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75-764: Anton Zwemmer was born in Haarlem , The Netherlands on 18 February 1892. His parents were Arie and Baukje Huizinga Zwemmer who were of modest means. Leaving school at the age of fifteen, he worked for the publisher Herman Tjeenk Willink and the bookseller H. N. Mul in his hometown, before moving to Amsterdam where he took up a position with the booksellers Kirberger & Kesper, a specialist in English literature, which sent him to England to develop connections with booktrade there. In 1914 he moved permanently to England to work for that country's leading book wholesaler, Simpkin Marshall. After

150-407: A "sophisticated" design format. They were often produced as international co-editions with distinguished European or American art publishers, which led to economies of scale and a great publicity exposure for the books. Moreover, his co-editions gave the English public access to many French and German works which would "otherwise have remained inaccessible". In 1929 Zwemmer established an art gallery,

225-545: A bedroom community as the increasingly dense population of Amsterdam caused the canals to smell in the summer. Many well-to-do gentlemen moved their families to summer homes in the Spring and commuted between addresses. Popular places for summer homes were along the Spaarne in southern Haarlem. Pieter Teyler van der Hulst and Henry Hope built summer homes there, as well as many Amsterdam merchants and councilmen. Today, boat travel along

300-484: A major trading centre for tulips, and it was at the epicentre during tulip mania , when outrageous prices were paid for tulip bulbs. From the opening of the Leiden-Haarlem canal Leidsevaart in 1656, it became popular to travel from Rotterdam to Amsterdam by passenger boat rather than by coach. The canals were dug for passenger service only, and were comfortable though slow. The towpath led these passengers through

375-489: A multivolume work on the sculpture and drawings of his friend Henry Moore and in 1949, he collaborated with Skira to publish Stuart Gilbert 's translation of André Malraux 's two volume work, The Psychology of Art . During the 1950s his son John would go on to supervise the bookselling side of the business while Desmond would concentrate on the publishing. The Zwemmer Gallery would continue operating until 1968. Anton Zwemmer died on 23 January 1979. His residence at that date

450-436: A new government, the economy would improve and that export-oriented economic activities, such as the textile industry, would recover. In the beginning of the 19th century, the defense walls had lost their function, and architect Zocher Jr. planned a park on the location of the former defense line. The city walls and gates were demolished, and the bricks were reused for construction of factories and workers' homes . Haarlem became

525-608: A new kind of art by Roger Fry 's pre-war exhibitions of Post-Impressionism , and dissatisfied with the restraint of the Royal Academy and the major galleries, the British public and artists were keen on Zwemmer's offerings of quality art books, art prints and "domestic and foreign art journals". Zwemmer's bookshop for a long period was the main place in London where modern and avant-garde art could be explored and where books and journals on

600-460: A number of privileges, among which the right for the sheriff and magistrates to administer justice, instead of the Count. This allowed for a quicker and more efficient judiciary system, more suited to the needs of the growing city. After a siege from the surrounding area of Kennemerland in 1270 a defensive wall was built around the city. Most likely this was an earthen wall with wooden gates. Originally

675-591: A short period he was appointed as the manager of Harrods department store's bookshop in Knightsbridge , London and in 1916 as a staff member of Richard Jäschke's antiquarian, modern first editions and foreign language bookshop at 79 Charing Cross Road , in the City of Westminster . When Jäschke, a German citizen, was interned during the First World War , Zwemmer was left in charge of the business until 1918. Eventually

750-573: A suburb, and Haarlem became a quiet bedroom community , and for this reason Haarlem still has many of its central medieval buildings intact. Many of them are now on the Dutch Heritage register known as Rijksmonuments . The list of Rijksmonuments in Haarlem gives an overview of these per neighbourhood, with the majority in the old city centre. The oldest mention of Haarlem dates from the 10th century. The name probably comes from "Haarlo-heim". This name

825-419: Is composed of three elements: haar , lo and heim . In Old Dutch toponyms lo always refers to 'forest' and heim ( heem , em or um ) to 'home' or 'house'. Haar , however, has several meanings, one of them corresponding with the location of Haarlem on a sand dune: 'elevated place'. The name Haarlem or Haarloheim would therefore mean 'home on a forested dune'. There was a stream called "De Beek", dug from

