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76-555: For most of its route, the highway parallels the China–Russia border at a distance of 100–200 km (62–124 mi). As of 2010, it still included unpaved sections. It traverses the sparsely populated regions of Zabaykalsky Krai , Amur Oblast , Jewish Autonomous Oblast , and Khabarovsk Krai . The most problematic stretch of the highway lies between Chita and Khabarovsk . The first section of this route, linking Belogorsk to Blagoveshchensk (124 km (77 mi) in length),

152-408: A conceptual artistic practice , however, opens up the possibility for artists to explore similar concerns of identity and national origin(s) but whose location is not specific to the U.S-Mexico border. A border can be a division, dividing groups of people and families. Borders can include but are not limited to language, culture, social and economic class, religion, and national identity. In addition to

228-480: A 15 metres (49 ft)-wide strip along the border (i.e. within 7.5 metres (25 ft) from the border line on each side of it) (Article 6). Civil navigation is allowed on the border rivers and lakes, provided the vessels of each country stay on the appropriate side of the dividing line (Article 9); similar rules apply to fishing in these waters (Article 10). Each country's authorities will carry out appropriate measures to prevent grazing livestock from crossing into

304-740: A DMZ unexposed to human influence and thus developed into a natural border or wildlife preserve, such as on the Korean Demilitarized Zone , the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone , and the Green Line in Cyprus . Borders undermine economic activity and development by reducing trade activity. The presence of borders often fosters certain economic features or anomalies. Wherever two jurisdictions come into contact, special economic opportunities arise for border trade . Smuggling provides

380-543: A border may be a de facto military ceasefire line. In much of Europe, controls on persons were abolished by the 1985 Schengen Agreement and subsequent European Union legislation. Since the Treaty of Amsterdam , the competence to pass laws on crossing internal and external borders within the European Union and the associated Schengen Area states ( Iceland , Norway , Switzerland , and Liechtenstein ) lies exclusively within

456-630: A border often requires the payment of excise tax , often collected by customs officials. Animals (and occasionally humans) moving across borders may need to go into quarantine to prevent the spread of exotic infectious diseases. Most countries prohibit carrying illegal drugs or endangered animals across their borders. Moving goods, animals, or people illegally across a border, without declaring them or seeking permission, or deliberately evading official inspection, constitutes smuggling . Controls on car liability insurance validity and other formalities may also take place. A border may have been: In addition,

532-513: A cease-fire line, an LoC was first created with the Simla Agreement between India and Pakistan . Similar to a cease-fire line, an LoC is typically the result of war, military stalemates and unresolved land ownership conflict. A maritime border is a division enclosing an area in the ocean where a nation has exclusive rights over the mineral and biological resources, encompassing maritime features, limits and zones. Maritime borders represent

608-477: A classic case; contrariwise, a border region may flourish on the provision of excise or of import – export services — legal or quasi-legal, corrupt or legitimate. Different regulations on either side of a border may encourage services to position themselves at or near that border: thus the provision of pornography , of prostitution , of alcohol , fireworks , and/or of narcotics may cluster around borders, city limits, county lines, ports and airports . In

684-470: A decision). Fiat boundaries are typically the product of human demarcation, such as in demarcating electoral districts or postal districts. A relic border is a former boundary, which may no longer be a legal boundary at all. However, the former presence of the boundary can still be seen in the landscape. For instance, the boundary between East and West Germany is no longer an international boundary, but it can still be seen because of historical markers on

760-679: A difficult dirt road approaches from the Russian side to within 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) from the Kanas Pass. Until the Soviet authorities closed the border in 1936, Kazakh nomads would occasionally use these passes. Proposals exist for the construction of a cross-border highway and the Altai gas pipeline from China to Russia, which would cross the western section of the Sino-Russian border. Historical maps of

