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139-505: The explosive development of trolleybus systems in the Soviet Union in the 1960s required a large number of trolleybuses to operate on said systems. The mainstay of the contemporary Soviet trolleybus fleet, the ZiU-5 , was not sufficient for large urban passenger transfers as it was more suited for medium-size cities rather than large megapolises such as Moscow or Saint Petersburg . In addition,

278-671: A chassis number or frame number ) is a unique code, including a serial number , used by the automotive industry to identify individual motor vehicles , towed vehicles , motorcycles , scooters and mopeds , as defined by the International Organization for Standardization in ISO 3779 (content and structure) and ISO 4030 (location and attachment). There are vehicle history services in several countries that help potential car owners use VINs to find vehicles that are defective or have been written off . VINs were first used in 1954 in

417-666: A one-party state governed by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union , it was a flagship communist state . Its capital and largest city was Moscow . The Soviet Union's roots lay in the October Revolution of 1917. The new government, led by Vladimir Lenin , established the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), the world's first constitutionally socialist state . The revolution

556-550: A 17-character VIN, which does not include the letters O (o), I (i), and Q (q) (to avoid confusion with numerals 0, 1, and 9). After the introduction of the ISO norm, the manufacturers which produced vehicles for the American market very quickly adjusted to this standard. The ISO introduced recommendations for applying the VIN standard and its structure, and the VIN was also used in Europe. However,

695-421: A VIN with a check digit , first either (a) remove the check digit for the purpose of calculation or (b) use a weight of zero (see below ) to cancel it out. The original value of the check digit is then compared with the calculated value. If the calculated value is 0–9, the check digit must match the calculated value. If the calculated value is 10, the check digit must be X. If the two values do not match (and there

834-580: A closer relationship with France and Britain. In 1939, half a year after the Munich Agreement , the USSR attempted to form an anti-Nazi alliance with France and Britain. Adolf Hitler proposed a better deal, which would give the USSR control over much of Eastern Europe through the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact . In September, Germany invaded Poland, and the USSR also invaded later that month, resulting in

973-595: A final rule amending 49 CFR Part 565, "so that the current 17 character vehicle identification number (VIN) system, which has been in place for almost 30 years, can continue in use for at least another 30 years", in the process making several changes to the VIN requirements applicable to all motor vehicles manufactured for sale in the United States. There were three notable changes to the VIN structure that affect VIN deciphering systems: Compulsory in North America and China

1112-434: A fleet of strategic bombers and during war situation was to eradicate enemy infrastructure and nuclear capacity. The air force also had a number of fighters and tactical bombers to support the army in the war. Strategic missile forces had more than 1,400 intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), deployed between 28 bases and 300 command centers. VIN code A vehicle identification number ( VIN ; also called

1251-515: A greater union which he initially named as the Union of Soviet Republics of Europe and Asia (Russian: Союз Советских Республик Европы и Азии , romanized : Soyuz Sovyetskikh Respublik Evropy i Azii ). Joseph Stalin initially resisted Lenin's proposal but ultimately accepted it, and with Lenin's agreement he changed the name to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), although all republics began as socialist soviet and did not change to

1390-425: A more profound modernization of the model trolley, which was designated ZiU- 682G. Experienced instances ZiU- 682G were released in 1988, and since February 1, 1991, the plant has fully passed on its production. In addition to the changes already introduced earlier models ZiU 682V0A - and - ZiU 682V0B model ZiU- 682G have received the following differences. Front, under the windshield, placed the intake grille. Changed

1529-599: A new classification was introduced and the former ZiU-682 was designated as HTI-682. However, this was not the end of the vehicle's cycle of renaming; the Russian acronym HTI in the Cyrillic alphabet is ХТИ, and these three Cyrillic letters in 1995 were confused with the Latin letters XTU which then became the official name of the vehicle. The first prototype, ZiU-9, was built in 1966, with the second prototype being built in 1970. Elements of

