Zichem is a village of the town of Scherpenheuvel-Zichem in the Belgian province of Flemish Brabant . Zichem was an independent municipality until the municipal redistribution of 1977.
118-529: Zichem belonged to Maria van Loon-Heinsberg, who was a descendant of the Counts of Loon. After her marriage in 1440 to Jan IV of Nassau , Zichem became part of the county of Nassau-Dillenburg . Before the outbreak of the Eighty Years' War , Zichem was a thriving town. During the siege of Zichem in 1578 by Alexander Farnese , almost the entire garrison was killed. In 1580, Zichem was hit by an earthquake which toppled
236-538: A century before, were first observed . In 2019, the international collaboration Event Horizon Telescope presented the first direct image of a black hole 's accretion disc . Modern science is commonly divided into three major branches : natural science , social science , and formal science . Each of these branches comprises various specialised yet overlapping scientific disciplines that often possess their own nomenclature and expertise. Both natural and social sciences are empirical sciences , as their knowledge
354-474: A discipline. Ideas on human nature, society, and economics evolved during the Enlightenment. Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed A Treatise of Human Nature , which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett , Adam Ferguson , John Millar and William Robertson , all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with
472-411: A few of their scientific predecessors – Galileo , Kepler , Boyle , and Newton principally – as the guides to every physical and social field of the day. The 18th century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine and physics; the development of biological taxonomy by Carl Linnaeus ; a new understanding of magnetism and electricity; and the maturation of chemistry as
590-423: A greater role in knowledge creation and it was not until the 19th century that many of the institutional and professional features of science began to take shape, along with the changing of "natural philosophy" to "natural science". New knowledge in science is advanced by research from scientists who are motivated by curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems. Contemporary scientific research
708-466: A highly stable universe where there could be little loss of resources. However, with the advent of the steam engine and the Industrial Revolution there was an increased understanding that not all forms of energy have the same energy qualities , the ease of conversion to useful work or to another form of energy. This realisation led to the development of the laws of thermodynamics , in which
826-653: A house on the Koudenberg [ nl ] in Brussels (later called the Palace of Nassau [ nl ] ), a house in Mechelen , the heerlijkheid of the Lek [ nl ] , Monster and Polanen , Zundert and Nispen , and the heerlijkheid of Drimmelen . On 27 February 1458, John bought the heerlijkheden of Gageldonk [ nl ] and Hambroeck . In
944-455: A hypothesis proves unsatisfactory it is modified or discarded. If the hypothesis survives testing, it may become adopted into the framework of a scientific theory , a validly reasoned , self-consistent model or framework for describing the behaviour of certain natural events. A theory typically describes the behaviour of much broader sets of observations than a hypothesis; commonly, a large number of hypotheses can be logically bound together by
1062-407: A new non- teleological way. This implied a shift in the view of objects: objects were now considered as having no innate goals. Leibniz assumed that different types of things all work according to the same general laws of nature, with no special formal or final causes. During this time the declared purpose and value of science became producing wealth and inventions that would improve human lives, in
1180-656: A number of servants to guard the public order. In times of war they formed the core of the army. Because of John's sometimes long absences, these Amtmänner had unlimited power. One of these was Philipp von Bicken, appointed by John. During John's long absence, however, von Bicken used the trust placed in him and his own power base in the Haiger Mark to repeatedly overstep his authority, to such an extent that he arrogated territorial lord rights to himself, in order to increase his family's still very considerable possessions. He fell into disfavour with John in 1466 and von Bicken fled
1298-595: A part of his tasks and authority. In this ordinance the provisions on matrimonial law are prominently present. The Reichshofgericht in Rottweil was competent for appeals . For the Blutgerichtsbarkeit (high jurisdiction) the Hochgericht was competent. The Ebersbach district had its own Hochgericht auf dem Stein . During the executions there, the count occasionally wielded the sword himself in order to behead
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#17328758846581416-458: A preference for one outcome over another. Eliminating the bias can be achieved through transparency, careful experimental design , and a thorough peer review process of the experimental results and conclusions. After the results of an experiment are announced or published, it is normal practice for independent researchers to double-check how the research was performed, and to follow up by performing similar experiments to determine how dependable
1534-456: A priori disciplines and because of this, there is disagreement on whether they constitute a science. Nevertheless, the formal sciences play an important role in the empirical sciences. Calculus , for example, was initially invented to understand motion in physics. Natural and social sciences that rely heavily on mathematical applications include mathematical physics , chemistry , biology , finance , and economics . Applied science
1652-400: A revolution in information technology and the rise of the global internet and mobile computing , including smartphones . The need for mass systematisation of long, intertwined causal chains and large amounts of data led to the rise of the fields of systems theory and computer-assisted scientific modelling . The Human Genome Project was completed in 2003 by identifying and mapping all of
1770-457: A separate discipline from philosophy when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory for psychological research in 1879. During the mid-19th century Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace independently proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection in 1858, which explained how different plants and animals originated and evolved. Their theory was set out in detail in Darwin's book On