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900-553: Is mentioned in John le Carré 's spy novel, Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy : "In Zwemmers he examined a coffee-table book called Musical Instruments Down the Ages and remembered that Camilla had had a late lesson with Dr. Sand, her flute teacher". Haarlem Haarlem ( Dutch pronunciation: [ˈɦaːrlɛm] ; predecessor of Harlem in English ) is a city and municipality in

975-509: Is probably for that reason the most notable Dutch history books from the Dutch Golden Age period were published in Haarlem; by Hadrianus Junius (Batavia), Dirck Volkertszoon Coornhert (Works), Karel van Mander (Schilderboeck), Samuel Ampzing (Description and Ode to Haarlem), Petrus Scriverius (Batavia Illustrata), and Pieter Christiaenszoon Bor (Origin of the Dutch wars). Beer brewing

1050-506: Is situated about 20 km (12 mi) west of Amsterdam and near the coastal dunes . Haarlem has been the historical centre of the tulip bulb-growing district for centuries and bears its other nickname Bloemenstad (flower city) for this reason. Haarlem has a rich history dating back to pre-medieval times, as it lies on a thin strip of land above sea level known as the strandwal ( beach ridge ), which connects Leiden to Alkmaar . The people on this narrow strip of land struggled against

1125-510: The Book of Trades document created by Jan Luyken and his son. In 1632 a tow canal between Haarlem and Amsterdam, the Haarlemmertrekvaart was opened, the first tow canal in the country. The empty areas in the city that were a result of the fire of 1576 were filled with new houses and buildings. Even outside the city wall buildings were constructed—in 1643 about 400 houses were counted outside

1200-703: The Curwen Press . Later exhibitions were mounted for Joan Miró , Georges Braque , Marc Chagall , Georges Rouault and other modern artists. In 1934 the Gallery staged Salvador Dalí 's first one man show in Britain. In 1934, the exhibition Objective Abstractions was held in the gallery, featuring the work of the British Objective Abstraction movement. In October 1935, the Seven and Five Society 's final exhibition

1275-645: The Netherlands . It is the capital of the province of North Holland . Haarlem is situated at the northern edge of the Randstad , one of the more populated metropolitan areas in Europe; it is also part of the Amsterdam metropolitan area . Haarlem had a population of 162,543 in 2021. Haarlem was granted city status or stadsrechten in 1245, although the first city walls were not built until 1270. The modern city encompasses

1350-616: The Sint-Bavo Church . However, the terms of the treaty were not kept, with the Spanish soldiery plundering the townspeople's property. Despite Haarlem's ultimate fall, the fact that the Haarlemers had been able to stand for seven months against the whole Spanish array inspired the rest of Holland to resist the invaders, and their prolonged resistance allowed the Prince of Orange to prepare and arm

1425-595: The ringvaart or the North Sea Canal . Pleasure boating in the summer has become an important Haarlem tourist attraction, though it is not possible to travel all of the original canals as in Amsterdam. The creation of new land in the Haarlemmermeer polder from 1852 onwards meant that the city could no longer refresh the water in its canals from the Spaarne river. The increase in industry worsened water quality. In 1859,

1500-409: The (now defunct) municipality of Schoten was incorporated in 1884 because the council of Haarlem wanted to have the hospital ( Het Dolhuys ) inside the municipal borders. This hospital was situated at "het bolwerk" on Schoten's territory. Litchfield Street Litchfield Street is a street in the City of Westminster , London, that runs from Charing Cross Road in the west to West Street in

1575-600: The Continent he concentrated on selling antiquarian books and due to his age, he brought in his two sons, Desmond and John, to assist in running the business. In the postwar period the gallery promoted younger and emerging British artists including John Bratby and Harold Cheesman, the latter being a pupil of the English surrealist Paul Nash . In 1960 the Australian painter Arthur Boyd had his first London exhibition there. From 1944 Anton Zemmer published, with Lund Humphries ,

