40-517: The Zingiberales are flowering plants forming one of four orders in the commelinids clade of monocots , together with its sister order, Commelinales . The order includes 68 genera and 2,600 species . Zingiberales are a unique though morphologically diverse order that has been widely recognised as such over a long period of time. They are usually large herbaceous plants with rhizomatous root systems and lacking an aerial stem except when flowering. Flowers are usually large and showy, and
80-2246: A molecular phylogeny of plants placed the flowering plants in their evolutionary context: Bryophytes [REDACTED] Lycophytes [REDACTED] Ferns [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The main groups of living angiosperms are: Amborellales [REDACTED] 1 sp. New Caledonia shrub Nymphaeales [REDACTED] c. 80 spp. water lilies & allies Austrobaileyales [REDACTED] c. 100 spp. woody plants Magnoliids [REDACTED] c. 10,000 spp. 3-part flowers, 1-pore pollen, usu. branch-veined leaves Chloranthales [REDACTED] 77 spp. Woody, apetalous Monocots [REDACTED] c. 70,000 spp. 3-part flowers, 1 cotyledon , 1-pore pollen, usu. parallel-veined leaves Ceratophyllales [REDACTED] c. 6 spp. aquatic plants Eudicots [REDACTED] c. 175,000 spp. 4- or 5-part flowers, 3-pore pollen, usu. branch-veined leaves Amborellales Melikyan, Bobrov & Zaytzeva 1999 Nymphaeales Salisbury ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Austrobaileyales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992 Chloranthales Mart. 1835 Canellales Cronquist 1957 Piperales von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Magnoliales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Laurales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Acorales Link 1835 Alismatales Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Petrosaviales Takhtajan 1997 Dioscoreales Brown 1835 Pandanales Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Liliales Perleb 1826 Asparagales Link 1829 Arecales Bromhead 1840 Poales Small 1903 Zingiberales Grisebach 1854 Commelinales de Mirbel ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Raphide Raphides ( / ˈ r æ f ɪ d i z / RAF -id-eez ; singular raphide / ˈ r eɪ f aɪ d / RAY -fyde or raphis ) are needle-shaped crystals of calcium oxalate monohydrate ( prismatic monoclinic crystals) or calcium carbonate as aragonite ( dipyramidal orthorhombic crystals), found in more than 200 families of plants. Both ends are needle-like, but raphides tend to be blunt at one end and sharp at
120-526: A classification of families for the first time, retaining Kress's eight families. Based on morphology alone, the Zingiberales have been considered to form two main groups, each with four families, utilising the number of fertile stamens; Using combined morphology and molecular data, Kress and colleagues (1993, 1995, 2001) confirmed the broad separation into two clades based on morphology alone, and produced an infraordinal structure. In this scheme, they divided
160-624: A groove down both sides) or with a hexagonal cross section and some are barbed. Wattendorf (1976) suggested that all circular sectioned raphides, as visible in a light microscope, are probably hexagonal in cross section The hexagonal crystals reported by Wattendorf in Agave americana were apparently calcium oxalate. Microscopy using polarized light shows bright opalescence with raphides. Plants like Tradescantia pallida also accumulate calcium oxalate crystals in response to heavy metals stress. Raphides can produce severe toxic reactions by facilitating
200-627: A herbaceous arborescent stem , distichous phyllotaxy , large petiolate leaves in which the petioles are often long, parallel and transverse venation diverging laterally from a prominent common midrib, and inflorescences of conspicuous colorful bracts (bracteate inflorescence) and the substitution of one to five rudimentary staminodia for fertile stamens . Leaf architecture is useful for distinguishing families within Zingiberales, based on vein pattern type, vein length per area, and other aspects of vein architecture such as angle of vein divergence, with three main types of venation recognised. These are
240-410: A higher taxonomic rank than order. For a brief history of the taxonomy of this order, see Scitamineae , and Kress 1990. They were first described by August Grisebach , their botanical authority , in 1854 as Zingiberides, an order of monocotyledons, subdivided into two families, Scitamineae and Musaceae. Based on morphological grounds alone, early systems , such as Bentham and Hooker (1883) placed