1888-592: A separate field because they rely on deductive reasoning instead of the scientific method or empirical evidence as their main methodology. Applied sciences are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as engineering and medicine . The history of science spans the majority of the historical record, with the earliest written records of identifiable predecessors to modern science dating to Bronze Age Egypt and Mesopotamia from around 3000 to 1200 BCE . Their contributions to mathematics, astronomy , and medicine entered and shaped
2006-475: A set of basic assumptions that are needed to justify the scientific method: there is an objective reality shared by all rational observers; this objective reality is governed by natural laws ; these laws were discovered by means of systematic observation and experimentation. Mathematics is essential in the formation of hypotheses , theories , and laws, because it is used extensively in quantitative modelling, observing, and collecting measurements . Statistics
2124-463: A set of rules. It includes mathematics, systems theory , and theoretical computer science . The formal sciences share similarities with the other two branches by relying on objective, careful, and systematic study of an area of knowledge. They are, however, different from the empirical sciences as they rely exclusively on deductive reasoning, without the need for empirical evidence, to verify their abstract concepts. The formal sciences are therefore
2242-478: A single theory. Thus, a theory is a hypothesis explaining various other hypotheses. In that vein, theories are formulated according to most of the same scientific principles as hypotheses. Scientists may generate a model , an attempt to describe or depict an observation in terms of a logical, physical or mathematical representation, and to generate new hypotheses that can be tested by experimentation. While performing experiments to test hypotheses, scientists may have
2360-429: A strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity . Modern sociology largely originated from this movement. In 1776, Adam Smith published The Wealth of Nations , which is often considered the first work on modern economics. During the nineteenth century many distinguishing characteristics of contemporary modern science began to take shape. These included the transformation of the life and physical sciences;
2478-630: A trial on his behalf, to interrogate them and to give judgment . The abbot could – if necessary – examine witnesses and – if necessary – threaten these witnesses with punishment in order to force them to testify , as well as to carry out the proceedings in all respects in the event that one of the parties did not appear. The abbot summoned John by letter of 17 August 1464 to appear before him 45 days later in Salmünster . John received this summons on 2 September 1464 in Vianden from
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#17328758846582596-438: A unified theory in the early 20th-century when the modern synthesis reconciled Darwinian evolution with classical genetics . Albert Einstein 's theory of relativity and the development of quantum mechanics complement classical mechanics to describe physics in extreme length , time and gravity . Widespread use of integrated circuits in the last quarter of the 20th century combined with communications satellites led to
2714-682: Is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into two or three major branches: the natural sciences (e.g., physics , chemistry , and biology ), which study the physical world ; and the behavioural sciences (e.g., economics , psychology , and sociology ), which study individuals and societies. The formal sciences (e.g., logic , mathematics, and theoretical computer science ), which study formal systems governed by axioms and rules, are sometimes described as being sciences as well; however, they are often regarded as
2832-487: Is based on empirical observations and is capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions. Natural science is the study of the physical world. It can be divided into two main branches: life science and physical science . These two branches may be further divided into more specialised disciplines. For example, physical science can be subdivided into physics, chemistry , astronomy , and earth science . Modern natural science
2950-439: Is becoming a central feature of computational contributions to science, for example in agent-based computational economics , random forests , topic modeling and various forms of prediction. However, machines alone rarely advance knowledge as they require human guidance and capacity to reason; and they can introduce bias against certain social groups or sometimes underperform against humans. Interdisciplinary science involves
3068-698: Is considered to be one of the most important publications in medicine and was used until the 18th century. By the eleventh century most of Europe had become Christian, and in 1088, the University of Bologna emerged as the first university in Europe. As such, demand for Latin translation of ancient and scientific texts grew, a major contributor to the Renaissance of the 12th century . Renaissance scholasticism in western Europe flourished, with experiments done by observing, describing, and classifying subjects in nature. In
3186-535: Is highly collaborative and is usually done by teams in academic and research institutions , government agencies, and companies. The practical impact of their work has led to the emergence of science policies that seek to influence the scientific enterprise by prioritising the ethical and moral development of commercial products, armaments, health care, public infrastructure, and environmental protection . The word science has been used in Middle English since
3304-447: Is the search for solutions to practical problems using this knowledge. Most understanding comes from basic research, though sometimes applied research targets specific practical problems. This leads to technological advances that were not previously imaginable. Scientific research involves using the scientific method , which seeks to objectively explain the events of nature in a reproducible way. Scientists usually take for granted