836-594: A distance of 300 m (980 ft) could take as long as three hours, and the route involved numerous serious river crossings. It posed a major challenge to long-distance overland expeditions and nearly caused the end of the Mondo Enduro expedition. The Long Way Round trip avoided it altogether. Motorcyclist Jim Oliver traveled the entire route in May–June 2004 and described massive marshes, gravel, rock, mud, sand, washboarding , potholes, stream fording, and detours along

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912-523: A division, a border can also conceive a borderland area that can create a cohesive community separate from the mainstream cultures and identities portrayed in the communities away from the borders, such as the Tijuana-San Diego border between Mexico and the United States. Border art can be defined as an art that is created in reference to any number of physical or imagined boundaries. This art can but

988-408: A more planned and official context, Special Economic Zones (SEZs) often tend to cluster near borders or ports. Even if the goods are not perceived to be undesirable, states will still seek to document and regulate the cross-border trade in order to collect tariffs and benefit from foreign currency exchange revenues. Thus, there is the concept unofficial trade in goods otherwise legal; for example,

1064-587: A particular state of mind for human activity. As such frontiers have been applied to borderlands identifying and claiming them as terra nullius , such as Marie Byrd Land in West Antarctica , the only territory in Antarctica unclaimed by any sovereign nation. In places where smuggling, migration, and infiltration are a problem, many countries fortify borders with fences and barriers , and institute formal border control procedures. These can extend inland, as in

1140-573: Is a general agreement of vertical airspace ending at the point of the Kármán line . The Kármán line is a peak point at the altitude of 62 mi (100 km) above the Earth's surface, setting a boundary between the atmosphere (airspace) and outer space (which is governed by space law ). The frontier is a border that is open-ended to one side, identifying an expanding borderland to one side. This type of border can be fairly abstract and has been identified as

1216-454: Is explained by an array of factors, some of which illustrate regional problems. Airspace is the atmosphere located within a country's controlled international and maritime borders. All sovereign countries hold the right to regulate and protect air space under the international law of Air sovereignty . The horizontal boundaries of airspace are similar to the policies of " high seas " in maritime law. Airspace extends 12 nautical miles from

1292-479: Is not limited to social , political , physical, emotional and/or nationalist issues. Border art is not confined to one particular medium . Border art/artists often address the forced politicization of human bodies and physical land and the arbitrary, yet incredibly harmful, separations that are created by these borders and boundaries. These artists are often "border crossers" themselves. They may cross borders of traditional art-making (through performance, video, or

1368-518: Is the western China–Mongolia–Russia tripoint, at the top of the peak Tavan Bogd Uul (Mt Kuitun), at the coordinates 49°10′13.5″N 87°48′56.3″E  /  49.170417°N 87.815639°E  / 49.170417; 87.815639 . Today's Sino-Russian border line is mostly inherited by Russia (with minor adjustments) from the Soviet Union , while the Sino-Soviet border line was essentially

1444-471: The 1991 Sino-Soviet Border Agreement , which was intended to start the process of resolving the border disputes held in abeyance since the 1960s. However, just a few months later the USSR was dissolved , and four former Soviet republics — Russia, Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan , and Tajikistan — inherited various sections of the former Sino–Soviet border. It took more than a decade for Russia and China to fully resolve

1520-617: The 38th Parallel (between North and South Korea), Western Sahara conflict , and Kashmir region conflicts between India and Pakistan. A border conflict can occur due to several reasons. Most commonly, territorial disputes can result in border conflicts, as it is the case with the Kashmir conflict . Borders have sometimes been significantly shaped by physical border constructions and openings. From border crossings, over border markers to border barriers these constructions fulfill many different functions. Such as also providing crossover. Even

1596-530: The European Union provides financial support to cross-border regions via its Interreg programme. The Council of Europe has issued the Outline Convention on Transfrontier Co-operation , providing a legal framework for cross-border co-operation even though it is in practice rarely used by Euroregions. There has been a renaissance in the study of borders starting with the end of the 1990s, partially from