280-499: A reduced exine layer and an elaborated intine layer, nuclear endosperm development, and arillate seeds . "The Zingiberiflorae, whether treated as a separate superorder, as here, or an order in a more widely circumscribed unit, is one of the most indisputably natural suprafamilial groups." The Zingiberales have always been considered a unique and coherent ( monophyletic ) group, although accounting for <4% of extant monocots, which has led some authors to suggest they should constitute
320-522: A separate superorder. This was an ordinal system that did not examine subordinal structure. The 2003 revision ( APG II ) changed commelinoid to commelinid, but not the relationships, and this remained unchanged in the subsequent 2009 APG III system and 2016 APG IV system without addressing interfamilial relationships. Arecales Poales Zingiberales Commelinales The order, which now has more than 2,600 species, distributed in 68 genera over eight families, has been subdivided from early times. In
360-610: A total of 64 angiosperm orders and 416 families. The diversity of flowering plants is not evenly distributed. Nearly all species belong to the eudicot (75%), monocot (23%), and magnoliid (2%) clades. The remaining five clades contain a little over 250 species in total; i.e. less than 0.1% of flowering plant diversity, divided among nine families. The 25 most species-rich of 443 families, containing over 166,000 species between them in their APG circumscriptions, are: The botanical term "angiosperm", from Greek words angeíon ( ἀγγεῖον 'bottle, vessel') and spérma ( σπέρμα 'seed'),
400-858: Is starting to impact plants and is likely to cause many species to become extinct by 2100. Angiosperms are terrestrial vascular plants; like the gymnosperms, they have roots , stems , leaves , and seeds . They differ from other seed plants in several ways. The largest angiosperms are Eucalyptus gum trees of Australia, and Shorea faguetiana , dipterocarp rainforest trees of Southeast Asia, both of which can reach almost 100 metres (330 ft) in height. The smallest are Wolffia duckweeds which float on freshwater, each plant less than 2 millimetres (0.08 in) across. Considering their method of obtaining energy, some 99% of flowering plants are photosynthetic autotrophs , deriving their energy from sunlight and using it to create molecules such as sugars . The remainder are parasitic , whether on fungi like
440-449: Is not always possible to detect the presence of raphides through taste alone. In some tubers such as Indian turnip which contain large quantities of raphides, the roots are not unpalatable when cooked because the raphides are bound within a matrix of starch which prevents the tongue from sensing their presence. Some other plants store raphides in mucilaginous environments and also do not taste acrid. Common names vary. The following list
SECTION 10
#1732883996334480-558: Is similar in some taxa but different in others leaving possible opportunities for plant key characteristics and systematic identification; mucilage in raphide containing cells makes light microscopy difficult, though. Little is known about the mechanisms of sequestration or indeed the reason for accumulation of raphides but it is most likely as a defense mechanism against herbivory. It has also been suggested that in some cases raphides may help form plant skeletal structure. Raphides typically occur in parenchyma cells in aerial organs especially
520-485: The Alismatales grow in marine environments, spreading with rhizomes that grow through the mud in sheltered coastal waters. Some specialised angiosperms are able to flourish in extremely acid or alkaline habitats. The sundews , many of which live in nutrient-poor acid bogs , are carnivorous plants , able to derive nutrients such as nitrate from the bodies of trapped insects. Other flowers such as Gentiana verna ,
560-560: The Bentham & Hooker system (1883), their Ordo Scitamineae had four tribes : Zingibereae, Maranteae, Canneae, and Museae. These have become progressively divided to form the modern phyletic classification into the following monophyletic families: Zingiberaceae (gingers), Musaceae (bananas), Heliconiaceae (heliconias), Strelitziaceae (bird-of-paradise), Costaceae (spiral gingers), Cannaceae (canna lilies), Marantaceae (prayer plants), and Lowiaceae (Orchidantha). The APG II system (2003) provided
600-792: The Zingiber -type, with square to vertically elongate areoles , the Costus -type, with horizontally elongate areoles and the Orchidantha -type with cross veins spanning multiple parallel veins. The apomorphies (derived characteristics common to a taxonomic group) are considered to be specialised isomorphic root hair cells, penni-parallel leaf venation, supervolute ptyxis (left and right halves of immature leaf lamina rolled into each other), diaphragmed air chambers in leaves and stem, presence of intracellular silica bodies, epigynous flowers and an inferior ovary , pollen grains without distinctive aperture but with