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1650-451: The Count's castle and the city hall. The Count did not need a castle in Haarlem because his castle in The Hague (Den Haag) had taken over all functions. The count donated the ground to the city and later a new city hall was built there. The shape of the old city was square—this was inspired by the shape of ancient Jerusalem. After every fire the city was rebuilt quickly, an indication of

1725-691: The Dutch government levied heavy taxes on foreign cotton producers this was a profitable business for the NHM-factories, especially for export to the Dutch East Indies . The programme started in the 1830s, and was initially successful. However, after 1839 when Belgium split away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, the protectionist measures for the Dutch East Indian market were removed, and

1800-418: The English art world (...) one of them is Anton Zwemmer (...)." His bookshop, art gallery and publishing house occupied a central place in the history of twentieth century British art. Art critic Herbert Read wrote of the bookshop in 1962 that: "Zwemmer's was always more than a bookshop: it was a challenge in the midst of our provincial ignorance and philistinism, a beacon of enlightenment." Zwemmer's bookshop

1875-530: The Manpad where they were decisively defeated. On 13 July 1573, after seven months of siege, the city surrendered. Many defenders were slaughtered; some were drowned in the Spaarne river. Governor Ripperda and his lieutenant were beheaded. The citizens were allowed to buy freedom for themselves and the city for 240,000 guilders and the city was required to host a Spanish garrison. Don Fadrique thanked God for his victory in

1950-589: The Oude Gracht canal stank so badly in the summer that it not only forced visitors away, but posed a public health threat due to cholera outbreaks. It was filled in to create a new street called the Gedempte Oude Gracht. The periodic cholera outbreaks had not been new, but they had been increasing. In 1591, the city fathers had ordered excavation to build the Verwulft, a wide bridge over the Oude Gracht connecting

2025-506: The Spaarne is still possible and has become a popular form of tourism in the summer. In the 18th century, Haarlem became the seat of a suffragan diocese of the Old Catholic Church of Utrecht . At the end of the 18th century, a number of anti-Orange commissions were founded. On 18 January 1795 the "Staatse" army was defeated near Woerden . During the night preceding 19 January, the same night that stadtholder William V of Orange fled

2100-421: The Spanish army, and on 1 December the city of Naarden suffered the same fate. On 11 December 1572 the Spanish army besieged Haarlem; the city's defenses were commanded by city-governor Wigbolt Ripperda . Kenau Simonsdochter Hasselaer , a powerful widow, helped defend the city together with some three hundred other women. During the first two months of the siege, the situation was in balance. The Spanish army

2175-664: The Zwemmer Gallery, at 26 Litchfield Street , London, not far from his bookshop in Charing Cross Road. The Times at the time argued that the move was a "logical ... development" as "a selection of English and foreign books on modern art" was on show in the gallery. The Zwemmer Gallery became a "mecca" for British artists and a centre for the modern art movement in Britain, staging shows on such artists and sculptors as Henry Moore , Jacob Epstein , Henri Gaudier-Brzeska and Edward Bawden , as well as, in 1932, an exhibition on

2250-459: The architect Lieven de Key and Jan Steen who made many paintings in Haarlem. The Haarlem councilmen became quite creative in their propaganda promoting their city. On the Grote Markt, the central market square, there's a statue of Laurens Janszoon Coster who is allegedly the inventor of the printing press . This is the second and larger statue to him on the square. The original stands behind

2325-571: The beer it produced was consumed in North Holland . During the Spanish siege, there were about 50 breweries in the city. In 1620, the city had about one hundred breweries. There was another epidemic of the Black Death in 1657, which took a heavy toll in the six months it ravaged the city. From the end of the 17th century, the economy in the city worsened for a long time. In 1752, only seven breweries remained, and by 1820 no breweries were registered in

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2400-516: The books and artworks on show. Sir Kenneth Clark and Sir Anthony Blunt both testified to the value of this bookshop in its early days to the "scholarly student of art history " while Henry Moore , John Piper and Graham Sutherland spoke of the "inspiration" its art books gave young sculptors and painters. Zwemmer was a lifelong friend and business associate of Albert Skira , a Swiss publisher who ran an eponymous publishing house offering lavish colour art books and livres d'artiste and who

