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110-815: Cohen grew up north of Tel Aviv in Ramat HaSharon . He received a B.A. in philosophy and history from Tel Aviv University in 1975. He then studied philosophy at York University where he received his M.A. in philosophy in 1977. Four years later, in 1981, he earned his Ph.D. from the University of Chicago . His dissertation advisor was Stephen Toulmin . His early academic career started at Washington University in St. Louis (philosophy, 1981–1982), then at Ben-Gurion University (philosophy, 1982–1984), Tel Aviv University (1983–1990), and Hobart and William Smith Colleges (1986–1987). Cohen started his work on nuclear weapons issues in

220-424: A Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification : Csa), and enjoys plenty of sunshine throughout the year. Most precipitation falls in the form of rain between the months of October and April, with intervening dry summers, and there is almost no rainfall from June to September. The average annual temperature is 20.9 °C (69.6 °F), and the average sea temperature is 18–20 °C (64–68 °F) during

330-652: A secular , liberal-minded center with a vibrant nightlife and café culture. Tel Aviv is located around 32°5′N 34°48′E  /  32.083°N 34.800°E  / 32.083; 34.800 on the Israeli Mediterranean coastline , in central Israel, the historic land bridge between Europe, Asia and Africa. Immediately north of the ancient port of Jaffa, Tel Aviv lies on land that used to be sand dunes and as such has relatively poor soil fertility . The land has been flattened and has no important gradients; its most notable geographical features are bluffs above

440-673: A Hamas terrorist in the Café Apropo bombing on 27 March 1997. One of the deadliest attacks occurred on 1 June 2001, during the Second Intifada , when a suicide bomber exploded at the entrance to the Dolphinarium discothèque , killing 21, mostly teenagers, and injuring 132. Another Hamas suicide bomber killed six civilians and injured 70 in the Allenby Street bus bombing . Twenty-three civilians were killed and over 100 injured in

550-487: A center of nightlife and discotheques for Israelis who lived in the suburbs and adjoining cities. By 1989, Tel Aviv had acquired the nickname "Nonstop City", as a reflection of the growing recognition of its nightlife and 24/7 culture, and "Nonstop City" had to some extent replaced the former moniker of "First Hebrew City". The largest project built in this era was the Dizengoff Center , Israel's first shopping mall, which

660-462: A credit rating of AAA+. In the 2000s and early 2010s, Tel Aviv received tens of thousands of illegal immigrants, primarily from Sudan and Eritrea , changing the demographic profile of areas of the city. In 2009, Tel Aviv celebrated its official centennial. In addition to city- and country-wide celebrations, digital collections of historical materials were assembled. These include the History section of

770-842: A criminal investigation, risking a possibility of arrest and trial. Despite warning, Cohen was not detained at the Ben Gurion Airport upon his arrival in March, 2001, as had happened on a previous trip, but was summoned to face a criminal investigation, conducted by both MALMAB and the Israeli police, regarding whether the publication of Israel and the Bomb in the United States was indeed a violation of Israel's national security laws, especially Israeli Espionage act(113/c). That investigation included nearly 60 hours of interrogation in March and April of 2001. In 2004,

880-558: A day as British forces scoured the city for militants. In spite of this, Jewish guerrilla attacks continued in Tel Aviv and other areas under martial law in Palestine. According to the 1947 UN Partition Plan for dividing Palestine into Jewish and Arab states, Tel Aviv was to be included in the proposed Jewish state . Jaffa with, as of 1945, a population of 101,580 people—53,930 Muslims, 30,820 Jews and 16,800 Christians—was designated as part of

990-420: A different light." - Tom Segev , Ha'aretz "... Avner Cohen's book stands in a class of its own. It is the first scholarly study of the history of this project, it is richly documented, and it unveils some of the major mysteries surrounding events by tapping a large body of previously untouched sources.... It can only be assumed that when this national mood of 'nuclear' ignorance changes, Cohen's book will serve as

1100-577: A matter of contention between the Tel Aviv municipality and the Israeli government in 1948. The former wished to incorporate only the northern Jewish suburbs of Jaffa, while the latter wanted a more complete unification. The issue also had international sensitivity, since the main part of Jaffa was in the Arab portion of the United Nations Partition Plan , whereas Tel Aviv was not, and no armistice agreements had yet been signed. On 10 December 1948,

1210-554: A new building for the Herzliya Hebrew High School , founded in Jaffa in 1906. The cornerstone for the building was laid on 28 July 1909. The town was originally named Ahuzat Bayit. On 21 May 1910, the name Tel Aviv was adopted. The flag and city arms of Tel Aviv (see above) contain under the red Star of David 2 words from the biblical book of Jeremiah: "I (God) will build You up again and you will be rebuilt." (Jer 31:4) Tel Aviv

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1320-589: A raid. The city was also the scene of fighting between the Israel Defense Forces and Irgun during the Altalena Affair , in which the IDF stopped an Irgun attempt to import arms for its own use. In December 1949, the Israeli government relocated to Jerusalem . Due to the international dispute over the status of Jerusalem , most embassies remained in or near Tel Aviv. The boundaries of Tel Aviv and Jaffa became

1430-415: A result, the Israeli government issued gas masks to its citizens. When the first Iraqi missiles hit Israel, some people injected themselves with an antidote for nerve gas. The inhabitants of the southeastern suburb of Hatikva erected an angel-monument as a sign of their gratitude that "it was through a great miracle, that many people were preserved from being killed by a direct hit of a Scud rocket." Since