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1672-507: The French Revolution or in Europe since the 1940s, de-emphasizes border-based economic activity and fosters free trade . Euroregions are similar official structures built around commuting across boundary. Political borders have a variety of meanings for those whom they affect. Many borders in the world have checkpoints where border control agents inspect persons and/or goods crossing

1748-588: The Middle East . The Canada–United States border follows the 49th parallel for roughly 2,175 miles (3,500 km) from Lake of the Woods ( Ontario and Minnesota ) west to the Pacific Ocean . A generalization of the idea of geometric borders is the idea of fiat boundaries by which is meant any sort of boundary that does not track an underlying bona fide physical discontinuity ( fiat , Latin for "let it be done",

1824-772: The Russian Revolution in 1917 and the later formation of the Soviet Union, there have been a number of issues along the border: Three countries bordered both China and the Soviet Union: Afghanistan , Mongolia and North Korea . Both the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan and Mongolian People's Republic were pro-Soviet satellite states during the Cold War, while the Democratic People's Republic of Korea

1900-564: The Sino-Russian border is the international border between China and Russia . After the final demarcation carried out in the early 2000s, it measures 4,209.3 kilometres (2,615.5 mi), and is the world's sixth-longest international border. According to the Russian border agency , as of October 1, 2013, there are more than 160 land border crossings between Russia and China, all of which are open 24 hours. There are crossing points established by

1976-713: The border monument called Tarbagan-Dakh (Ta'erbagan Dahu, Tarvagan Dakh). From the tripoint, the border line runs north-east, until it reaches the Argun River . The border follows the Argun and Amur river to the confluence of the latter with the Ussuri River . It divides the Bolshoy Ussuriysky Island at the confluence of the two rivers, and then runs south along the Ussuri. The border crosses Lake Khanka , and finally runs to

2052-687: The 3,600 km (2,200 mi) US-Mexico border is probably "the world's longest boundary between a First World and Third World country". Historic borders such as the Great Wall of China , the Maginot Line , and Hadrian's Wall have played a great many roles and been marked in different ways. While the stone walls , the Great Wall of China and the Roman Hadrian's Wall in Britain had military functions,

2128-608: The African Borderlands Research Network and the founding of smaller border research centres at Nijmegen and Queen's University Belfast . Border art is a contemporary art practice rooted in the socio-political experience(s), such as of those on the U.S.-Mexico borderlands , or frontera . Since its conception in the mid-1980s, this artistic practice has assisted in the development of questions surrounding homeland , borders, surveillance , identity, race , ethnicity , and national origin (s). Border art as

2204-519: The Amur Highway, with great swaths of forest separating major portions from one another. At this time, large sections of the highway were still dirt or crushed stone roads. From 2008-2010, 35 billion rubles (roughly US$ 1.05 billion in 2009) were allocated to complete paving of the highway. The St. Petersburg Times reported in September 2010 that paving had been completed. At a videoconference marking

2280-427: The European Union and NAFTA, have spurred the establishment of cross-border regions. These are initiatives driven by local or regional authorities, aimed at dealing with local border-transcending problems such as transport and environmental degradation. Many cross-border regions are also active in encouraging intercultural communication and dialogue as well as cross-border economic development strategies. In Europe ,

2356-573: The Russian State Duma in 2005, thus ending the decades-long border dispute. The official transfer ceremony was held on-site on October 14, 2008. As with many other international borders, a bilateral treaty exists concerning the physical modalities of managing the China–Russia border. The currently valid agreement was signed in Beijing in 2006. The treaty requires the two states to clear trees in

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2432-845: The United States where the U.S. Customs and Border Protection service has jurisdiction to operate up to 100 miles from any land or sea boundary. On the other hand, some borders are merely signposted. This is common in countries within the European Schengen Area and on rural sections of the Canada–United States border . Borders may even be completely unmarked, typically in remote or forested regions; such borders are often described as "porous". Migration within territorial borders, and outside of them, represented an old and established pattern of movement in African countries, in seeking work and food, and to maintain ties with kin who had moved across