2475-409: The bulb fields south of Haarlem. Haarlem was an important stopover for passengers from the last half of the 17th century and through the 18th century until the building of the first rail tracks along the routes of former passenger canal systems. As Haarlem slowly expanded southwards, so did the bulb fields. Today, rail passengers between Rotterdam and Amsterdam in spring can see blooming bulb fields on

2550-699: The business began to flounder. When the American Civil War reduced the import of raw cotton significantly after 1863, the business went sour. Only Prévinaire was able to survive through specialisation with his "Turkish Red" dye. The Prévinaire "toile Adrinople" was popular. Prévinaire's son went on to create the Haarlemsche Katoenmaatschappij, which made a kind of imitation batik cloth called "La Javanaise" that became popular in Belgian Congo . In England in 1804, Richard Trevithick designed

2625-513: The city grew, and the situation became so tense that on 27 May many (Spanish-loyal) prisoners were taken from the prison and murdered; the Spaniards had previously gibbeted their own prisoners of war. In the beginning of July the Prince of Orange assembled an army of 5,000 soldiers near Leiden to free Haarlem. However, he was prevented from accompanying them in person and the Spanish forces trapped them at

2700-517: The city hall in the little garden known as the Hortus (where today the Stedelijk Gymnasium school is located). Most scholars agree that the scarce evidence seems to point to Johann Gutenberg as the first European inventor of the printing press, but Haarlem children were taught about "Lau", as he is known, well into the 20th century. This legend served the printers of Haarlem well, however, and it

2775-525: The city started out between Spaarne, Oudegracht, Ridderstraat, Bakenessergracht and Nassaustraat. In the 14th century the city expanded, and the Burgwalbuurt, Bakenes and the area around the Oudegracht became part of the city. The old defenses proved not to be sufficiently strong for the expanded city, and at the end of the 14th century a 16½-metre high wall was built, complete with a 15-metre wide canal circling

2850-485: The city. In 1304 the Flemish threatened the city, but they were defeated by Witte van Haemstede at Manpad . All the city's buildings were made of wood, and fire was a great risk. In 1328 nearly the whole city burnt down. The Sint-Bavokerk was severely damaged, and rebuilding it would take more than 150 years. Again on 12 June 1347 there was a fire in the city. A third large fire, in 1351, destroyed many buildings including

2925-632: The city. In the 1990s, the Stichting Haarlems Biergenootschap revived some old recipes under the Jopen beer brand that is marketed as a "Haarlem bier." In 2010, Jopen opened a brewery in a former church in central Haarlem called the Jopenkerk. In 2012, Haarlem gained another local brewery with Uiltje Brewing in the Zijlstraat , which specializes in craft beer. Since the 1630s, Haarlem has been

3000-561: The country, the various commissions gathered and implemented a revolution. The commissions changed the city's administrators in a bloodless revolution, and the next morning the city was "liberated" of the tyranny of the House of Orange. The revolution was peaceful, and the Orange-loyal people were not harmed. The Batavian Republic was then proclaimed. The French army entered the liberated city two days later, on 20 January. An army of 1,500 soldiers

3075-592: The destroyed city walls. Just like the rest of the country, the Golden Age in the United Provinces had started. The new citizens had a lot of expertise in linen and silk manufacture and trading, and the city's population grew from 18,000 in 1573 to around 40,000 in 1622. At one point, in 1621, over 50% of the population was Flemish-born. Haarlem's linen became notable and the city flourished. Today an impression of some of those original textile tradesmen can be had from

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3150-492: The east. The street is only half its original length. In 1929 Anton Zwemmer established the Zwemmer Gallery in Litchfield Street (near the corner with Charing Cross Road), which became "a mecca for artists throughout Britain and a center for the modern art movement". Bunjies Coffee House & Folk Cellar , one of the original folk cafés of the 1950s/1960s, was situated at 27 Litchfield Street. On 15 February 1996,