1540-656: A short manuscript, the precursory document of Israel and the Bomb , to the Israeli Military Censor. After rounds of back-and-forth disputes about what details could have posed a breach of security, Cohen eventually filed a formal petition (BAGATZ) in 1994 with the Israeli Supreme Court against the Israeli Chief Military censor, Brig. General Yitzhak Shani, and Israel's Minister of Defense, Yitzhak Rabin . The Supreme Court had one closed-door session on

1650-444: A solid foundation for this debate." - Uri Bar-Joseph , Jewish History The Worst Kept Secret: Israel's Bargain with the Bomb : "Cohen's second outstanding book on Israel's nuclear project, and the veil of ambiguity that has swathed it from inception, provides a richly detailed account of its history and a provocative analysis of its future. Cohen shows how Israel's beleaguered national existence and persistent Holocaust memories led to

1760-522: A wave of Palestinian suicide bombings in the city from the mid-1990s, to the end of the Second Intifada, as well as the dot-com bubble , which affected the city's rapidly growing hi-tech sector. On 4 November 1995, Israel's prime minister, Yitzhak Rabin , was assassinated at a rally in Tel Aviv in support of the Oslo peace accord. The outdoor plaza where this occurred, formerly known as Kikar Malchei Yisrael,

1870-524: Is found to have consumed the least water per person. In the early 21st century, Tel Aviv's municipality transformed a derelict power station into a public park, now named "Gan HaHashmal" ("Electricity Park"), paving the way for eco-friendly and environmentally conscious designs. In October 2008, Martin Weyl turned an old garbage dump near Ben Gurion International Airport , called Hiriya , into an attraction by building an arc of plastic bottles. The site, which

1980-544: Is governed by the Tel Aviv-Yafo Municipality , headed by Mayor Ron Huldai , and is home to most of Israel's foreign embassies . It is a beta+ world city and is ranked 57th in the 2022 Global Financial Centres Index . Tel Aviv has the third- or fourth-largest economy and the largest economy per capita in the Middle East . Tel Aviv is ranked the 4th top global startup ecosystem hub. The city currently has

2090-449: Is home to Tel Aviv University , Yarkon Park , and upscale residential neighborhoods such as Ramat Aviv and Afeka . Tel Aviv is ranked as the greenest city in Israel. Since 2008, city lights are turned off annually in support of Earth Hour . In February 2009, the municipality launched a water saving campaign, including competition granting free parking for a year to the household that

2200-481: Is modern-day Tel Aviv-Yafo's only urban centre that existed in early modern times. Jaffa was an important port city in the region for millennia. Archaeological evidence shows signs of human settlement there starting in roughly 7,500 BC. The city was established around 1,800 BC at the latest. Its natural harbour has been used since the Bronze Age . By the time Tel Aviv was founded as a separate city during Ottoman rule of

2310-505: Is the most populous city in the Gush Dan metropolitan area of Israel . Located on the Israeli Mediterranean coastline and with a population of 474,530, it is the economic and technological center of the country and a global high tech hub . If East Jerusalem is considered part of Israel, Tel Aviv is the country's second-most-populous city, after Jerusalem ; if not, Tel Aviv is the most populous city, ahead of West Jerusalem . Tel Aviv

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2420-555: The Ahuzat Bayit (lit. "homestead") society. One of the society's goals was to form a "Hebrew urban centre in a healthy environment, planned according to the rules of aesthetics and modern hygiene". The urban planning for the new city was influenced by the garden city movement . The first 60 plots were purchased in Kerem Djebali (Karm al-Jabali) near Jaffa by Jacobus Kann , a Dutch citizen, who registered them in his name to circumvent

2530-525: The British administration , friction between Arabs and Jews in Palestine increased. On 1 May 1921, the Jaffa riots resulted in the deaths of 48 Arabs and 47 Jews and injuries to 146 Jews and 73 Arabs. In the wake of this violence, many Jews left Jaffa for Tel Aviv. Tel Aviv began to develop as a commercial center. In 1923, Tel Aviv was the first town to be wired to electricity in Palestine, followed by Jaffa later in

2640-633: The Eretz Israel Museum , the Museum of Art , Yarkon Park , and the city's promenade and beach . Tel Aviv is the Hebrew title of Theodor Herzl ’s 1902 novel Altneuland ("Old New Land"), as translated from German by Nahum Sokolow . Sokolow had adopted the name of a Mesopotamian site near the city of Babylon mentioned in Ezekiel : "Then I came to them of the captivity at Tel Abib [Tel Aviv], that lived by

2750-550: The First Intifada , Tel Aviv has suffered from Palestinian political violence . The first suicide attack in Tel Aviv occurred on 19 October 1994, on the Line 5 bus , when a bomber killed 22 civilians and injured 50 as part of a Hamas suicide campaign. On 6 March 1996, another Hamas suicide bomber killed 13 people (12 civilians and 1 soldier), many of them children, in the Dizengoff Center suicide bombing . Three women were killed by

2860-779: The Hebrew Bible . Other ancient sites in Tel Aviv include: Tell Qasile , Tel Gerisa , Abattoir Hill , Tel Hashash , and Tell Qudadi . During the First Aliyah in the 1880s, when Jewish immigrants began arriving in the region in significant numbers, new Jewish neighborhoods were founded outside Jaffa on the current territory of Tel Aviv. The first was Neve Tzedek , founded in 1887 by Mizrahi Jews due to overcrowding in Jaffa and built on lands owned by Aharon Chelouche . Other neighborhoods were Neve Shalom (1890), Yafa Nof (1896), Achva (1899), Ohel Moshe (1904), Kerem HaTeimanim (1906), and others. Once Tel Aviv received city status in