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1668-592: A new profitable market. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Stalin ordered Marxist-Leninist parties across the world to strongly oppose non-Marxist political parties, labour unions or other organizations on the left, which they labelled social fascists . In the usage of the Soviet Union, and of the Comintern and its affiliated parties in this period, the epithet fascist was used to describe capitalist society in general and virtually any anti-Soviet or anti-Stalinist activity or opinion. Stalin reversed himself in 1934 with

1807-533: A result, in severe operating conditions (e.g. in Nizhny Novgorod) over 5 years, these structural elements had a tendency to corrode to the extent that they could be punctured with the gentle tap of a screwdriver. Since 1997, the base modification in mass production became ZiU- 682G -012 (ZiU- 682G0A). An external difference between the new modification was the reduced height of the cab's side window, which also has another location pane. Minor changes have been planning

1946-483: A sharp edge. In 1989, production started in parallel transition modification ZiU- 682V0B on which the electric drive door opener was replaced with a pneumatic system. By the end of 1980, individual trolley components manufactured at that time were almost 20 years old, making them significantly outdated. Therefore, simultaneously with the launch of a series of recent modifications to the ZiU- 682V, preparations were made to produce

2085-413: A special rustproofing compound. A great deal of work was done to improve the electrical trolley : applied dielectric coating rods susceptor set travel stops rods, improved insulation chicanery, installed in the cab indicator of leakage currents, improved design -board covers and sealing side compartments, redesigned heater. Also applied to the trolley locking system running with the doors open. Back in

2224-439: A static converter (IPT-600/28 or BP -3G), stroke limiter rods. Behind the driver is case inside of which has an electric panel protective relays. In this regard, the first window on the left side of the passenger compartment has reduced dimensions, there is no passenger seat facing the front wheel arch. Interior lighting passenger compartment carried fluorescent fixtures have modes full, partial, and emergency lighting. Passenger room

2363-566: A status that is retained by the Russian Federation . Covering a sixth of Earth's land surface, its size was comparable to that of North America . Two other successor states, Kazakhstan and Ukraine , rank among the top 10 countries by land area, and the largest country entirely in Europe, respectively. The European portion accounted for a quarter of the country's area and was the cultural and economic center. The eastern part in Asia extended to

2502-469: A union of equals, in practice the Soviet Union was dominated by Russians . The domination was so absolute that for most of its existence, the country was commonly (but incorrectly) referred to as 'Russia'. While the Russian SFSR was technically only one republic within the larger union, it was by far the largest (both in terms of population and area), most powerful, and most highly developed. The Russian SFSR

2641-412: Is 2, and not 1. There is no left-alignment linearity. The following is the weight factor for each position in the VIN. The 9th position is that of the check digit. It has been substituted with a 0, which will cancel it out in the multiplication step. Consider the hypothetical VIN 1M8GDM9A_KP042788 , where the underscore will be the check digit. With a check digit of X , the VIN 1M8GDM9A_KP042788

2780-497: Is a simple sequential number. The North American implementation of the VIS uses the 10th digit to encode the model year of the vehicle. Besides the three letters that are not allowed in the VIN itself (I, O and Q), the letters U and Z and the digit 0 are not used for the model year code. Outside North America the 10th digit is usually 0. The year 1980 was encoded by some manufacturers, especially General Motors and Chrysler , as "A" (since

2919-434: Is also equipped with a static converter. As a result of the continuation of the modernization of the trolley in the same 1998 there was a modification, the ZiU- 682G -016 (ZiU- 682G0M), which became the base model. Exterior siding boards became run from extruded galvanized steel sheets, which improved the appearance of the trolley and increased its corrosion resistance. Casement doors were subjected to additional treatment with

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3058-506: Is derived from the Russian word sovet (Russian: совет ), meaning 'council', 'assembly', 'advice', ultimately deriving from the proto-Slavic verbal stem of * vět-iti ('to inform'), related to Slavic věst ('news'), English wise . The word sovietnik means 'councillor'. Some organizations in Russian history were called council (Russian: совет ). In the Russian Empire ,

3197-406: Is equipped with separate comfortable seats (which, however, often criticized for full passengers trouble and inconvenience). Two passenger seats are equipped to transport people with limited mobility. Parking brake acts on the brakes the drive wheels of energy storage, control of air in the cab of the crane. The hydraulic oil tank is equipped with a power steering oil level warning device. To improve