2508-558: The border from west to east in the International Map of the World , mid-20th century: Border Borders are generally defined as geographical boundaries, imposed either by features such as oceans and terrain , or by political entities such as governments , sovereign states , federated states , and other subnational entities . Political borders can be established through warfare , colonization , or mutual agreements between

2584-490: The border issues and to demarcate the border. On May 29, 1994, during Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin 's visit to Beijing, an "Agreement on the Sino-Russian Border Management System intended to facilitate border trade and hinder criminal activity" was signed. On September 3, a demarcation agreement was signed for the short (55 kilometres (34 mi)) western section of the binational border;

2660-468: The border's bounds. A DMZ can act as a war boundary, ceasefire line, wildlife preserve , or a de facto international border. An example of a demilitarized international border is the 38th parallel between North and South Korea . Other notable DMZ zones include Antarctica and outer space (consisting of all space 100 miles away from the earth's surface), both are preserved for world research and exploration. The prohibition of control by nations can make

2736-512: The borderland's natural geography and its building requires tremendous human labour and financial investment. Geometric boundaries are formed by straight lines (such as lines of latitude or longitude), or occasionally arcs (Pennsylvania/Delaware), regardless of the physical and cultural features of the area. Such political boundaries are often found around the states that developed out of colonial holdings, such as in North America , Africa and

2812-458: The borders separating said territories. They occur when one party constructs identities or interests related to the border which are incompatible with the other party's identities and interests . Border conflicts or the potential of such are the reason why many borders feature fortifications and zoning like no man's lands , demilitarized zones , demarcation lines and buffer zones . Examples of border conflicts include skirmishes and wars, such as

2888-495: The boundary itself, the area around the border is called the frontier . In the pre-modern world, the term border was vague and could refer to either side of the boundary, thus it was necessary to specify part of it with borderline or borderland . During the medieval period the government's control frequently diminished the further people got from the capital . Therefore borderland (especially impassable terrain) attracted many outlaws , as they often found sympathizers. In

2964-413: The boundary. Some borders require presentation of legal paperwork like passports and visas , or other identity documents , for persons to cross borders. To stay or work within a country's borders aliens (foreign persons) may need special immigration documents or permits ; but possession of such documents does not guarantee that the person should be allowed to cross the border. Moving goods across

3040-401: The coast of a country and it holds responsibility for protecting its own airspace unless under NATO peacetime protection. With international agreement a country can assume the responsibility of protecting or controlling the atmosphere over International Airspaces such as the Pacific Ocean . The vertical boundaries of airspace are not officially set or regulated internationally. However, there

3116-524: The construction of the Chita-Khabarovsk federal road." Shortly thereafter, another 389 km (242 mi) of the highway was completed. In September 2001, the Russian Ministry of Transport increased funding for the project significantly in order to bring it toward completion, allocating 26% of the entire federal transportation budget to the highway. By 2002, the road became technically passable for

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3192-705: The creation of a counter-narrative to the discourse about the world becoming a borderless and deterritorialized place, which has accompanied theories about globalization . Examples of recent initiatives are the Border Regions in Transition network of scholars, the International Boundaries Research Unit at the University of Durham , the Association for Borderlands Studies based in North America ,

3268-548: The cross-border trade in livestock by pastoralists in the Horn of Africa . Ethiopia sells an estimated $ 250 to $ 300 million of livestock to Somalia , Kenya and Djibouti every year unofficially, over 100 times the official estimate. Human economic traffic across borders (apart from kidnapping ) may involve mass commuting between workplaces and residential settlements. The removal of internal barriers to commerce , as in France after

3344-496: The demarcation of this section was completed in 1998. In November 1997, at a meeting in Beijing , Russian President Boris Yeltsin and General Secretary and Chinese President Jiang Zemin signed an agreement for the demarcation of the much longer (over 4,000 kilometres (2,500 mi)) eastern section of the border, in accordance with the provisions of the 1991 Sino-Soviet agreement. The last unresolved territorial issue between