2970-722: The Jewish Virtual Library , the Jewish population of Tel Aviv had risen to 150,000 by 1937, compared to Jaffa's mainly Arab 69,000 residents, and by 1939 rose to 160,000, which was over a third of Palestine's total Jewish population. The village statistics of 1938 listed Tel Aviv's population as 140,000, all Jews. Many German Jewish architects trained at the Bauhaus , the Modernist school of architecture in Germany, and left Germany during

3080-565: The Tel Aviv central bus station massacre . Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack. In the Mike's Place suicide bombing , an attack on a bar by a British Muslim suicide bomber resulted in the deaths of three civilians and wounded over 50. Hamas and Al Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed joint responsibility. An Islamic Jihad bomber killed five and wounded over 50 on 25 February 2005 Stage Club bombing . The most recent suicide attack in

3190-674: The Zoé nuclear reactor at the Bouchet plant in Ballancourt-sur-Essonne , an essential step for the production of the French atomic bomb. He would also play a critical role in the establishment of the Israeli nuclear program. Goldschmidt traveled to Israel in 1954 to meet with David Ben-Gurion about nuclear issues and would serve, between 1956 and 1957, as one of the CEA officials in the negotiations leading to

3300-449: The river Chebar , and to where they lived; and I sat there overwhelmed among them seven days." The name was chosen in 1910 from several suggestions, including " Herzliya ". It was found fitting as it embraced the idea of a renaissance in the ancient Jewish homeland. Aviv ( אביב , or Abib ) is a Hebrew word that can be translated as "spring", symbolizing renewal, and tell (or tel ) is an artificial mound created over centuries through

3410-683: The unoccupied zone . He taught for a short time in Montpellier , until the post-surrender Vichy government changed the status of Jews under pressure from the Germans. He then emigrated to the United States and arrived in New York City in May 1941, where he joined the Free French Forces . Enrico Fermi later asked Goldschmidt to join him at Columbia University as one of the group of scientists working on

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3520-434: The 1920s, those neighborhoods joined the newly formed municipality, now becoming separated from Jaffa. [REDACTED]   Ottoman Empire 1909–1917 [REDACTED]   United Kingdom 1917–1948 [REDACTED]   Israel 1948–present The Second Aliyah led to further expansion. In 1906, a group of Jews, among them residents of Jaffa, followed the initiative of Akiva Aryeh Weiss and banded together to form

3630-513: The 1930s. Some, like Arieh Sharon , came to Palestine and adapted the architectural outlook of the Bauhaus and similar schools to the local conditions there, creating what is recognized as the largest concentration of buildings in the International Style in the world. Tel Aviv's White City emerged in the 1930s, and became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003. During World War II, Tel Aviv

3740-561: The 1990s, the decline in Tel Aviv's population began to be reversed and stabilized, at first temporarily due to a wave of immigrants from the former Soviet Union . Tel Aviv absorbed 42,000 immigrants from the FSU, many educated in scientific, technological, medical and mathematical fields. In this period, the number of engineers in the city doubled. Tel Aviv soon began to emerge as a global high-tech center. The construction of many skyscrapers and high-tech office buildings followed. In 1993, Tel Aviv

3850-471: The Arab state. Civil War broke out in the country and in particular between the neighbouring cities of Tel Aviv and Jaffa, which had been assigned to the Jewish and Arab states respectively. After several months of siege, on 13 May 1948, Jaffa fell and the Arab population fled en masse. After Israel declared Independence on 14 May 1948, Tel Aviv was the temporary government center of the State of Israel. The city

3960-524: The Bomb signified a direct affront to Israel's policy of nuclear opacity, and therefore the state must take legal action against Cohen. In early 2001, Cohen was invited by the Israeli Society for History and Philosophy of Science to deliver the keynote speech at its annual meeting in Jerusalem . Unsure of what might transpire upon his arrival, Cohen decided to accept the invitation and face the challenge of

4070-443: The Bomb : "A scholarly treatise that includes over 1,200 footnotes, yet reads like a novel.... [Cohen] analyzes in rich detail how this policy of 'nuclear opacity' evolved and what made it possible." -Lawrence Kolb, New York Times Book Review "Cohen's work will necessitate the rewriting of Israel's history, wars, international relations, domestic political crises, economy, psychology, national pride--everything will have to be viewed in

4180-406: The Bomb include: The preliminary work that would eventually become Israel and the Bomb began in 1991–1992, shortly after Cohen's arrival at MIT. Traveling back and forth from the United States and Israel to conduct historical interviews on the formative years of the Israeli nuclear program, Cohen was eventually confronted by auxiliaries of the Israeli Military Censor. In the revised introduction to

4290-620: The Center for Nonproliferation Studies (CNS). Cohen also taught at the George Washington University (adjunct 2001–04), the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (visiting professor, 2004) and the University of Haifa (visiting professor, 2005). Since 2011, Cohen has been a professor at MIIS . Dr. Cohen has authored and edited eight books. Some of his books have been translated in Hebrew, French, and Farsi (an illegal publication). Cohen

4400-477: The European cities of Warsaw and Odesa . The marketing pamphlets advocating for its establishment stated: In this city we will build the streets so they have roads and sidewalks and electric lights. Every house will have water from wells that will flow through pipes as in every modern European city, and also sewerage pipes will be installed for the health of the city and its residents. The walled city of Jaffa

4510-492: The French edition of Israel and the Bomb (2020) and in a lengthy interview with the Atomic Heritage Foundation , Cohen describes the complex tale of the struggle over the publication of Israel and the Bomb. He states, "…to do work on the Israeli case was not a simple thing. I had to struggle and to address very powerful forces that did not want the story to be out…some top bureaucrats." Cohen initially (1993) submitted