3422-526: Is the successor to the natural philosophy that began in Ancient Greece . Galileo , Descartes , Bacon , and Newton debated the benefits of using approaches that were more mathematical and more experimental in a methodical way. Still, philosophical perspectives, conjectures , and presuppositions , often overlooked, remain necessary in natural science. Systematic data collection, including discovery science , succeeded natural history , which emerged in
3540-427: Is the use of the scientific method and knowledge to attain practical goals and includes a broad range of disciplines such as engineering and medicine. Engineering is the use of scientific principles to invent, design and build machines, structures and technologies. Science may contribute to the development of new technologies. Medicine is the practice of caring for patients by maintaining and restoring health through
3658-403: Is used to make falsifiable predictions, which are typically posted before being tested by experimentation. Disproof of a prediction is evidence of progress. Experimentation is especially important in science to help establish causal relationships to avoid the correlation fallacy , though in some sciences such as astronomy or geology, a predicted observation might be more appropriate. When
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3776-410: Is used to summarise and analyse data, which allows scientists to assess the reliability of experimental results. In the scientific method an explanatory thought experiment or hypothesis is put forward as an explanation using parsimony principles and is expected to seek consilience – fitting with other accepted facts related to an observation or scientific question. This tentative explanation
3894-542: The Evangelische Stadtkirche [ de ] in Dillenburg around 1495, where the epitaph made in 1479 with the inscription hie liegt des edeln und wolgeboren Johan graven czu Nassaw czu Dietz czu Vianden her czu Breda sin herz begraben dem Got genedig sie. Obiit anno domini MCCCCXXV of sant Blasius tag 1479 can still be seen. He was succeeded by his sons Engelbert II and John V in accordance with
4012-501: The Mai und Herbst Bede [ de ] , which were levied on land tenure . There was also the Leibbede , a personal tax , which was levied when the serf died and had to be paid by his relatives. This originally consisted of the best piece of livestock , but was later replaced by a sum of money. Finally, there was a hearth tax , which had to be paid during Lent . The irregular revenues of
4130-610: The Byzantine empire and Arabic translations were done by groups such as the Nestorians and the Monophysites . Under the Caliphate , these Arabic translations were later improved and developed by Arabic scientists. By the 6th and 7th centuries, the neighbouring Sassanid Empire established the medical Academy of Gondeshapur , which is considered by Greek, Syriac, and Persian physicians as
4248-612: The Chapter , as compensation for the losses caused by the Archbishop and the Archdiocese. This was evident to the Emperor from the copies of four charters signed by Thierry, which were presented to him, granting John the rights to these tolls and rights, which he still owned and had been using up until then, for the unhindered use of himself and his heirs . John was one of the princes ordered by
4366-618: The County of Vianden had already been assigned to Henry by the marriage contract on 18 May 1415. John, his brother Henry and their distant cousin Count John ;I of Nassau-Beilstein [ nl ] were granted Greifenstein Castle as a fief and a part of the proceeds from the toll in Lahnstein by Roman King Frederick III in 1442. Together with his brother, John inherited
4484-554: The Duchy of Jülich , that he possessed 1 ⁄ 4 of that duchy. John was a loyal servant of the Dukes of Burgundy in the Netherlands, who was still called up for military service even when he was well into his fifties, but he was not one of the closest noble advisors. John can best be characterised as a wealthy nobleman who faithfully fought in the campaigns for which he was called up; he
4602-706: The Early Middle Ages (400 to 1000 CE), but in the Medieval renaissances ( Carolingian Renaissance , Ottonian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century ) scholarship flourished again. Some Greek manuscripts lost in Western Europe were preserved and expanded upon in the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age , along with the later efforts of Byzantine Greek scholars who brought Greek manuscripts from
4720-511: The Middle East , where his grandfather had suffered a grievous defeat at Nicopolis in 1396 that was still unreconciled, and the ever-increasing threat to Constantinople from the Ottoman Empire , John undertook a journey to the island of Rhodes on Philip's orders from May 1441 to February 1442, to see how the infidels could best be combated, but this led to nothing. In the lands of Philip
4838-599: The Proto-Italic language as * skije- or * skijo- meaning "to know", which may originate from Proto-Indo-European language as *skh 1 -ie , *skh 1 -io , meaning "to incise". The Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben proposed sciō is a back-formation of nescīre , meaning "to not know, be unfamiliar with", which may derive from Proto-Indo-European *sekH- in Latin secāre , or *skh 2 - , from *sḱʰeh2(i)- meaning "to cut". In
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4956-555: The camera obscura and the telescope . At the start of the Renaissance, Roger Bacon , Vitello , and John Peckham each built up a scholastic ontology upon a causal chain beginning with sensation, perception, and finally apperception of the individual and universal forms of Aristotle. A model of vision later known as perspectivism was exploited and studied by the artists of the Renaissance. This theory uses only three of Aristotle's four causes: formal, material, and final. In
5074-547: The hearings are mentioned to take place on 12 October in Siegen. And on 30 June 1474, the Emperor informed the mayors and the city council of Cologne that he would soon pay off part of his debt of 2,000 Rhenish guilders by having John pay them the sum of 600 guilders. John also seems to have been on the best of terms with the church. In any case, he received a so-called Butterbrief from Pope Sixtus IV (dated Rome 25 February 1472), which allowed
5192-531: The heerlijkheden of Herstal , Vught , Gangelt , Waldfeucht and the Land of Millen [ de ] , so that he possessed 1 ⁄ 4 of the Duchy of Jülich . This led to a dispute with his distant relative Count John II of Nassau-Saarbrücken , who was married to Lady Jeanne of Looz-Heinsberg, the daughter and heiress of Lord John IV of Looz-Heinsberg . At John's request, Emperor Frederick III declared on 28 May 1470 that by granting