3336-570: Is his background, his education , his profession . These are the questions that will determine the fate of the accused. That is the meaning and essence of the Red Terror ." During his rule, Stalin always made the final policy decisions. Otherwise, Soviet foreign policy was set by the commission on the Foreign Policy of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union , or by

3475-464: Is that the frame (base) body is made of an open profile (sill), which increases the rigidity and makes it more resistant to corrosion. Trolleybus body ZiU- 682G 016.03 - welded frame construction. Optionally, the vehicle may be installed with a swing-slide-type front double door (which is especially important for use in Moscow, as one must pay for travel validation). Since September 2009, in connection with

3614-452: Is the use of the 11th character to identify the assembly plant at which the vehicle was built. Each manufacturer has its own set of plant codes. In the United States and China, the 12th to 17th digits are the vehicle's serial or production number. This is unique to each vehicle, and every manufacturer uses its own sequence. A check-digit validation is used for all road vehicles sold in the United States and Canada. When trying to validate

3753-432: Is written 1M8GDM9A X KP042788 . A VIN with straight-ones (seventeen consecutive 1 s) has the nice feature that its check digit 1 matches the calculated value 1 . This is because a value of one multiplied by 89 (sum of weights) is 89, and 89 divided by 11 is 8 with remainder 1 ⁄ 11 ; thus 1 is the check digit. This is a way to test a VIN-check algorithm. The VIN is marked in multiple locations; normally in

3892-648: The Axis powers , suffering an estimated 27 million casualties , which accounted for most Allied losses. In the aftermath of the war , the Soviet Union consolidated the territory occupied by the Red Army , forming satellite states , and undertook rapid economic development which cemented its status as a superpower . Geopolitical tensions with the US led to the Cold War . The American-led Western Bloc coalesced into NATO in 1949, prompting

4031-510: The Council of People's Commissars ), headed by the Chairman (Premier) and managing an enormous bureaucracy responsible for the administration of the economy and society. State and party structures of the constituent republics largely emulated the structure of the central institutions, although the Russian SFSR, unlike the other constituent republics, for most of its history had no republican branch of

4170-576: The Gulag was expanded. During the late 1930s, Stalin's government conducted the Great Purge to remove opponents, resulting in mass death, imprisonment, and deportation. In 1939, the USSR and Nazi Germany signed a nonaggression pact , but in 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union in the largest land invasion in history, opening the Eastern Front of World War II . The Soviets played a decisive role in defeating

4309-729: The Land Forces , the Air Force , the Navy , Joint State Political Directorate (OGPU) and the Internal Troops . The OGPU later became independent and in 1934 joined the NKVD secret police, and so its internal troops were under the joint leadership of the defense and internal commissariats. After World War II, Strategic Missile Forces (1959), Air Defense Forces (1948) and National Civil Defense Forces (1970) were formed, which ranked first, third, and sixth in

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4448-518: The Moscow State Institute of International Relations . The Marxist-Leninist leadership of the Soviet Union intensely debated foreign policy issues and changed directions several times. Even after Stalin assumed dictatorial control in the late 1920s, there were debates, and he frequently changed positions. During the country's early period, it was assumed that Communist revolutions would break out soon in every major industrial country, and it

4587-644: The Pacific Ocean to the east and Afghanistan to the south, and, except some areas in Central Asia , was much less populous. It spanned over 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) east to west across 11 time zones , and over 7,200 kilometres (4,500 mi) north to south. It had five climate zones: tundra , taiga , steppes , desert and mountains . The USSR, like Russia , had the world's longest border , measuring over 60,000 kilometres (37,000 mi), or 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 circumferences of Earth. Two-thirds of it

4726-761: The Popular Front program that called on all Marxist parties to join with all anti-Fascist political, labour, and organizational forces that were opposed to fascism , especially of the Nazi variety. The rapid growth of power in Nazi Germany encouraged both Paris and Moscow to form a military alliance, and the Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance was signed in May 1935. A firm believer in collective security, Stalin's foreign minister Maxim Litvinov worked very hard to form