640-460: The orchids for part or all of their life-cycle, or on other plants , either wholly like the broomrapes, Orobanche , or partially like the witchweeds, Striga . In terms of their environment, flowering plants are cosmopolitan, occupying a wide range of habitats on land, in fresh water and in the sea. On land, they are the dominant plant group in every habitat except for frigid moss-lichen tundra and coniferous forest . The seagrasses in
680-481: The seeds are enclosed within a fruit. The group was formerly called Magnoliophyta . Angiosperms are by far the most diverse group of land plants with 64 orders , 416 families , approximately 13,000 known genera and 300,000 known species . They include all forbs (flowering plants without a woody stem ), grasses and grass-like plants, a vast majority of broad-leaved trees , shrubs and vines , and most aquatic plants . Angiosperms are distinguished from
720-451: The stamens are often modified ( staminodes ) to also form colourful petal-like structures that attract pollinators . Zingiberales contain eight families that are informally considered as two groups, differing in the number of fertile stamens. A " banana group " of four families appeared first and were named on the basis of large banana -like leaves. Later, a more genetically coherent ( monophyletic ) " ginger group " appeared, consisting of
760-883: The "Big Five" extinction events in Earth's history, only the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event had occurred while angiosperms dominated plant life on the planet. Today, the Holocene extinction affects all kingdoms of complex life on Earth, and conservation measures are necessary to protect plants in their habitats in the wild ( in situ ), or failing that, ex situ in seed banks or artificial habitats like botanic gardens . Otherwise, around 40% of plant species may become extinct due to human actions such as habitat destruction , introduction of invasive species , unsustainable logging , land clearing and overharvesting of medicinal or ornamental plants . Further, climate change
800-744: The Scitamineae as an Ordo (family) of the Epigynae alliance in the monocotyledons, incorporating both of Grisebach's families. Later systems such as the Engler system (1903) and the Wettstein system (1924), also considered Scitamineae as a monocotyledon order and were influential for a long period of time. Variants included Scitaminales ( Warming 1912). Hutchinson (1926), although initially using Scitamineae, later followed Takenoshin Nakai (1930). in adopting Zingiberales as
840-531: The basal Strelitziineae (Strelitziaceae-Lowiaceae) sister group ( Cladogram II ) were strongly supported, the position of Musaceae and Heliconiaceae were not. In the above model (Model 1), Musaceae appears as the first branching family, and Heliconiaceae placed as sister to the Zingiberineae ( Cladogram III ). Other studies placed these and the Strelitziaceae-Lowiaceae sister group in a trichotomy with
SECTION 20
#1732883996334880-501: The class Liliopsida ( monocotyledons ). Using molecular phylogenetics , which was first applied to the order in 1993, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) system (1998), (which generally followed Dahlgren, but with fewer divisions) confirmed the position of Zingiberales as a monophyletic order within the monocots, placing it in the commelinoid clade, as sister group to Commelinales , which Dahlgren had treated within
920-813: The dominant group of plants across the planet. Agriculture is almost entirely dependent on angiosperms, and a small number of flowering plant families supply nearly all plant-based food and livestock feed. Rice , maize and wheat provide half of the world's staple calorie intake, and all three plants are cereals from the Poaceae family (colloquially known as grasses). Other families provide important industrial plant products such as wood , paper and cotton , and supply numerous ingredients for beverages , sugar production , traditional medicine and modern pharmaceuticals . Flowering plants are also commonly grown for decorative purposes , with certain flowers playing significant cultural roles in many societies. Out of
960-450: The evolution of characteristics. Zingiberaceae Costaceae Cannaceae Marantaceae Lowiaceae Strelitziaceae Zingiberineae Heliconiaceae Strelitziineae Musaceae Zingiberineae Musaceae Strelitziineae Heliconiaceae Zingiberineae Heliconiaceae Strelitziineae Musaceae Finally in 2016 Sass and colleagues, using multiplexed exon capture were able to resolve the entire phylogenetic tree with high support. This confirmed
