entomology is rooted in nearly all human cultures from prehistoric times, primarily in the context of agriculture (especially biological control and beekeeping ). The natural Roman philosopher Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) wrote a book on the kinds of insects, while the scientist of Kufa , Ibn al-A'rābī (760–845 CE) wrote a book on flies, Kitāb al-Dabāb ( كتاب الذباب ). However scientific study in

1440-488: The traditional Linnean (binomial) nomenclature, few propose taxa they know to be paraphyletic . An example of a long-established taxon that is not also a clade is the class Reptilia , the reptiles; birds and mammals are the descendants of animals traditionally classed as reptiles, but neither is included in the Reptilia (birds are traditionally placed in the class Aves , and mammals in the class Mammalia ). The term taxon

1480-461: The tropical insects of Dutch Surinam . Early entomological works associated with the naming and classification of species followed the practice of maintaining cabinets of curiosity , predominantly in Europe. This collecting fashion led to the formation of natural history societies, exhibitions of private collections, and journals for recording communications and the documentation of new species. Many of

1520-413: Was a traveller with a liking for mountains. His known trips are: Walker is notable in the present time for the large number of synonymous taxa he described. A careless taxonomist by today's standards, he often gave more than one name to the same species . In this respect, however, he was no worse than many entomologists of his time; what makes for the more common occurrence of Walker's taxa in synonymy

1560-524: Was eleven) in Switzerland at Geneva , Lucerne and Vevey where the family party was joined by Madame de Staël , the poet Lord Byron and some Swiss naturalists gathered around Nicolas Théodore de Saussure . With his brother Henry (1825–1892), Francis collected butterflies on an ascent of Mount Pilatus in 1818 and so was an entomologist at age nine. In 1840 Walker married Mary Elizabeth Ford. He lived at Arnos Grove and at 49 Bedford Square which housed

1600-580: Was first used in 1926 by Adolf Meyer-Abich for animal groups, as a back-formation from the word taxonomy ; the word taxonomy had been coined a century before from the Greek components τάξις ( táxis ), meaning "arrangement", and νόμος ( nómos ), meaning " method ". For plants, it was proposed by Herman Johannes Lam in 1948, and it was adopted at the VII International Botanical Congress , held in 1950. The glossary of

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