4865-566: The Soviet republics , and the control of the Communist Party weakened. The failed coup attempt in August 1991 against Gorbachev by hardline communists hastened the end of the Soviet Union , which formally dissolved on December 26, 1991, ending nearly seven decades of Soviet rule. With an area of 22,402,200 square kilometres (8,649,500 sq mi), the Soviet Union was the world's largest country,

5004-739: The State Council , which functioned from 1810 to 1917, was referred to as a Council of Ministers. The Soviets as workers' councils first appeared during the 1905 Russian Revolution . Although they were quickly suppressed by the Imperial army, after the February Revolution of 1917 , workers' and soldiers' Soviets emerged throughout the country and shared power with the Russian Provisional Government . The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin , demanded that all power be transferred to

5143-616: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), saying that it was "overly juridical" and potentially infringed on national sovereignty. The Soviet Union later signed legally-binding human rights documents, such as the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in 1973 (and the 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ), but they were neither widely known or accessible to people living under Communist rule, nor were they taken seriously by

5282-736: The largest arsenal of nuclear weapons in the world . As an Allied nation, it was a founding member of the United Nations as well as one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council . Before its dissolution, the USSR was one of the world's two superpowers through its hegemony in Eastern Europe, global diplomatic and ideological influence (particularly in the Global South ), military and economic strengths, and scientific accomplishments. The word soviet

5421-534: The right to food , the right to work , and the right to education . The Soviet conception of human rights was very different from international law . According to Soviet legal theory , "it is the government who is the beneficiary of human rights which are to be asserted against the individual". The Soviet state was considered as the source of human rights. Therefore, the Soviet legal system considered law an arm of politics and it also considered courts agencies of

5560-593: The 17-digit VIN was not mandatory until 1981, and the "A" or zero was in the manufacturer's pre-1981 placement in the VIN), yet Ford and AMC still used a zero for 1980. Subsequent years increment through the allowed letters, so that "Y" represents the year 2000. 2001 to 2009 are encoded as the digits 1 to 9, and subsequent years are encoded as "A", "B", "C", etc. On April 30, 2008, the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration adopted

5699-683: The 1920s, it refused to rubber stamp proposals from the party and Council of Ministers. In 1990, Gorbachev introduced and assumed the position of the President of the Soviet Union , concentrated power in his executive office, independent of the party, and subordinated the government, now renamed the Cabinet of Ministers of the USSR , to himself. Tensions grew between the Union-wide authorities under Gorbachev, reformists led in Russia by Boris Yeltsin and controlling

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5838-476: The 1950s, the Soviet Union expanded its efforts in space exploration and took a lead in the Space Race with the first artificial satellite , the first human spaceflight , the first space station , and the first probe to land on another planet . In 1985, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev , sought to reform the country through his policies of glasnost and perestroika . In 1989, various countries of

5977-585: The 1990s, people in the West were also interested in the radioactive hazards of nuclear facilities, decommissioned nuclear submarines , and the processing of nuclear waste or spent nuclear fuel . It was also known in the early 1990s that the USSR had transported radioactive material to the Barents Sea and Kara Sea , which was later confirmed by the Russian parliament. The crash of the K-141 Kursk submarine in 2000 in

6116-519: The CPSU, being ruled directly by the union-wide party until 1990. Local authorities were organized likewise into party committees , local Soviets and executive committees . While the state system was nominally federal, the party was unitary. The state security police (the KGB and its predecessor agencies ) played an important role in Soviet politics. It was instrumental in the Red Terror and Great Purge , but

6255-518: The Communist authorities. Under Joseph Stalin , the death penalty was extended to adolescents as young as 12 years old in 1935. Sergei Kovalev recalled "the famous article 125 of the Constitution which enumerated all basic civil and political rights" in the Soviet Union. But when he and other prisoners attempted to use this as a legal basis for their abuse complaints, their prosecutor's argument