3225-487: The economy and attract workers for the brewing and bleaching businesses (Haarlem was known for these, thanks to the clean water from the dunes), the Haarlem council decided to promote the pursuit of arts and history, showing tolerance for diversity among religious beliefs. This attracted a large influx of Flemish and French immigrants (Catholics and Huguenots alike) who were fleeing the Spanish occupation of their own cities. Expansion plans soon replaced plans of rebuilding

3300-468: The effects of this can be seen in the Haarlem railway station , now a rijksmonument. Instead of more than two hours, Amsterdam was now only 30 minutes away. The old passenger service by trekschuit along the Haarlemmertrekvaart was quickly taken out of service in favour of the train service, which was quicker and more reliable. In 1878, a Beijnes-made horse tram started servicing passengers from

3375-564: The fire: a wide strip through the city was destroyed. The combined result of the siege and the fire was that about a third of the city was destroyed. The fire and the long siege had taken their toll on the city. The Spanish left in 1577 and under the Agreement of Veere , Protestants and Catholics were given equal rights, though in government the Protestants clearly had the upper hand and Catholic possessions once seized were never returned. To restore

3450-513: The first locomotive. The government of the Netherlands was relatively slow to catch up, even though the king feared competition from newly established Belgium if it would construct a railway between Antwerp and other cities. The Dutch parliament balked at the high level of investment needed, but a group of private investors started the Hollandsche IJzeren Spoorweg-Maatschappij on 1 June 1836. It took three years to build

3525-448: The first track on the railway, between Haarlem and Amsterdam along the old tow canal called the Haarlemmertrekvaart . The ground there was wet and muddy. On 20 September 1839, the first train service in the Netherlands started. The train had a speed of about 40 km/h (25 mph). The train service gave the Beijnes company, and indirectly the whole economy of Haarlem, a strong boost, and

3600-412: The former municipality of Schoten as well as parts that previously belonged to Bloemendaal and Heemstede . Apart from the city, the municipality of Haarlem also includes the western part of the village of Spaarndam . Newer sections of Spaarndam lie within the neighbouring municipality of Haarlemmermeer . Haarlem is located on the river Spaarne , giving it its nickname Spaarnestad (Spaarne city). It

3675-468: The latter became a partner and in 1923 purchased the bookshop and renamed it A. Zwemmer (it would be commonly referred to as "Zwemmer's"). Zwemmer changed the focus of the business from antiquarian books to art books and magazines, and in particular imported European books. After years of being cut off from the "primary sources of modern art" in France and Germany due to the war, and with their taste whetted for

3750-427: The modern movement in British art, by publishing works such as Herbert Read 's Henry Moore, Sculptor: With an Appreciation by Herbert Read and Thirty-six Full-page Plates (1934), the first monograph to be published on that sculptor. Books with Zwemmer's imprint, A. Zwemmer Ltd., featured quality printing with full page photographs of paintings and sculptures, "integrated" text and illustrations, "modern typefaces" and

3825-400: The new artists such as Gauguin, Van Gogh and Matisse, and with the latest criticism regarding their work, could be obtained. Zwemmer's was the only place in London where one would be "likely to see" livres d'artiste , Wyndham Lewis's The Enemy and Stanley Morison 's typographical journal The Fleuron . The bookshop's display windows were famous for the bold imagery and the bright colours of

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3900-528: The north and south portions of the Grote Houtstraat . Such "overclosures" can still be seen in other Dutch cities, such as the Nieuwmarkt in Amsterdam. From 1879, the population of the city almost doubled in thirty years, from 36,976 to 69,410 in 1909. Not only did the population grow, but the city was expanding rapidly, too. The Leidsebuurt district was incorporated into Haarlem in the 1880s. A small part of

3975-476: The peat grounds west of the river Spaarne as a drainage canal. Over the centuries the Beek was turned into an underground canal, as the city grew larger and the space was needed for construction. Over time it began to silt up and in the 19th century it was filled in. The village had a good location: by the river Spaarne, and by a major road going south to north. By the 12th century it was a fortified town, and Haarlem became