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4620-576: The Holocaust for political ends. His various op-eds reveal a deep concern over the state of Israeli democracy under the Netanyahu government, citing a hubristic mishandling of the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (Iran nuclear deal) and a refusal to take responsibility for what Cohen calls "the recklessness that led to Hamas' massacre" on October 7th, 2023. Cohen actively publishes op-eds regarding

4730-556: The Israeli nuclear program. The transcripts of some of these interviews – including Bertrand Goldschmidt , Yitzhak "Ya'tza" Yaakov, Arnan "Sini" Azaryahu , Avraham Hermoni , Edwin E. Kintner , Elie Geisler, Myer Feldman , and Walt Rostow – are now part of the "Avner Cohen Collection" and were posted with annotation in the Digital Archive of the Woodrow Wilson Center. Some of the distinct historical insights of Israel and

4840-469: The Israeli security authorities saw this book as a direct threat against the country's untouched policy of nuclear opacity which relies heavily on that national taboo. Comprehensive accountings of the struggle against the censor are available in the French edition of Israel and the Bomb , in a C-SPAN interview, and the aforementioned Atomic Heritage Foundation interview. Cohen has been a critical voice of what he considers Benjamin Netanyahu 's deployment of

4950-584: The Jaffa Municipality in 1921. According to a census conducted in 1922 by the British Mandate authorities , Tel Aviv had a population of 15,185 (15,065 Jews, 78 Muslims and 42 Christians). The population of Tel Aviv had increased to around 34,000 by 1925. The 1931 census recorded Tel Aviv as having a population of 46,101 (45,564 Jews, 288 with no religion, 143 Christians, and 106 Muslims) in 12,545 houses. With increasing Jewish immigration during

5060-568: The Jaffa deportation of early April 1917. The orders of evacuation were aimed chiefly at the Jewish population. Jews were free to return to their homes in Tel Aviv at the end of the following year when, with the end of World War I and the defeat of the Ottomans, the British took control of Palestine. The town had rapidly become an attraction to immigrants, with a local activist writing: The immigrants were attracted to Tel Aviv because they found in it all

5170-711: The Jennings Randolph Program for International Peace (USIP), and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . In 1990, after he was awarded the MacArthur Foundation Research and Writing grant, Cohen resigned his position at Tel Aviv University and took a research position at the Center of International Studies at MIT . With physicist Dr. Marvin Miller as a partner, they initiated a new project aimed to study

5280-713: The Jewish association which established the neighbourhood as a modern housing estate on the outskirts of the ancient port city of Jaffa ( Yafo in Hebrew), then part of the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem within the Ottoman Empire . Its name was changed the following year to Tel Aviv, after the biblical name Tel Abib ( lit. " Tell of Spring") adopted by Nahum Sokolow as the title for his Hebrew translation of Theodor Herzl 's 1902 novel Altneuland ("Old New Land"). Other Jewish suburbs of Jaffa had been established before Tel Aviv,

5390-586: The Mediterranean coastline and the Yarkon River mouth. Because of the expansion of Tel Aviv and the Gush Dan region, absolute borders between Tel Aviv and Jaffa and between the city's neighborhoods do not exist. The city is located 60 km (37 mi) northwest of Jerusalem and 90 km (56 mi) south of the city of Haifa . Neighboring cities and towns include Herzliya to the north, Ramat HaSharon to

5500-532: The Turkish prohibition on Jewish land acquisition. Meir Dizengoff , later Tel Aviv's first mayor , also joined the Ahuzat Bayit society. His vision for Tel Aviv involved peaceful co-existence with Arabs. On 11 April 1909, 66 Jewish families gathered on a desolate sand dune to parcel out the land by lottery using seashells. This gathering is considered the official date of the establishment of Tel Aviv. The lottery

5610-482: The United States. Once the book was published in the United States, the Israeli Military Censor had no mandate to ban its Hebrew translation. It was also the first time in Israel's history that a criminal investigation was initiated for alleged espionage charges against a legitimate academic researcher who had never been a government employee. Cohen attributes the extreme conduct to Israel's interest in preserving its biggest national taboo – its nuclear program. Specifically,

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5720-918: The Wilson Center digital archive, and some of his CNS interview and discussion panels are available on the CNS website and on YouTube. Recently, Cohen has become a regular contributor on the largest Indian English TV network, WION . Cohen received the MacArthur Foundation research and writing award twice, first in 1990 and second in 2004. Since the 1980s, Cohen has published extensively in well-known global media outlets such as The New York Times , The Washington Post , Los Angeles Times , The Boston Globe , The Jerusalem Post , The Washington Times , Haaretz , The Jerusalem Report , and Yedioth Ahronoth . Cohen has written hundreds of journal articles, book chapters, op-eds, and magazine articles over his career. Israel and

5830-430: The accumulation of successive layers of civilization built one over the other and symbolizing the ancient. Although founded in 1909 as a small settlement on the sand dunes north of Jaffa, Tel Aviv was envisaged as a future city from the start. Its founders hoped that in contrast to what they perceived as the squalid and unsanitary conditions of neighbouring Arab towns, Tel Aviv was to be a clean and modern city, inspired by

5940-405: The assailant went on a stabbing spree, injuring eight people. Due to an Israel Border Police roadblock at the entrance and immediate response of the Border Police team during the subsequent stabbings, a much larger and fatal mass-casualty incident was avoided. On 21 November 2012, during Operation Pillar of Defense , the Tel Aviv area was targeted by rockets, and air raid sirens were sounded in