5310-424: The historical method , case studies , and cross-cultural studies . Moreover, if quantitative information is available, social scientists may rely on statistical approaches to better understand social relationships and processes. Formal science is an area of study that generates knowledge using formal systems . A formal system is an abstract structure used for inferring theorems from axioms according to
5428-431: The materialistic sense of having more food, clothing, and other things. In Bacon's words , "the real and legitimate goal of sciences is the endowment of human life with new inventions and riches ", and he discouraged scientists from pursuing intangible philosophical or spiritual ideas, which he believed contributed little to human happiness beyond "the fume of subtle, sublime or pleasing [speculation]". Science during
5546-499: The prevention , diagnosis , and treatment of injury or disease. The applied sciences are often contrasted with the basic sciences , which are focused on advancing scientific theories and laws that explain and predict events in the natural world. Computational science applies computing power to simulate real-world situations, enabling a better understanding of scientific problems than formal mathematics alone can achieve. The use of machine learning and artificial intelligence
5664-481: The theory of impetus . His criticism served as an inspiration to medieval scholars and Galileo Galilei, who extensively cited his works ten centuries later. During late antiquity and the early Middle Ages , natural phenomena were mainly examined via the Aristotelian approach. The approach includes Aristotle's four causes : material, formal, moving, and final cause. Many Greek classical texts were preserved by
5782-406: The 13th century, medical teachers and students at Bologna began opening human bodies, leading to the first anatomy textbook based on human dissection by Mondino de Luzzi . New developments in optics played a role in the inception of the Renaissance , both by challenging long-held metaphysical ideas on perception, as well as by contributing to the improvement and development of technology such as
5900-707: The 14th century in the sense of "the state of knowing". The word was borrowed from the Anglo-Norman language as the suffix -cience , which was borrowed from the Latin word scientia , meaning "knowledge, awareness, understanding". It is a noun derivative of the Latin sciens meaning "knowing", and undisputedly derived from the Latin sciō , the present participle scīre , meaning "to know". There are many hypotheses for science ' s ultimate word origin. According to Michiel de Vaan , Dutch linguist and Indo-Europeanist , sciō may have its origin in
6018-444: The 16th century by describing and classifying plants, animals, minerals, and other biotic beings. Today, "natural history" suggests observational descriptions aimed at popular audiences. Social science is the study of human behaviour and the functioning of societies. It has many disciplines that include, but are not limited to anthropology , economics, history, human geography , political science , psychology, and sociology. In
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#17328758846586136-633: The 3rd millennium BCE, the ancient Egyptians developed a decimal numbering system , solved practical problems using geometry , and developed a calendar . Their healing therapies involved drug treatments and the supernatural, such as prayers, incantations , and rituals. The ancient Mesopotamians used knowledge about the properties of various natural chemicals for manufacturing pottery , faience , glass, soap, metals, lime plaster , and waterproofing. They studied animal physiology , anatomy , behaviour , and astrology for divinatory purposes. The Mesopotamians had an intense interest in medicine and
6254-456: The Burgundian territory, but in 1456 a nephew of Philip, Louis of Bourbon , was forcibly appointed Prince-Bishop of Liège . In the same year Philip's illegitimate son David of Burgundy was appointed Bishop of Utrecht . On both occasions, John was commander of the army that had to force the newly appointed shepherds to their faithful. The citizens of Utrecht accepted the inevitable for
6372-415: The Counts of Nassau owned a house in the city of Cologne ( das achte Haus von der Goltgassenecken nach St. Cunibert hin ), which made the connection between the two areas easier for them. His widespread possessions forced John to travel constantly, in order to govern his possessions well. When John was in his county, he governed it from Siegen or Dillenburg . The increasing citizenry in the city of Siegen
6490-458: The Counts of Nassau-Siegen has always been the iron toll . A charter from John's reign concerning the tariffs lists the individual taxes in detail. John was born in Breda Castle on 1 August 1410 as the eldest son of Count Engelbert I of Nassau-Siegen and Lady Joanne of Polanen . In the period between his marriage and the death of his father, John lived in
6608-610: The Emperor on 12 June 1470 to wage war against Count palatine Frederick I . John had the confidence of the Emperor. This is shown by the fact that in 1472 the Emperor ordered John to question witnesses as his commissioner in the lawsuit in the Kammergericht between the citizens of Nauborn [ de ] and the city of Wetzlar . In a summons to the Schöffen of Wetzlar – sent by Count Philip II of Nassau-Weilburg with John's letter of attorney –
6726-460: The Emperor withdrew the order to Charles the Bold and instead transferred the matter to Archbishop John II of Trier. The dispute was only settled when on 25 August 1499 John's eldest son Engelbert II transferred his half of the castle and the land of Millen with the towns of Gangelt and Vught to Duke William of Jülich and Berg and received in exchange from the latter on 27 August 1499
6844-404: The Enlightenment was dominated by scientific societies and academies , which had largely replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were the backbones of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another important development was the popularisation of science among an increasingly literate population. Enlightenment philosophers turned to