3420-480: The difficulty of the natural conditions, after nearly 20 years of construction only 605 km (376 mi) had been built, around Chita, Blagoveshchensk, and Khabarovsk. The road from Chita to Khabarovsk at that time, in the mid-1990s, consisted largely of undeveloped taiga glades that were passable only in winter. On May 24, 1995, the government of the Russian Federation passed a resolution "On accelerating

3496-659: The eastern section is provided by China Association of Port-of-entry: connects [REDACTED] G1211 (with indirectly [REDACTED] G202 , [REDACTED] G331 , [REDACTED] G603 and [REDACTED] G604 ), part of [REDACTED] AH31 According to Russian topographic maps, the lowest mountain passes on the western section of the border are the Betsu-Kanas Pass (перевал Бетсу-Канас), elevation 2,671.3 metres (8,764 ft) and Kanas (перевал Канас), elevation 2,650 metres (8,690 ft). No roads suitable for wheeled vehicles exist over these two passes, although

3572-424: The eleventh century. Such a border is political in the sense that it is human-demarcated, usually through a treaty . However, a landscape border is not demarcated by fences and walls but instead landscape features such as forests, mountains, and water bodies. It is different from a natural border, however, in the sense that the border landscape is not natural but human-engineered. Such a landscape usually differs from

3648-494: The elusive highway, with a noticeable absence of pavement. Many motorcyclists were injured or killed trying to "master" the Amur Highway. To avoid the gap, drivers would typically load their cars onto the Trans-Siberian Railroad at Chernyshevsk for the 800-km trip to Magdagachi . In 2010, the highway was paved, including the "Zilov Gap" section. In early 2004, Russian President Vladimir Putin symbolically opened

3724-436: The entire length of the world's international boundaries. Natural borders are geographical features that present natural obstacles to communication and transport. Existing political borders are often a formalization of such historical, natural obstacles. Some geographical features that often constitute natural borders are: Throughout history, technological advances have reduced the costs of transport and communication across

3800-605: The entirety of the Roman borders were very porous, which encouraged Roman economic activity with neighbors. On the other hand, a border like the Maginot Line was entirely military and was meant to prevent any access in what was to be World War II to France by its neighbor, Germany; Germany ended up going around the Maginot Line through Belgium just as it had done in World War I . Border conflicts are disputes between territories that occur at

3876-716: The event, Putin described it as "a dependable, modern farm road, but not the Autobahn ." Shortly afterward, a memorial marker for the "Zero kilometer of the Chita-Khabarovsk Federal Highway" was installed in Lenin Square, Khabarovsk , marking the final completion of the 40-year construction project. Today, the Chita–Khabarovsk road is a modern paved highway with painted, reflective lane-lines. China%E2%80%93Russia border The Chinese–Russian border or

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3952-559: The first time (with major difficulties, see next section), and 500-700 cars per day began to use it. As part of the Asian route AH31 , the road completed the connection from Belogorsk to Dalian in China . The section of the Chita–Khabarovsk road known as the Zilov Gap was largely unfinished until 2010 and was known during the semiannual mud seasons to be notoriously difficult to traverse. Traveling

4028-532: The freedom of internal movement of its citizens, as for example in the former USSR. However, only a handful of nations have deregulated open borders with other nations, an example of this being European countries under the Schengen Agreement or the open Belarus-Russia border . Open borders used to be very common amongst all nations, however this became less common after the First World War , which led to

4104-544: The jurisdiction of the European Union, except where states have used a specific right to opt out (United Kingdom and Ireland , which maintain the Common Travel Area amongst themselves). The United States has notably increased measures taken in border control on the Canada–United States border and the United States–Mexico border during its War on Terrorism (See Shantz 2010). One American writer has said that

4180-627: The jurisdictional borders of a maritime nation and are recognized by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea . Maritime borders exist in the context of territorial waters , contiguous zones , and exclusive economic zones ; however, the terminology does not encompass lake or river boundaries, which are considered within the context of land boundaries. Some maritime borders have remained indeterminate despite efforts to clarify them. This