1000-403: The families of the order as follows, with the ginger group as one suborder, and the banana group divided amongst three separate suborders: Suborder Zingiberineae Kress ("gingers"; 2 superfamilies) Suborder Strelitziineae Kress Suborder Musineae Kress Suborder Heliconiineae Kress While the two sister family groups that constitute the Zingiberineae ( Cladogram I ) and also
1040-567: The flowering plants as an unranked clade without a formal Latin name (angiosperms). A formal classification was published alongside the 2009 revision in which the flowering plants rank as the subclass Magnoliidae. From 1998, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) has reclassified the angiosperms, with updates in the APG II system in 2003, the APG III system in 2009, and the APG IV system in 2016. In 2019,
1080-655: The general monocot pattern, with inflorescences in thyrse -like spikes, zygomorphic to asymmetric, with two trimerous whorls of tepals . Gynoecium tricarpellate, ovary epigynous (inferior), two trimerous androecial whorls with stamens 6, 5 or 1. Stamens have elongated sterile filaments to which are attached anthers, distally, comprising about half of the length of the total stamen. Septal nectaries often present. Pollen sulcate but often inaperturate (lacking apertures). Fruit capsular or schizocarp. Phytochemistry : Often containing raphides , Specific characteristics which help to distinguish this order include
1120-466: The leaves, and are generally confined to the mesophyll. As the leaf area increases, so does the number of raphides, the process starting in even young leaves. The first indications that the cell will contain crystals is shown when the cells enlarge with a larger nucleus. Raphides are found in specialized plant cells or crystal chambers called idioblasts . Electron micrographs have shown that raphide needle crystals are normally four sided or H-shaped (with
1160-518: The manner of vines or lianas . The number of species of flowering plants is estimated to be in the range of 250,000 to 400,000. This compares to around 12,000 species of moss and 11,000 species of pteridophytes . The APG system seeks to determine the number of families , mostly by molecular phylogenetics . In the 2009 APG III there were 415 families. The 2016 APG IV added five new orders (Boraginales, Dilleniales, Icacinales, Metteniusales and Vahliales), along with some new families, for
1200-472: The most distinct floral morphology . They are large rhizomatous herbaceous plants but lacking an aerial stem , except when flowering. Leaves usually petiolate with distinct petiole and lamina, leaf arrangement distichous (spiral in Musaceae). Venation pinnate-parallelodromous, with midrib (midvein), S-shaped lateral veins and fine transverse venation. Flowers are generally large and showy, following
1240-404: The mouth and throat with symptoms occurring for up to two weeks. Airway assessment and management are of the highest priority, as are extensive irrigation and analgesics in eye exposure. Raphides cannot normally be destroyed by boiling; that requires an acidic environment or chemical solvents like ether. Plants containing large amounts of raphides are generally acrid and unpalatable. However, it
Zingiberales - Misplaced Pages Continue
1280-524: The name for the order (6 families) in Division Calyciferae, although credit is generally given to Nakai. This usage was followed by Takhtajan (1966) within superorder Lilianae and by Dahlgren (1985) in its own superorder Zingiberiflorae. In contrast the Cronquist system retained Scitamineae as the name for this order with eight families, but organised the order in the subclass Zingiberidae of
1320-554: The other major seed plant clade, the gymnosperms , by having flowers , xylem consisting of vessel elements instead of tracheids , endosperm within their seeds, and fruits that completely envelop the seeds. The ancestors of flowering plants diverged from the common ancestor of all living gymnosperms before the end of the Carboniferous , over 300 million years ago. In the Cretaceous , angiosperms diversified explosively , becoming
1360-458: The other. Many plants accumulate calcium oxalate crystals in response to surplus calcium, which is found throughout the natural environment. The crystals are produced in a variety of shapes. The crystal morphology depends on the taxonomic group of the plant. In one study of over 100 species, it was found that calcium oxalate accounted for 6.3% of plant dry weight. Crystal morphology and the distribution of raphides (in roots or leaves or tubers etc.)