6394-578: The GM-T body image, KLATF08Y1VB363636 , do not pass the North American check-digit verification. Transliteration consists of removing all of the letters, and replacing them with their appropriate numerical counterparts. These numerical alternatives (based on IBM's EBCDIC ) are in the following chart. I , O , and Q are not allowed in a valid VIN; for this chart, they have been filled in with N/A ( not applicable ). Numerical digits use their own values. S

6533-533: The Politburo after the deaths of Lenin and Stalin, as well as after Khrushchev's dismissal, itself due to a decision by both the Politburo and the Central Committee. All leaders of the Communist Party before Gorbachev died in office, except Georgy Malenkov and Khrushchev, both dismissed from the party leadership amid internal struggle within the party. Between 1988 and 1990, facing considerable opposition, Mikhail Gorbachev enacted reforms shifting power away from

6672-470: The Russian name of the Soviet Union as СС has been taboo, the reason being that СС as a Russian Cyrillic abbreviation is associated with the infamous Schutzstaffel of Nazi Germany , as SS is in English. In English-language media, the state was referred to as the Soviet Union or the USSR. The Russian SFSR dominated the Soviet Union to such an extent that, for most of the Soviet Union's existence, it

6811-613: The Soviet Union and turned into SSRs, which was not recognized by most of the international community and was considered an illegal occupation . After the Soviet invasion of Finland , the Karelo-Finnish SSR was formed on annexed territory as a Union Republic in March 1940 and then incorporated into Russia as the Karelian ASSR in 1956. Between July 1956 and September 1991, there were 15 union republics (see map below). While nominally

6950-525: The Soviet Union . Boris Yeltsin , the leader of the RSFSR, oversaw its reconstitution into the Russian Federation , which became the Soviet Union's successor state; all other republics emerged as fully independent post-Soviet states . During its existence, the Soviet Union produced many significant social and technological achievements and innovations . It had the world's second-largest economy and largest standing military. An NPT-designated state , it wielded

7089-501: The Soviet Union to form its own military alliance, the Warsaw Pact , in 1955. Neither side engaged in direct military confrontation, and instead fought on an ideological basis and through proxy wars . In 1953, following Stalin's death , the Soviet Union undertook a campaign of de-Stalinization under Nikita Khrushchev , which saw reversals and rejections of Stalinist policies. This campaign caused tensions with Communist China . During

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7228-636: The Soviet Union's priorities changed. Despite previous conflict with the United Kingdom , Vyacheslav Molotov dropped his post war border demands. The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc , which began following World War II in 1945. The term cold war is used because there

7367-535: The Soviet Union's superpower status, the economy struggled due to its centralized nature, technological backwardness, and inefficiencies. The vast military expenditures and burdens of maintaining the Eastern Bloc, further strained the Soviet economy. In the 1980s, Mikhail Gorbachev 's policies of Glasnost (openness) and Perestroika (restructuring) aimed to revitalize the Soviet system but instead accelerated its unraveling. Nationalist movements gained momentum across

7506-477: The Soviet authorities admitted. The Soviet Union was the world's second largest producer of harmful emissions. In 1988, total emissions in the Soviet Union were about 79% of those in the United States. But since the Soviet GNP was only 54% of that of the United States, this means that the Soviet Union generated 1.5 times more pollution than the United States per unit of GNP. The Soviet Chernobyl disaster in 1986

7645-713: The Soviets, and gained support from the workers and soldiers. After the October Revolution , in which the Bolsheviks seized power from the Provisional Government in the name of the Soviets, Lenin proclaimed the formation of the Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic (RSFSR). During the Georgian Affair of 1922, Lenin called for the Russian SFSR and other national Soviet republics to form

7784-415: The Supreme Soviet were members of the CPSU. Of the party heads themselves, Stalin (1941–1953) and Khrushchev (1958–1964) were Premiers. Upon the forced retirement of Khrushchev, the party leader was prohibited from this kind of double membership, but the later General Secretaries for at least some part of their tenure occupied the mostly ceremonial position of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet ,

7923-430: The USSR. Moscow eventually stopped threatening other states, and instead worked to open peaceful relationships in terms of trade, and diplomatic recognition. The United Kingdom dismissed the warnings of Winston Churchill and a few others about a continuing Marxist-Leninist threat, and opened trade relations and de facto diplomatic recognition in 1922. There was hope for a settlement of the pre-war Tsarist debts, but it