4050-455: The provincial capital of North Holland province in the early 19th century. In the mid-19th century, the city's economy slowly started to improve. New factories opened, and a number of large industrial companies were founded in Haarlem by Thomas Wilson, Guillaume Jean Poelman, J.B.T. Prévinaire , J.J. Beijnes , Hendrik Figee , Gerardus Johannes Droste , and G.P.J. Beccari. The Nederlandsche Handel-Maatschappij (NHM or Dutch Trade Company)

4125-538: The quality of that water was not good enough either. From the 17th century, a canal (Santvaert) was used to transport water from the dunes to the city. The water was transported in barrels on ships. The location where the water was taken is called the Brouwerskolkje, and the canal to there still exists, and is now called the Brewers' Canal (Brouwersvaart). Haarlem was a major beer producer in the Netherlands. The majority of

4200-556: The railway station to the Haarlemmerhout woodland park, and in 1894, the Eerste Nederlandsche Electrische Tram Maatschappij (ENET) was founded with cars built by Beijnes and became the first Dutch electric tram, which ran in Haarlem from 1899 onwards. Though the old trekvaart was closed for water traffic after railway development, it is still possible to travel by boat from Amsterdam to Haarlem, via

4275-505: The residence of the Counts of Holland . In 1219 the knights of Haarlem were laurelled by Count Willem I , because they had conquered the Egyptian port of Damietta (or Damiate in Dutch, present-day Dimyat ) in the fifth crusade . Haarlem received the right to bear the Count's sword and cross in its coat of arms . On 23 November 1245 Count Willem II granted Haarlem city rights . This implied

4350-422: The rest of the country for war. Some 12,000 of the Spanish army had fallen during the siege. The city suffered a large fire in the night from 22 to 23 October 1576. The fire started in brewery het Ankertje, near the weighhouse at the Spaarne, which was used by mercenaries as a guarding place. When they were warming themselves at a fire it got out of control. The fire was spotted by farmers, who sailed their ships on

4425-578: The right to collect tolls, including ships passing the city on the Spaarne river. At the end of the Middle Ages , Haarlem was a flourishing city with a large textile industry, shipyards and beer breweries. Around 1428, the city was put under siege by the army of Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut . Haarlem had taken side with the Cods in the Hook and Cod wars and thus against Jacoba of Bavaria. The entire Haarlemmerhout wood

4500-401: The river. However, the soldiers turned down all help, saying that they would put out the fire themselves. This failed, and the fire destroyed almost 500 buildings, among them St-Gangolf's church and St-Elisabeth's hospital . Most of the mercenaries were later arrested, and one of them was hanged on the Grote Markt in front of a large audience. Maps from that era clearly show the damage done by

4575-454: The route between Leiden and Haarlem. As the centre of trade gravitated towards Amsterdam, Haarlem declined in the 18th century. The Golden Age had created a large upper middle class of merchants and well-to-do small business owners. Taking advantage of the reliability of the trekschuit connection between Amsterdam and Haarlem, many people had a business address in Amsterdam and a weekend or summer home in Haarlem. Haarlem became more and more

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4650-414: The wall. Having buildings outside the city walls was not a desirable situation to the city administration. Not only because these buildings would be vulnerable in case of an attack on the city, but there was also less control over taxes and city regulations outside the walls. Therefore, a major project was initiated in 1671: expanding the city northwards. Two new canals were dug, and a new defensive wall

4725-630: The waters of the North Sea from the west, and the waters of the IJ and the Haarlem Lake from the east. Haarlem became wealthy with toll revenues that it collected from ships and travellers moving on this busy north–south route. As shipping became increasingly important economically, the city of Amsterdam became the main Dutch city of North Holland during the Dutch Golden Age . The town of Halfweg became

4800-414: The wealth of the city in those years. The Black Death came to the city in 1381. According to an estimate by a priest from Leiden the disease killed 5,000 people, about half the population at that time. In the 14th century, Haarlem was a major city. It was the second largest city in historical Holland after Dordrecht and before Delft , Leiden, Amsterdam, Gouda and Rotterdam . In 1429 the city gained