6050-456: The beginning of 1970s, the common image of Tel Aviv became that of a decaying city, as Tel Aviv's population fell 20%. In the 1970s, the apparent sense of Tel Aviv's urban decline became a theme in the work of novelists such as Yaakov Shabtai , in works describing the city such as Sof Davar ( The End of Things ) and Zikhron Devarim ( The Memory of Things ). A symptomatic article of 1980 asked "Is Tel Aviv Dying?" and portrayed what it saw as

6160-431: The case against him was officially closed. Because the research for the book was based, in part, on hundreds of oral interviews – with Israeli, American, French and Norwegian sources – some of the book's contents were never in the public domain before. In his 2020 introduction to the French edition of Israel and the Bomb , Cohen adds that "…the writing of the book was not just the intellectual issue of doing history, but it

6270-487: The case in September 1994, in which at its end the three justices pleaded both sides to find a compromise. The two main Israeli security institutions that were opposing the research and publication of Cohen's work were the Military Censor , known in Israel as the censora, and the Office of Security of the Defense Establishment , also known by its Hebrew acronym, MALMAB. In 1995, Cohen eventually withdrew his Supreme Court BAGATZ as it became evident that no practical compromise

6380-802: The changes that Israel will need to make in its nuclear program as the world reduces reliance on nuclear weapons. Cohen makes a compelling case for why it is in Israeli's interest to confirm its nuclear weapons program and participate in efforts to reduce reliance on nuclear weapons." - Morton Halperin , senior advisor, Open Society Institute Co-Edited Books and Special Edition Journals: Conversations with History - Avner Cohen Selected Op-Eds Selected Citations Tel Aviv Tel Aviv-Yafo ( Hebrew : תֵּל אָבִיב-יָפוֹ , romanized :  Tēl ʾĀvīv-Yāfō , IPA: [tel aˈviv jaˈfo] ; Arabic : تَلّ أَبِيب – يَافَا , romanized :  Tall ʾAbīb-Yāfā ), sometimes rendered as Tel Aviv-Jaffa , and usually referred to as just Tel Aviv ,

6490-414: The city changed in the 2000s, as it began to attract a higher proportion of young residents. By 2012, 28 percent of the city's population was aged between 20 and 34 years old. Between 2007 and 2012, the city's population growth averaged 6.29 percent. As a result of its population recovery and industrial transition, the city's finances were transformed, and by 2012 it was running a budget surplus and maintained

6600-505: The city for the first time since the Gulf War . All of the rockets either missed populated areas or were shot down by an Iron Dome rocket defense battery stationed near the city. During the operation, a bomb blast on a bus wounded at least 28 civilians, three seriously. This was described as a terrorist attack by Israel, Russia, and the United States and was condemned by the United Nations, United States, United Kingdom, France and Russia, whilst Hamas spokesman Sami Abu Zuhri declared that

6710-495: The city hosts its well-known, annual Open House Tel Aviv weekend, which offers the general public free entrance to the city's famous landmarks, private houses and public buildings. In 2010, the design of the renovated Tel Aviv Port ( Nemal Tel Aviv ) won the award for outstanding landscape architecture at the European Biennial for Landscape Architecture in Barcelona . In 2014, the Sarona Market Complex opened, following an 8-year renovation project of Sarona colony . Tel Aviv has

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6820-411: The city occurred on 17 April 2006, when 11 people were killed and at least 70 wounded in a suicide bombing near the old central bus station . Another attack took place on 29 August 2011 in which a Palestinian attacker stole an Israeli taxi cab and rammed it into a police checkpoint guarding the popular Haoman 17 nightclub in Tel Aviv which was filled with 2,000 Israeli teenagers. After crashing,

6930-424: The city's existential problems: "Residents leaving the city, businesses penetrating into residential areas, economic and social gaps, deteriorating neighbourhoods, contaminated air – Is the First Hebrew City destined for a slow death? Will it become a ghost town?". However, others saw this as a transitional period. By the late 1980s, attitudes to the city's future had become markedly more optimistic. It had also become

7040-453: The city. In 1946, following the King David Hotel bombing , the British carried out Operation Shark , in which the entire city was searched for Jewish militants and most of the residents questioned, during which the entire city was placed under curfew. During the March 1947 martial law in Mandatory Palestine , Tel Aviv was placed under martial law by the British authorities for 15 days, with the residents kept under curfew for all but three hours

7150-439: The city. It made significant investment in major boulevards, to create attractive pedestrian corridors. Former industrial areas like the city's previously derelict Northern Tel Aviv Port and the Jaffa railway station , were upgraded and transformed into leisure areas. A process of gentrification began in some of the poor neighborhoods of southern Tel Aviv and many older buildings began to be renovated. The demographic profile of

7260-582: The comforts they were used to in Europe: electric light, water, a little cleanliness, cinema, opera, theatre, and also more or less advanced schools... busy streets, full restaurants, cafes open until 2 a.m., singing, music, and dancing. Tel Aviv, along with the rest of the Jaffa municipality, was conquered by the British imperial army in late 1917 during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of World War I and became part of British-administered Mandatory Palestine until 1948. Tel Aviv, established as suburb of Jaffa, received "township" or local council status within

7370-493: The conflict and its implications. In other previous publications, Cohen has expressed his opinion that the policy of nuclear opacity that Israel has pursued for decades is anachronistic and utterly undemocratic, and "created an ignorant, cowardly public, a public that in a certain sense betrayed its democratic civic duties," and that "it is not possible to maintain healthy processes of making decisions in democracy, or beware of groupthink failures, while committing to ambiguity." At