6962-638: The Good there was still a lot of unrest, like in the County of Holland, where in the 1440s the struggle between the Hooks and Cods had flared up again. In 1445, Philip was obliged to personally put things in order and John was one of the commanders of the army . John is said to have advised to have the city councils consist of 50% Hooks and 50% Cods . This was not a bad idea, but later historians exaggerate when they say that this ended all unrest. More dangerous for Philip
7080-634: The Greek natural philosophy of classical antiquity , whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the physical world based on natural causes, while further advancements, including the introduction of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system , were made during the Golden Age of India . Scientific research deteriorated in these regions after the fall of the Western Roman Empire during
7198-410: The Greek philosopher Leucippus and his student Democritus . Later, Epicurus would develop a full natural cosmology based on atomism, and would adopt a "canon" (ruler, standard) which established physical criteria or standards of scientific truth. The Greek doctor Hippocrates established the tradition of systematic medical science and is known as " The Father of Medicine ". A turning point in
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#17328758846587316-453: The Milesian school, which was founded by Thales of Miletus and later continued by his successors Anaximander and Anaximenes , were the first to attempt to explain natural phenomena without relying on the supernatural . The Pythagoreans developed a complex number philosophy and contributed significantly to the development of mathematical science. The theory of atoms was developed by
7434-551: The Origin of Species , published in 1859. Separately, Gregor Mendel presented his paper, " Experiments on Plant Hybridization " in 1865, which outlined the principles of biological inheritance, serving as the basis for modern genetics. Early in the 19th century John Dalton suggested the modern atomic theory , based on Democritus's original idea of indivisible particles called atoms . The laws of conservation of energy , conservation of momentum and conservation of mass suggested
7552-472: The advent of writing systems in early civilisations like Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia , creating the earliest written records in the history of science in around 3000 to 1200 BCE . Although the words and concepts of "science" and "nature" were not part of the conceptual landscape at the time, the ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians made contributions that would later find a place in Greek and medieval science: mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. From
7670-405: The cases that did not ressorted to a specific court . It was not a very politically sensitive office, although he could be assisted by archers on foot and horseback and received an annual payment of 600 Philippusguilders . John held this office until his death. In 1447 or 1448 John was also appointed drost ( castellan ) of the Land van Heusden . Because of Philip the Good's interest in
7788-575: The castle's keep. On October 8, the Staatsen retook Zichem. In 1599, a large ignited city fire put a permanent end to the town, and the town was destroyed by the fire. The Demer River that flows through the city forms the border between the Kempen region in the north and the Hageland region in the south. The television series Wij, Heren van Zichem was based on several conjoined stories by Ernest Claes . Some of
7906-424: The city and the land of Diest and the castle and the land of Zichem and Zeelhem . John came into conflict with his sister Mary . She filed a complaint against her brother with Emperor Frederick III for forcibly removing her inheritance and goods. On 14 October 1463, the Emperor appointed Abbot Reinhard [ de ] of Fulda as his attorney and instructed him to summon both parties to
8024-398: The combination of two or more disciplines into one, such as bioinformatics , a combination of biology and computer science or cognitive sciences . The concept has existed since the ancient Greek period and it became popular again in the 20th century. Scientific research can be labelled as either basic or applied research. Basic research is the search for knowledge and applied research
8142-409: The count included first of all the so-called Schatzungen , taxes for special expenses and emergencies. Then there was the income from tolls, which were often leased to subjects. This also applied to fishing rights, which the count owned. Taxes were also levied in the cities, on houses , gardens , fields and meadows . A not inconsiderable source of income for the Counts of Nassau has always been
8260-464: The county and put himself under Hessian protection. It was not until 1486 that John's son John V was able to definitively subjugate the von Bicken Family [ de ] . For the administration of justice , the county had a Schultheiß in most of the districts. The oldest preserved ordinance for the Schultheiß of the Dillenburg district is from 10 April 1465, which contains only
8378-610: The course of tens of thousands of years, taking different forms around the world, and few details are known about the very earliest developments. Women likely played a central role in prehistoric science, as did religious rituals . Some scholars use the term " protoscience " to label activities in the past that resemble modern science in some but not all features; however, this label has also been criticised as denigrating, or too suggestive of presentism , thinking about those activities only in relation to modern categories. Direct evidence for scientific processes becomes clearer with
8496-417: The criminals. But mostly he left that to the executioners . Also the other punishments and fines , which the count himself imposed in special cases, to give an example, were not insignificant for the monetary value of the time. When the count's family started staying in the county more often, a court was established. The financial administration was still relatively simple; there was no distinction between
8614-505: The discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel and Marie Curie in 1896, Marie Curie then became the first person to win two Nobel Prizes . In the next year came the discovery of the first subatomic particle, the electron . In the first half of the century the development of antibiotics and artificial fertilisers improved human living standards globally. Harmful environmental issues such as ozone depletion , ocean acidification , eutrophication , and climate change came to