4875-402: Was The Priory, Rotherfield , Crowborough , East Sussex . His inferred spouse, Lilian Zwemmer (17 May 1893 – 23 April 1971), had in 1971 been living at the same address. In his Henry Moore: Writings and Conversations , Henry Moore observed: "I could mention eight or nine such individuals (apart from artists themselves) whose efforts during my lifetime have helped to change the whole climate of

4950-549: Was a friend of artists such as Picasso and Matisse. Zwemmer was notably an early buyer of Skira's books and was later the agent for Skira's books in Britain. From the mid-1920s Zwemmer supplemented his bookselling activities with the publication of art books, firstly, on Giotto (1927) and then on Botticelli (1930) and Picasso (1931), with the Picasso book being the first in the English language on that artist. He gave support to British artists and sculptors, such as Henry Moore , and

5025-444: Was a very important industry in Haarlem. Until the 16th century, the water for the beer was taken from the canals in the city. These canals were connected to seawater, via the Spaarne and the IJ. However, the canal water was getting more and more polluted and less suitable for brewing beer. A place 1.5 km (0.9 mi) south-west of the city was then used to take fresh water in. However,

5100-422: Was burnt down by the enemy. When the city of Brielle was conquered by the Geuzen revolutionary army, the municipality of Haarlem started supporting the Geuzen. King Philip II of Spain was not pleased, and sent an army north under the command of Don Fadrique (Don Frederick in Dutch), son of Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba . On 17 November 1572 all citizens of the city of Zutphen were killed by

5175-541: Was constructed (the current Staten en Prinsenbolwerk). Two old city gates, the Janspoort and Kruispoort, were demolished. The idea that a city had to be square-shaped was abandoned. After the fall of Antwerp, many artists and craftsmen migrated to Haarlem and received commissions from the Haarlem council to decorate the city hall. The paintings commissioned were meant to show Haarlem's glorious history as well as Haarlem's glorious products. Haarlem's cultural life prospered, with painters like Frans Hals and Jacob van Ruisdael ,

5250-413: Was digging tunnels to reach the city walls and blow them up; the defenders dug in turn and undermined the Spaniards' tunnels. The situation worsened on 29 March 1573: the Amsterdam army, faithful to the Spanish king, controlled Haarlemmermeer lake, effectively blocking Haarlem from the outside world. An attempt by the Prince of Orange to destroy the Spanish navy on the Haarlemmermeer had failed. Hunger in

5325-457: Was founded by King Willem I to create employment opportunities. As one of the cities in the western part of the Netherlands with the worst economic situation, three cotton mills were created in Haarlem under the NHM-program in the 1830s. These were run by experts from the Southern Netherlands, whom the NHM considered better at mechanical weaving through the local expertise of Lieven Bauwens . The contract winners were Thomas Wilson, whose factory

5400-411: Was held in the gallery, which notably was the first all- abstract show ever to be held in the country. Through his gallery, as through his bookselling and publishing, Anton Zwemmer's constant goal was to "support the recent work of modern artists". During the war years from 1939 Zwemmer's collaborative projects with European publishers had to be suspended. Due to the impossibility of importing books from

5475-478: Was provided with food and clothing by the citizens. The new national government was strongly centralised, and the role and influence of the cities was reduced. The Batavian Republic signed a mutual defense pact with France and was thus automatically at war with England. The strong English presence at sea severely reduced trading opportunities, and the Dutch economy suffered accordingly. The textile industry, which had always been an important pillar of Haarlem's economy,

5550-611: Was situated north of what is today the Wilsonplein, Guillaume Jean Poelman, who was in business with his nephew Charles Vervaecke from Ghent and had a factory on what today is the Phoenixstraat, and Jean Baptiste Theodore Prévinaire , who had a factory on the Garenkokerskade and whose son Marie Prosper Theodore Prévinaire created the Haarlemsche Katoenmaatschappij in 1875. These cotton factories produced goods for export, and because

5625-520: Was suffering at the beginning of the 19th century. Strong international competition and revolutionary new production methods based on steam engines already in use in England dealt a striking blow to Haarlem's industry. In 1815, the city's population was about 17,000 people, many of whom were poor. The foundation of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in that year gave hope to many who believed that under

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