7480-439: The early 1960s at 390,000, representing 16 percent of the country's total. By the early 1970s, Tel Aviv had entered a long and steady period of continuous population decline, which was accompanied by urban decay . By 1981, Tel Aviv had entered not just natural population decline, but an absolute population decline as well. In the late 1980s the city had an aging population of 317,000. Construction activity had moved away from

7590-427: The early 1980s from the perspective of a philosopher exploring the dilemmas of the nuclear age: acquisition, deterrence, and proliferation. It was motivated by the anti-nuclear protest of the early 1980s. Much of his early work, in the early-mid 1980s, focused on the moral dilemmas of the nuclear age. It was only in the mid-late 1980s, in part in the wake of the 1986 Vanunu Affair , that Cohen started to be intrigued by

7700-402: The event. The first water well was later dug at this site, located on what is today Rothschild Boulevard , across from Dizengoff House. Within a year, Herzl , Ahad Ha'am , Yehuda Halevi , Lilienblum , and Rothschild streets were built; a water system was installed; and 66 houses (including some on six subdivided plots) were completed. At the end of Herzl Street, a plot was allocated for

7810-420: The features of second-generation clear proliferation (the cases of Israel, India, Pakistan, and South Africa). Cohen previously held research and fellowship positions at Massachusetts Institute of Technology , the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard , the Center for International and Security Studies at Maryland (CISSM), the National Security Archive, the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars ,

7920-450: The first time including land that had been in the Arab portion of the UN partition plan. The government voted on the unification of Tel Aviv and Jaffa on 4 October 1949, but the decision was not implemented until 24 April 1950 due to the opposition of Tel Aviv mayor Israel Rokach . The name of the unified city was Tel Aviv until 19 August 1950, when it was renamed Tel Aviv-Yafo in order to preserve

8030-672: The founding capital of Israel – a function it retained officially until 1950. After the 1947–1949 Palestine war , Tel Aviv began the municipal annexation of parts of Jaffa, fully unified with Jaffa under the name Tel Aviv in April 1950, and was formally renamed to Tel Aviv-Yafo in August 1950. Tel Aviv's White City , designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003, comprises the world's largest concentration of International Style buildings, including Bauhaus and other related modernist architectural styles. Popular attractions include Old Jaffa ,

8140-517: The government announced the annexation to Tel Aviv of Jaffa's Jewish suburbs, the Palestinian neighborhood of Abu Kabir , the Arab village of Salama and some of its agricultural land, and the Jewish Hatikva slum. On 25 February 1949, the depopulated Palestinian village of al-Shaykh Muwannis was also annexed to Tel Aviv. On 18 May 1949, Manshiya and part of Jaffa's central zone were added, for

8250-648: The group of Glenn Seaborg , on the development of the PUREX process for separation of plutonium and uranium and was involved in the extraction of the first gram of plutonium produced in Chicago Pile-1. He later joined the Anglo-Canadian nuclear program at the Montreal Laboratory , where he worked with other French scientists such as Hans von Halban , Jules Guéron , Pierre Auger , and Lew Kowarski who would join

8360-478: The highest cost of living in the world. Tel Aviv receives over 2.5 million international visitors annually. Tel Aviv is home to Tel Aviv University , the largest university in the country with more than 30,000 students. The city was founded in 1909 by the Yishuv ( Jewish residents) and initially given the Hebrew name Ahuzat Bayit ( Hebrew : אחוזת בית , lit. 'House Estate' or 'Homestead'), namesake of

8470-554: The historical name Jaffa. Tel Aviv thus grew to 42 km (16.2 sq mi). In 1949, a memorial to the 60 founders of Tel Aviv was constructed. In the 1960s, some of the older buildings were demolished, making way for the country's first high-rises. The historic Herzliya Hebrew Gymnasium was controversially demolished, to make way for the Shalom Meir Tower , which was completed in 1965, and remained Israel's tallest building until 1999. Tel Aviv's population peaked in

8580-516: The inner ring of Tel Aviv, and had moved to its outer perimeter and adjoining cities. A mass out-migration of residents from Tel Aviv, to adjoining cities like Petah Tikva and Rehovot , where better housing conditions were available, was underway by the beginning of the 1970s, and only accelerated by the Yom Kippur War . Cramped housing conditions and high property prices pushed families out of Tel Aviv and deterred young people from moving in. From

8690-498: The northeast, Petah Tikva , Bnei Brak , Ramat Gan and Giv'atayim to the east, Holon to the southeast, and Bat Yam to the south. The city is economically stratified between the north and south. Southern Tel Aviv is considered less affluent than northern Tel Aviv with the exception of Neve Tzedek and northern and north-western Jaffa . Central Tel Aviv is home to Azrieli Center and the important financial and commerce district along Ayalon Highway . The northern side of Tel Aviv

8800-422: The northern part of the township was based on Ebenezer Howard 's garden city movement . The plan consisted of four main features: a hierarchical system of streets laid out in a grid, large blocks consisting of small-scale domestic dwellings, the organization of these blocks around central open spaces, and the concentration of cultural institutions to form a civic center. While most of the northern area of Tel Aviv

8910-494: The nuclear issue in the Middle East. Cohen's seminal work, Israel and the Bomb , which chronicled the political history of the Israeli nuclear program, was researched and written while he was at MIT. While researching for the book, Cohen encountered a series of confrontations with the Israeli security apparatus that ultimately resulted in an unprecedented criminal investigation against him. This unprecedented decade-long struggle over

9020-617: The nuclear threshold on the eve of the 1967 Six-Day War . He draws comparisons from this event to contemporary issues regarding the Iranian nuclear program . Cohen is commonly referred to as the leading historian on the Israeli nuclear program, and as such he has often contributed in media as a content advisor. He has appeared in many documentaries such as BBC 's "Israel, Vanunu, and the Bomb", PBS 's "A Nuclear Requiem", and various other historical productions by academic institutions. Many of his historical interviews are archived and are accessible on