4256-517: The landscape; it remains a cultural and economic demarcation in Germany . Other examples include the Demilitarized Zone between North and South Vietnam (defunct since 1975) and the border between North and South Yemen (defunct since 1990). Occasionally a relic border is reconstituted in some form, for example the border between British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland ceased to exist when

4332-699: The most fortified borders reserve specific places to allow crossing. The many forms of borders have different ways of enabling and controlling passage. Borders can have a significant impact on and function for movement. It can enable and stop movement, across as well as along borders. The permeability of borders depends on its construction, availability of crossings, regulation and types or scope of activity. The permeability can vary, borders can be barriers for humans, but also for animal migration or types of pollution . Borders facilitate or block hybrids like border overlap and cooperation beyond mere encounter and exchange. Macro-regional integration initiatives, such as

4408-806: The most regulated borders in the world include: Australia , the United States , Israel , Canada , the United Kingdom , and the United Arab Emirates . These nations have government-controlled border agencies and organizations that enforce border regulation policies on and within their borders. An open border is the deregulation and or lack of regulation on the movement of persons between nations and jurisdictions. This definition does not apply to trade or movement between privately owned land areas. Most nations have open borders for travel within their nation of travel, though more authoritarian states may limit

4484-416: The movement of people, animals, and goods into and out of the country. Under international law, each country is generally permitted to legislate the conditions that have to be met in order to cross its borders, and to prevent people from crossing its borders in violation of those laws. Buffer zones may be set up on borders between belligerent entities to lower the risk of escalation. While border refers to

4560-523: The movement of persons and trade between nations and jurisdictions . Most industrialized nations have regulations on entry and require one or more of the following procedures: visa check, passport check or customs checks. Most regulated borders have regulations on immigration, types of wildlife and plants, and illegal objects such as drugs or weapons. Overall border regulations are placed by national and local governments and can vary depending on nation and current political or economic conditions. Some of

4636-535: The natural borders. That has reduced the significance of natural borders over time. As a result, political borders that have been formalized more recently, such as those in Africa or Americas, typically conform less to natural borders than very old borders, such as those in Europe or Asia, do. A landscape border is a mixture of political and natural borders. One example is the defensive forest created by China's Song dynasty in

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4712-516: The other country and will endeavor to apprehend and return any livestock that wanders onto their territory from across the border (Article 17). Hunting using firearms is prohibited within 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) from the borderline; hunters are prohibited from crossing the border in pursuit of a wounded animal (Article 19). Detained illegal border crossers are supposed to be normally returned to their country of origin within 7 days from their apprehension (Article 34). A list of ports-of-entry on

4788-545: The other end of the North Korea–Russia border . The much shorter (less than 100 kilometres (62 mi)) western border section is between Russia's Altai Republic and China's Xinjiang . It runs in the mostly snow-covered high elevation area of the Altai Mountains . Its western end point is the China– Kazakhstan –Russia tripoint, whose location is defined by the trilateral agreement as 49°06′54″N 87°17′12″E  /  49.11500°N 87.28667°E  / 49.11500; 87.28667 , elevation, 3327 m. Its eastern end

4864-458: The past, many borders were not clearly defined lines; instead there were often intervening areas often claimed and fought over by both sides, sometimes called marchlands . Special cases in modern times were the Saudi Arabian–Iraqi neutral zone from 1922 to 1991 and the Saudi Arabian–Kuwaiti neutral zone from 1922 until 1970. In modern times, marchlands have been replaced by clearly defined and demarcated borders. Political borders are imposed on

4940-553: The political entities that reside in those areas. Some borders—such as most states' internal administrative borders, or inter-state borders within the Schengen Area —are open and completely unguarded. Most external political borders are partially or fully controlled, and may be crossed legally only at designated border checkpoints ; adjacent border zones may also be controlled. For the purposes of border control , airports and seaports are also classed as borders. Most countries have some form of border control to regulate or limit