8732-412: The division treaty of 1472. John married on 7 February 1440 to Lady Mary of Looz-Heinsberg (1424 – Siegen, 20 April 1502 ), the eldest daughter of Lord John II of Looz-Heinsberg and his second wife Countess Anne of Solms. From the marriage of John and Mary the following children were born: John had two illegitimate children: Science Science
8850-517: The dying Byzantine Empire to Western Europe at the start of the Renaissance . The recovery and assimilation of Greek works and Islamic inquiries into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived " natural philosophy ", which was later transformed by the Scientific Revolution that began in the 16th century as new ideas and discoveries departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions. The scientific method soon played
8968-584: The earliest medical prescriptions appeared in Sumerian during the Third Dynasty of Ur . They seem to have studied scientific subjects which had practical or religious applications and had little interest in satisfying curiosity. In classical antiquity , there is no real ancient analogue of a modern scientist. Instead, well-educated, usually upper-class, and almost universally male individuals performed various investigations into nature whenever they could afford
9086-597: The entire Duchy of Jülich to Duke Gerhard VII , the claims of Philippa of Looz-Heinsberg and her sister Mary, John's wife, were not to be affected. Apparently this had no effect, because in 1471 or 1472 the Emperor ordered Duke Charles the Bold of Burgundy to settle on his behalf the dispute between Gerhard on the one hand and John and his wife Mary on the other. The dispute became more complicated when in 1472 Gerhard VII's son William married to Countess Elisabeth of Nassau-Saarbrücken, John II's eldest daughter, who had inherited her mother's possessions. In 1474,
9204-594: The field. John's father had realised in time that the future lay with the Dukes of Burgundy; John drew the consequences and served the dukes faithfully, also by helping them to unscrupulously subdue city autonomy. This naturally benefited the position of his dynasty , from which his son Engelbert II and grandson Henry III were to benefit. They rose so high in the favour of the dukes that they could actively influence politics. John succeeded his father in 1442 together with his brother Henry II . However,
9322-598: The filming for the series took place in the city. Two films were also made "De Witte" (1934) by Jan Vanderheyden with a.o. Jef Bruyninckx , and "De Witte van Sichem" by Robbe De Hert (1980). Ernest Claes (1885-1968), writer Peter Jan Beckx (1795-1887), superior of the Jesuits. John IV, Count of Nassau-Siegen Count John IV of Nassau-Siegen (1 August 1410 – 3 February 1475), German : Johann IV. Graf von Nassau-Siegen , official titles: Graf zu Nassau, Vianden und Diez, Herr zu Breda ,
9440-462: The free energy of the universe is seen as constantly declining: the entropy of a closed universe increases over time. The electromagnetic theory was established in the 19th century by the works of Hans Christian Ørsted , André-Marie Ampère , Michael Faraday , James Clerk Maxwell , Oliver Heaviside , and Heinrich Hertz . The new theory raised questions that could not easily be answered using Newton's framework. The discovery of X-rays inspired
9558-425: The frequent use of precision instruments; the emergence of terms such as "biologist", "physicist", and "scientist"; an increased professionalisation of those studying nature; scientists gaining cultural authority over many dimensions of society; the industrialisation of numerous countries; the thriving of popular science writings; and the emergence of science journals. During the late 19th century, psychology emerged as
9676-519: The genes of the human genome . The first induced pluripotent human stem cells were made in 2006, allowing adult cells to be transformed into stem cells and turn into any cell type found in the body. With the affirmation of the Higgs boson discovery in 2013, the last particle predicted by the Standard Model of particle physics was found. In 2015, gravitational waves , predicted by general relativity
9794-447: The hands of the servus et nuncius of the abbot. The abbot's judgment is unknown, as is what happened next. However, on 7 July 1465, the Emperor informed Mary that John had appealed against the judgment by Archbishop John II of Trier unfavourable to him, and summoned her to appear before him on the 45th day after receipt of this summons or on the first day of the following court and informed her that, even if she did not appear,
9912-431: The heliocentric model. The printing press was widely used to publish scholarly arguments, including some that disagreed widely with contemporary ideas of nature. Francis Bacon and René Descartes published philosophical arguments in favour of a new type of non-Aristotelian science. Bacon emphasised the importance of experiment over contemplation, questioned the Aristotelian concepts of formal and final cause, promoted
10030-562: The history of early philosophical science was Socrates ' example of applying philosophy to the study of human matters, including human nature, the nature of political communities, and human knowledge itself. The Socratic method as documented by Plato 's dialogues is a dialectic method of hypothesis elimination: better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions. The Socratic method searches for general commonly-held truths that shape beliefs and scrutinises them for consistency. Socrates criticised
10148-561: The house De Herberghe in the Reigerstraat in Breda . John was interested in religion and science and owned a library in Breda Castle. This castle was his main residence in the Netherlands, from where he managed his domains located there. John was a loyal servant of the Dukes of Burgundy , who was still called up for military service even when he was well into his fifties, but he
10266-554: The idea that science should study the laws of nature and the improvement of all human life. Descartes emphasised individual thought and argued that mathematics rather than geometry should be used to study nature. At the start of the Age of Enlightenment , Isaac Newton formed the foundation of classical mechanics by his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica , greatly influencing future physicists. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz incorporated terms from Aristotelian physics , now used in