9130-414: The official Tel Aviv-Yafo Centennial Year website; the Ahuzat Bayit collection, which focuses on the founding families of Tel Aviv, and includes photographs and biographies; and Stanford University 's Eliasaf Robinson Tel Aviv Collection, documenting the history of the city. Today, the city is regarded as a strong candidate for global city status . Over the past 60 years, Tel Aviv had developed into

9240-479: The oldest among them being Neve Tzedek . Tel Aviv was given township status within the Jaffa Municipality in 1921, and became independent from Jaffa in 1934. Immigration by mostly Jewish refugees meant that the growth of Tel Aviv soon outpaced that of Jaffa, which had a majority Arab population at the time. In 1948, the Israeli Declaration of Independence was proclaimed in the city, with Tel Aviv named as

9350-485: The organisation "blesses" the attack. More than 300 rockets were fired towards the Tel Aviv Metropolitan area in the 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis . New laws were introduced to protect Modernist buildings, and efforts to preserve them were aided by UNESCO recognition of Tel Aviv's White City as a world heritage site in 2003. In the early 2000s, Tel Aviv municipality focused on attracting more young residents to

9460-568: The peculiarities of the unique Israeli nuclear predicament. During Cohen's research fellowship in 1987–1988 at the Center of Science and International Affairs (CSIA, now renamed the Belfer Center ) of the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard , he developed and coined (in collaboration with Benjamin Frankel) the concept of "opaque proliferation", originally conceptualized as a generic reference to

9570-584: The project in 1944. They contributed to the development of Canada's first nuclear reactor, the ZEEP , in September 1945. He returned to France in 1946. Goldschmidt was one of the founders of the French Atomic Energy Commission (CEA) in 1945. In November 1949, he and his collaborators Pierre Regnault, Jean Sauteron, and André Chesne extracted the first few milligrams of plutonium from the spent fuel from

9680-568: The project which would later initiate the world's first man-made self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction in the Chicago Pile-1 experimental reactor. Despite the decision of the U.S. government to refuse the participation of French scientists, Goldschmidt was permitted to join the group in July 1942. He would be the only French citizen to participate in the Manhattan Project on U.S. soil. He worked in

9790-483: The region, Jaffa had been ruled by the Canaanites , Egyptians , Philistines , Israelites , Assyrians , Babylonians , Persians , Phoenicians , Ptolemies , Seleucids , Hasmoneans , Romans , Byzantines , the early Islamic caliphates , Crusaders , Ayyubids , and Mamluks before coming under Ottoman rule in 1515. It had been fought over numerous times. The city is mentioned in ancient Egyptian documents, as well as

9900-677: The research and publication of Israel and the Bomb is detailed in the following section. In 1997, Cohen left MIT to become a Jennings Senior Fellow at the United States Institute of Peace . In the following years, he held a series of short-term research positions with the National Security Archive , the Center for International and Security Studies at the University of Maryland (CISSM) , the Woodrow Wilson Center , and

10010-471: The rights to publish the book in Hebrew in Israel. Meanwhile in Israel, the security chief of MALMAB, Yechiel Horev, was building a case against Cohen, insisting that he should be arrested and stand trial if he returned to Israel. It has been suggested that Horev raised the Cohen case with at least four prime ministers: Yitzhak Rabin , Benjamin Netanyahu , Ehud Barak , and Ariel Sharon , claiming that Israel and

10120-469: The same time, Cohen recognizes that the political success of this policy, via American long-held support, along with its domestic support, makes it practically difficult to revise anytime soon. Cohen develops his views on the policy of opacity, or amimut , in his 2010 book The Worst-Kept Secret: Israel's Bargain with the Bomb (Columbia University Press). As an historian, Cohen maintains, and has written about using historical evidence, that Israel has reached

10230-594: The same year. The opening ceremony of the Jaffa Electric Company powerhouse, on 10 June 1923, celebrated the lighting of the two main streets of Tel Aviv. In 1925, the Scottish biologist, sociologist, philanthropist and pioneering town planner Patrick Geddes drew up the Geddes Plan for Tel Aviv , a master plan for Tel Aviv which was adopted by the city council led by Meir Dizengoff . Geddes's plan for developing

10340-412: The taboo on any acknowledgment of its nuclear weapons program, which cannot, in his view, any longer serve Israel's interests. This is a splendid work of historical research as well as a thought-provoking challenge for both current and future Israeli and American policymakers." - Samuel W. Lewis , U.S. Ambassador to Israel, 1977-1985 "This important book should be read by anyone interested in understanding

10450-451: The war, and every city in the Tel Aviv area except for Bnei Brak was hit. A total of 74 Israelis died as a result of the Iraqi attacks, mostly from suffocation and heart attacks, while approximately 230 Israelis were injured. Extensive property damage was also caused, and some 4,000 Israelis were left homeless. It was feared that Iraq would fire missiles filled with nerve agents or sarin . As

10560-473: The winter, and 24–29 °C (75–84 °F) during the summer. The city averages 528 mm (20.8 in) of precipitation annually. Bertrand Goldschmidt Bertrand Goldschmidt (2 November 1912 – 11 June 2002) was a French chemist. He is considered one of the fathers of the French atomic bomb , which was tested for the first time in 1960 in the nuclear test Gerboise Bleue . Bertrand Goldschmidt