1400-696: The passage of toxin through the herbivore's skin when the tissue containing the raphides also contains toxins. The lethal dose to mice is around 15 mg/kg. Raphides seem to be a defense mechanism against plant consuming animals, as they are likely to tear and harm the soft tissues of the throat or esophagus of an animal chewing on the plant's leaves. The venomous process is in two stages: mechanical pricking and injection of harmful protease . Typically ingestion of plants containing raphides, like those common in certain houseplants, can cause immediate numbing followed shortly by painful edema , vesicle formation and dysphagia accompanied by painful stinging and burning to
1440-546: The place of Musaceae as sister to the remaining families, confirming Model 3. Zingiberaceae Costaceae Cannaceae Flowering plant Basal angiosperms Core angiosperms Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits , and form the clade Angiospermae ( / ˌ æ n dʒ i ə ˈ s p ər m iː / ). The term 'angiosperm' is derived from the Greek words ἀγγεῖον / angeion ('container, vessel') and σπέρμα / sperma ('seed'), meaning that
1480-529: The remaining families. While a revision of the first model (Model 2) placed Heliconiaceae as the first branching lineage with Musaceae in a sister relationship with Strelitziineae, which in turn was sister to Zingiberineae ( Cladogram IV ). A third model (Model 3) supports Musaceae as the basal group but places Heliconiaceae as sister to Strelitziineae ( Cladogram V ). The failure to resolve the ancient rapid divergences of this order with multi-gene phylogenies and plastid data has important implications for understanding
1520-1066: The remaining four families. The order, which has a fossil record, is thought to have originated in the Early Cretaceous period between 80 and 120 million years ago (Mya), most likely in Australia , and diverged relatively rapidly with the families as they are known today established by the end of the period (66 Mya). Zingiberales are found throughout the tropics (pantropical) with some extension into subtropical and temperate climates. They rely on insects for pollination , together with some birds and small animals. The order includes many familiar plants, and are used as ornamental plants ( Bird of Paradise flower , heliconias , prayer-plants ), food crops ( bananas , plantains , arrowroot ), spices and traditional medicines ( ginger , cardamom , turmeric , galangal , fingerroot and myoga ). Zingiberales are one of an ecologically and morphologically diverse and species-rich order of monocots , with one of
1560-568: The spring gentian, are adapted to the alkaline conditions found on calcium -rich chalk and limestone , which give rise to often dry topographies such as limestone pavement . As for their growth habit , the flowering plants range from small, soft herbaceous plants , often living as annuals or biennials that set seed and die after one growing season, to large perennial woody trees that may live for many centuries and grow to many metres in height. Some species grow tall without being self-supporting like trees by climbing on other plants in
1600-483: Was coined in the form "Angiospermae" by Paul Hermann in 1690, including only flowering plants whose seeds were enclosed in capsules. The term angiosperm fundamentally changed in meaning in 1827 with Robert Brown , when angiosperm came to mean a seed plant with enclosed ovules. In 1851, with Wilhelm Hofmeister 's work on embryo-sacs, Angiosperm came to have its modern meaning of all the flowering plants including Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. The APG system treats
#333666