10384-431: The inhabitants of his cities and castles to consume butter during Lent, and milk food – apart from cheese – instead of oil, because they lived in a cold region, where no olive oil grew and hardly any fish was available. In the Netherlands, since the death of his father, John owned the heerlijkheid of Breda [ nl ] , Geertruidenberg , Klundert (or Niervaart), Oosterhout and Dongen ,
10502-423: The iron toll. A charter of 1 April 1470 concerning the tariffs in Siegen, Netphen and Wilnsdorf lists the individual taxes for pig iron , steel , cast iron pans, metal sheets, scythes , cauldrons , etc. in detail. The expenses included the travels of the count and his family, celebrations at court, the remuneration of officials, court clothes , altar candles and communion wine , but especially
10620-509: The late 20th century active recruitment of women and elimination of sex discrimination greatly increased the number of women scientists, but large gender disparities remained in some fields. The discovery of the cosmic microwave background in 1964 led to a rejection of the steady-state model of the universe in favour of the Big Bang theory of Georges Lemaître . The century saw fundamental changes within science disciplines. Evolution became
10738-608: The most important medical center of the ancient world. The House of Wisdom was established in Abbasid -era Baghdad , Iraq , where the Islamic study of Aristotelianism flourished until the Mongol invasions in the 13th century. Ibn al-Haytham , better known as Alhazen, used controlled experiments in his optical study. Avicenna 's compilation of the Canon of Medicine , a medical encyclopaedia,
10856-662: The notion that the only function of the eye is perception, and shifted the main focus in optics from the eye to the propagation of light. Kepler is best known, however, for improving Copernicus' heliocentric model through the discovery of Kepler's laws of planetary motion . Kepler did not reject Aristotelian metaphysics and described his work as a search for the Harmony of the Spheres . Galileo had made significant contributions to astronomy, physics and engineering. However, he became persecuted after Pope Urban VIII sentenced him for writing about
10974-510: The office of Marshal of Westphalia in gratitude from the archbishop, but exchanged it for pledged Rhine tolls in 1455. The Rhine tolls had always been an important concern for the Counts of Nassau, because the iron trade and the exchange of vital goods with the Netherlands took place over the Rhine . Approximately midway between their possessions in the Netherlands and their counties in Germany
11092-447: The older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism . Aristotle in the 4th century BCE created a systematic program of teleological philosophy. In the 3rd century BCE, Greek astronomer Aristarchus of Samos was the first to propose a heliocentric model of the universe, with the Sun at the centre and all the planets orbiting it. Aristarchus's model
11210-598: The past, science was a synonym for "knowledge" or "study", in keeping with its Latin origin. A person who conducted scientific research was called a "natural philosopher" or "man of science". In 1834, William Whewell introduced the term scientist in a review of Mary Somerville 's book On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences , crediting it to "some ingenious gentleman" (possibly himself). Science has no single origin. Rather, systematic methods emerged gradually over
11328-420: The politics of the Dukes of Burgundy than of his own preferences and interests. Philip the Good, who since 1430 had been Duke of Brabant and since 1433 Count of Holland , the countries in which John's father's possessions lay, appointed John already in 1435 or 1436 – so before the death of his father – as drost of Brabant. As drost, he was the highest judicial officer in the duchy who dealt with
11446-627: The possessions after John's death. The eldest son, Engelbert , would get the possessions in the Netherlands, while the youngest son, John , would get the possessions right of the River Rhine (Nassau-Siegen and Diez). John died in Dillenburg on 3 February 1475 and was buried under the epitaph in the Grote Kerk in Breda. His heart was interred in the church in Feldbach and transferred to
11564-596: The property of their uncle Count John II with the Helmet in May 1443. On 22 February 1447 John and his brother Henry divided their possessions, whereby John received the possessions in the Netherlands, 1 ⁄ 4 of the County of Vianden, as well as Herborn . The division treaty was signed in Cologne . After the death of his brother in 1451, who had only one daughter, John inherited his brother's possessions and
11682-473: The public and the private treasury of the count. All income flowed into the private treasury of the count. The count received the revenues from the farms in the villages in kind , which were supplied by the serfs working there. With the increase in coinage , which resulted in payments in kind being increasingly replaced by payments in money, the office of Rentmeister [ de ] became more and more important. The count's fixed income included
11800-562: The public's attention and caused the onset of environmental studies . During this period scientific experimentation became increasingly larger in scale and funding . The extensive technological innovation stimulated by World War I , World War II , and the Cold War led to competitions between global powers , such as the Space Race and nuclear arms race . Substantial international collaborations were also made, despite armed conflicts. In
11918-546: The same year he acquired Steenbergen by the division of the joint ownership of that heerlijkheid between Lord of Breda and the Lord of Strijen [ nl ] . He freed the heerlijkheid of Breda from the feudal ties to the Margraviate of Antwerp and brought it directly under the Duchy of Brabant . He also increased the liberties of the city of Breda . Through his marriage to Lady Mary of Looz-Heinsberg , John obtained
12036-453: The seminal encyclopaedia Natural History . Positional notation for representing numbers likely emerged between the 3rd and 5th centuries CE along Indian trade routes. This numeral system made efficient arithmetic operations more accessible and would eventually become standard for mathematics worldwide. Due to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire , the 5th century saw an intellectual decline and knowledge of Greek conceptions of