10670-531: Was hit by Italian airstrikes on 9 September 1940, which killed 137 people in the city. The village statistics of 1945 listed Tel Aviv's population as 166,660, consisting of 166,000 Jews, 300 "other", 230 Christians, and 130 Muslims. During the Jewish insurgency in Mandatory Palestine , Jewish Irgun and Lehi guerrillas launched repeated attacks against British military, police, and government targets in

10780-478: Was acceptable to the security establishment, concerned that a verdict striking down the manuscript could have set a dangerous legal precedent and may have decreased the likelihood of eventual publication of the work. Cohen continued working on his research at MIT, determined to publish it as a book in the United States. The English edition was ultimately published in 1998 by Columbia University Press , and soon after Israeli publisher Schocken Publishing House purchased

10890-425: Was also struggling with institutions and forces who were committed to do their best not to let the story come out." The book's 1998 (American) publication was notable, perhaps unprecedented, because it was the first time in Israel's history when a product of legitimate academic historical research that had been banned in its entirety by an administrative ruling of the Israeli military censor was defied and published in

11000-608: Was also the co-editor of two special-issues of academic journals in 2018 and 2019. He co-edited more than half a dozen Electronic Briefing Books with Dr. William Burr of the National Security Archive, all posted on the Archive's website. Cohen has authored nearly one hundred academic items, including journal articles, book chapters, and others. During the research for Israel and the Bomb , Cohen conducted tens of taped historical interviews with key individuals who were involved in

11110-718: Was born in Paris on 2 November 1912 to a French mother and a Belgian father of Jewish origin. He entered the Paris School of Industrial Physics and Chemistry in 1932 and was recruited to the Radium Institute in 1933 by Marie Curie . He obtained his doctorate in 1939. During the Battle of France , Goldschmidt served in a military laboratory in Poitiers and was taken prisoner by the invading Germans. They later released him and he moved into

11220-510: Was built according to this plan, the influx of European refugees in the 1930s necessitated the construction of taller apartment buildings on a larger footprint in the city. Ben Gurion House was built in 1930–31, part of a new workers' housing development. At the same time, Jewish cultural life was given a boost by the establishment of the Ohel Theatre and the decision of Habima Theatre to make Tel Aviv its permanent base in 1931. Tel Aviv

11330-463: Was categorized as a world city . However, the city's municipality struggled to cope with an influx of new immigrants. Tel Aviv's tax base had been shrinking for many years, as a result of its preceding long term population decline, and this meant there was little money available at the time to invest in the city's deteriorating infrastructure and housing. In 1998, Tel Aviv was on the "verge of bankruptcy". Economic difficulties would then be compounded by

11440-705: Was completed in 1983. Other notable projects included the construction of Marganit Tower in 1987, the opening of the Suzanne Dellal Center for Dance and Theater in 1989, and the Tel Aviv Cinematheque (opened in 1973 and located to the current building in 1989). In the early 1980s, 13 embassies in Jerusalem moved to Tel Aviv as part of the UN's measures responding to Israel's 1980 Jerusalem Law . Today, most national embassies are located in Tel Aviv or environs. In

11550-701: Was granted the status of an independent municipality separate from Jaffa in 1934. The Jewish population rose dramatically during the Fifth Aliyah after the Nazis came to power in Germany. Many new Jewish immigrants to Palestine disembarked in Jaffa, and remained in Tel Aviv, turning the city into a center of urban life. Friction during the 1936–39 Arab revolt led to the opening of a local Jewish port, Tel Aviv Port , independent of Jaffa, in 1938. It closed on 25 October 1965. Lydda Airport (later Ben Gurion Airport) and Sde Dov Airport opened between 1937 and 1938. According to

11660-479: Was organised by Akiva Aryeh Weiss , president of the building society. Weiss collected 120 sea shells on the beach, half of them white and half of them grey. The members' names were written on the white shells and the plot numbers on the grey shells. A boy drew names from one box of shells and a girl drew plot numbers from the second box. A photographer, Abraham Soskin (b. 1881 in Russia, made aliyah 1906 ), documented

11770-669: Was planned as an independent Hebrew city with wide streets and boulevards, running water for each house, and street lights. By 1914, Tel Aviv had grown to more than 1 km (247 acres). In 1915 a census of Tel Aviv was conducted, recording a population 2,679. However, growth halted in 1917 when the Ottoman authorities expelled the residents of Jaffa and Tel Aviv as a wartime measure. A report published in The New York Times by United States Consul Garrels in Alexandria, Egypt described

11880-420: Was renamed Ariel Sharon Park to honor Israel's former prime minister, will serve as the centerpiece in what is to become a 2,000-acre (8.1 km ) urban wilderness on the outskirts of Tel Aviv, designed by German landscape architect , Peter Latz . At the end of the 20th century, the city began restoring historical neighborhoods such as Neve Tzedek and many buildings from the 1920s and 1930s. Since 2007,

11990-681: Was renamed Rabin Square . In the Gulf War in 1991, Tel Aviv was attacked by Scud missiles from Iraq. Iraq hoped to provoke an Israeli military response, which could have destroyed the US–Arab alliance. The United States pressured Israel not to retaliate, and after Israel acquiesced, the US and Netherlands rushed Patriot missiles to defend against the attacks, but they proved largely ineffective. Tel Aviv and other Israeli cities continued to be hit by Scuds throughout

12100-527: Was repeatedly bombed by Egyptian warplanes and shelled by Egyptian warships during the Israeli War of Independence , killing around 150 people. The most significant attack was the bombing of the central bus station , in which 42 people were killed. On 3 June 1948, the Israeli Air Force scored its first aerial victory over Tel Aviv when Israeli fighter pilot Modi Alon shot down two Egyptian bombers during

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