5016-578: The previously porous borders of their homelands. When the colonial frontiers were drawn, Western countries attempted to obtain a monopoly on the recruitment of labor in many African countries, which altered the practical and institutional context in which the old migration patterns had been followed, and some might argue, are still followed today. The frontiers were particularly porous for the physical movement of migrants, and people living in borderlands easily maintained transnational cultural and social networks. Regulated borders have varying degrees of control on

5092-439: The rate of cross-border trade continued to increase as the USSR's former republics became separate states. To accommodate increasing volume of travel and private trade, a number of border crossings were re-opened. In early 1992, China announced border trade incentives and the creation of special economic zones (SEZs) along the Sino-Russian border, the largest of these being in Hunchun , Jilin . In 1991, China and USSR signed

5168-409: The regulation of open borders, making them less common and no longer feasible for most industrialized nations . An example of Open orders include the Schengen Area where 29 European nations mutually abolished their border control. A demilitarized zone (DMZ) is a border separating two or more nations, groups or militaries that have agreed to prohibit the use of military activity or force within

5244-478: The same as the border between the Russian and Qing Empires, settled by a number of treaties from the 17th through to the 19th centuries. Border issues first became an issue following Russia's rapid expansion into Siberia in the 17th century, with intermittent skirmishes occurring between them and Qing China. Below is a list of important border treaties, along with the indication as to which section of today's Sino-Russian border were largely set by them: Following

5320-404: The south-west. The China–Russia border ends when it reaches the Tumen River , which is the northern border of North Korea . The end point of the China–Russia border, and the China–North Korea–Russia tripoint , at ( 42°25′N 130°36′E  /  42.417°N 130.600°E  / 42.417; 130.600 ), is located only a few kilometers before the river flows into the Pacific Ocean ,

5396-479: The treaty including railway crossings, highway crossings, river crossing, and mostly ferry crossings. The eastern border section is over 4,000 kilometres (2,500 mi) in length. According to a joint estimate published in 1999, it measured at 4,195 kilometres (2,607 mi). It starts at the eastern China– Mongolia –Russia tripoint ( 49°50′42.3″N 116°42′46.8″E  /  49.845083°N 116.713000°E  / 49.845083; 116.713000 ), marked by

5472-485: The two colonies merged to form the independent state of Somalia in 1960, however when the former British Somaliland declared independence in 1991 it claimed the former British-Italian line as its eastern border. A line of control (LoC) refers to a militarized buffer border between two or more nations that has yet to achieve permanent border status. LoC borders are typically under military control and are not recognized as an official international border. Formally known as

5548-611: The two countries was settled by the 2004 Complementary Agreement between China and Russia on the Eastern Section of the China–Russia Boundary. Pursuant to that agreement, Russia transferred to China a part of Abagaitu Islet , the entire Yinlong (Tarabarov) Island , about half of Bolshoy Ussuriysky Island , and some adjacent river islets. The transfer was ratified by both the Chinese National People's Congress and

5624-422: The world through human agency. That means that although a political border may follow a river or mountain range, such a feature does not automatically define the political border, even though it may be a major physical barrier to crossing. Political borders are often classified by whether or not they follow conspicuous physical features on the earth. William Miles said that Britain and France traced close to 40% of

5700-449: Was constructed by gulag inmates as early as 1949. In 1966, the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union ordered the construction of the 2,165 km (1,345 mi)-long Chita-Khabarovsk highway, which would run through permafrost -covered soil and mountainous areas. After a long feasibility study, construction began in 1978. The Soviet Road Troops began constructing the highway. Due to

5776-488: Was neutral. The waning years of the Soviet Union saw a reduction of the tensions on the then heavily fortified Sino-Soviet border. In 1990–91, the two countries agreed to significantly reduce their military forces stationed along the border. To this day one can find numerous abandoned military facilities in Russia's border districts. Even though the Sino-Soviet border trade resumed as early as 1983–85, it accelerated in 1990–91;

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