12154-567: The sixteenth century Nicolaus Copernicus formulated a heliocentric model of the Solar System, stating that the planets revolve around the Sun, instead of the geocentric model where the planets and the Sun revolve around the Earth. This was based on a theorem that the orbital periods of the planets are longer as their orbs are farther from the centre of motion, which he found not to agree with Ptolemy's model. Johannes Kepler and others challenged
12272-405: The social sciences, there are many competing theoretical perspectives, many of which are extended through competing research programs such as the functionalists , conflict theorists , and interactionists in sociology. Due to the limitations of conducting controlled experiments involving large groups of individuals or complex situations, social scientists may adopt other research methods such as
12390-571: The time being, but in Liège the unrest remained for many years, until in 1465 it came to an armed outburst. Again, John was part of the army that had to subdue the city liberties and in the Battle of Montenaken he was the commander of the victorious army division. He was also present at the capture of Dinant in August 1466. Even during the reign of Charles the Bold, John still was, despite his advanced age, often in
12508-476: The time. Before the invention or discovery of the concept of phusis or nature by the pre-Socratic philosophers , the same words tend to be used to describe the natural "way" in which a plant grows, and the "way" in which, for example, one tribe worships a particular god. For this reason, it is claimed that these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and the first to clearly distinguish "nature" and "convention". The early Greek philosophers of
12626-568: The toll in Königsdorf and the associated tolls in Mülheim , Brück [ de ] , Lövenich [ de ] , Widdersdorf [ de ] , Bocklemünd , Merheim [ de ] and Blatzheim [ de ] , as well as other rights from the Archdiocese of Cologne . The late Archbishop Thierry II had transferred these tolls and rights to John, with the approval of
12744-408: The trial would take place. What happened afterwards is also unclear. What is known is that the Emperor summoned John for the settlement of the inheritance dispute with his sister, because on 9 February 1467 Mary appointed attorneys for the trial. That is the last preserved record of the dispute. John signed an inheritance treaty with his sons on 4 May 1472, in which it was decided to divide
12862-529: The workmen and materials for construction work at the various castles . John had Dillenburg Castle – which until then had been used primarily as a stronghold against the unruly local nobility – extended in the period 1453–1467 and rebuilt into a residential castle for the count's family. And in 1472 he started the expansion of Tringenstein Castle [ de ] , which lasted until 1481. On 28 May 1470, Emperor Frederick III confirmed and granted John permission to purchase rights to
12980-476: The world deteriorated in Western Europe. During the period, Latin encyclopaedists such as Isidore of Seville preserved the majority of general ancient knowledge. In contrast, because the Byzantine Empire resisted attacks from invaders, they were able to preserve and improve prior learning. John Philoponus , a Byzantine scholar in the 500s, started to question Aristotle's teaching of physics, introducing
13098-457: Was a thorn in John's side, but he did not succeed in enforcing any special rights there. Siegen's city privileges were co-granted by John's ancestor Count Henry I of Nassau-Siegen in 1303. The County of Nassau-Siegen was divided into districts ( Ämter ). In each district ( Amt ) the count appointed an Amtmann . These were members of the local nobility and deputised for the count. They had
13216-580: Was complicated further due to the fact that another part of the County of Diez belonged to Ottilie's father-in-law Count Philip the Elder of Katzenelnbogen . John took part in the Soest Feud at the side of Archbishop Thierry II [ de ] of Cologne , together with Count John I of Nassau-Beilstein, the latter's son Philip and brother Count Henry III of Nassau-Beilstein [ nl ] . Philip died in that feud in 1446. John received
13334-410: Was granted the County of Diez as a fief by Archbishop James I [ de ] of Trier on 4 November 1451. This put an end to the long-running dispute over that county between the archbishop and John's brother Henry. But this led to a conflict with his niece Ottilie of Nassau-Siegen , who also claimed her father part's of the County of Diez as her inheritance . The conflict
13452-511: Was not known for spectacular deeds or revolutionary ideas. The campaigns he took part in are therefore more typical of the politics of the Dukes of Burgundy than of his own preferences and interests. For the administration of justice , the County of Nassau-Siegen had a Schultheiß in most of the districts. The oldest preserved ordinance for the Schultheiß of the Dillenburg district is from John's reign. A not inconsiderable source of income for
13570-513: Was not one of the closest noble advisors of Philip the Good and Charles the Bold . Like his father, John was never admitted to the Order of the Golden Fleece . John can best be characterised as a wealthy nobleman who faithfully fought in the campaigns for which he was called up; he was not known for spectacular deeds or revolutionary ideas. The campaigns he took part in are therefore more typical of
13688-519: Was since 1442 Count of Nassau-Siegen (a part of the County of Nassau ), of Vianden and of half Diez , and Lord of Breda [ nl ] and of the Lek [ nl ] . He descended from the Ottonian Line of the House of Nassau . Since the death of his father, John owned many fiefs in the Netherlands , which he managed to expand. Through his marriage he obtained that many fiefs in
13806-464: Was the rebellion of the Flemish city of Ghent , which wanted to maintain its autonomy undiminished, and opposed the centralising policy of the Dukes of Burgundy. In 1452 John was part of the army that had to force the rebellious city to obedience. Also the aspirations for autonomy of the city of Liège clashed with the system of government of the Dukes of Burgundy. Formally, Liège was not even part of
13924-453: Was widely rejected because it was believed to violate the laws of physics, while Ptolemy's Almagest , which contains a geocentric description of the Solar System , was accepted through the early Renaissance instead. The inventor and mathematician Archimedes of Syracuse made major contributions to the beginnings of calculus . Pliny the Elder was a Roman writer and polymath, who wrote
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