8062-400: The United States in 2021. In practice, each is assigned to a country of manufacture, although in Europe the country where the continental headquarters is located can assign the WMI to all vehicles produced in that region (Example: Opel/Vauxhall cars whether produced in Germany, Spain, the United Kingdom or Poland carry a WMI of W0L because Adam Opel AG is based in Rüsselsheim, Germany). In

8201-409: The United States), 1G1 represents Chevrolet passenger cars; 1G2 , Pontiac passenger cars; and 1GC , Chevrolet trucks . The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) in the US assigns WMIs to countries and manufacturers. The first character of the WMI is typically the region in which the manufacturer is located although there are exceptions e.g. the WMI 7SA was assigned to Tesla Inc. in

8340-445: The United States. From 1954 to 1981, there was no accepted standard for these numbers, so different manufacturers and even divisions within a manufacturer used different formats. By 1966, GM had settled on a 13-digit VIN, and standardized its VIN format across its divisions in 1972. In 1981, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration of the United States standardized the format. It required all on-road vehicles sold to contain

8479-422: The VIN are the vehicle descriptor section or VDS. This is used, according to local regulations, to identify the vehicle type, and may include information on the automobile platform used, the model, and the body style . Each manufacturer has a unique system for using this field. Most manufacturers since the 1980s have used the eighth digit to identify the engine type whenever there is more than one engine choice for

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8618-552: The VIN. Modern VINs are based on two related standards, originally issued by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1979 and 1980: ISO 3779 and ISO 3780, respectively. Compatible but different implementations of these ISO standards have been adopted by the European Union and the United States. The VIN comprises the following sections: more than 500 vehicles/year 500 or fewer vehicles/year more than 2,000 vehicles/year 2,000 or fewer vehicles/year The first three characters uniquely identify

8757-409: The Warsaw Pact overthrew their Soviet-backed regimes , and nationalist and separatist movements erupted across the Soviet Union. In 1991, amid efforts to preserve the country as a renewed federation , an attempted coup against Gorbachev by hardline communists prompted the largest republics—Ukraine, Russia, and Belarus—to secede. On December 26, Gorbachev officially recognized the dissolution of

8896-646: The ZiU- 52642, which is a major upgrade to the ZiU- 682G with the removal of electrical equipment on the roof of the trolley and other changes. However, for various reasons, the model series did not go. The first production series with the removal of part of the apparatus on the roof became ZiU- 682G -017 (ZiU- 682G0H), launched in 2000. Unlike experienced ZiU- 52642 equipped with a Thyristor -pulse control system, modification ZiU- 682G -017 remained equipped with classical, uneconomical and unsupported acceptable smoothness Rheostat - contactor control system, electrical equipment factory "Dinamo" conventional platen doors. Some of

9035-454: The ZiU-5 had an aluminium exterior, which was expensive and complicated from a technological point of view. The two doors in the ZiU-5 hull ends did not work well in overcrowded situations which were quite common in Soviet public transportation. The ZiU-9 was a quite successful attempt to solve these problems. It has one extra door compared to the ZiU-5. The middle and rear doors are wider, to allow for enhanced passenger flow. The small door at

9174-535: The ZiU-9 was discontinued in 2014 due to a lack of demand for the model. [REDACTED] Many factories in modern Russia or Belarus developed their unlicensed or semi-licensed copies of the ZiU-9 design. They may have different designations and trademarks, but in the colloquial language all of them are referred to as "ZiU-9 clones". In Hungary , ZiU-9 trolleys still operate in recent years, but they have been retired in Debrecen ( DKV ), Budapest ( BKV ), and Szeged ( SzKT ). Originally 174 of them were used in

9313-449: The accident, but this led to a relatively low number of deaths (WHO data, 2005). Another major radioactive accident was the Kyshtym disaster . The Kola Peninsula was one of the places with major problems. Around the industrial cities of Monchegorsk and Norilsk , where nickel , for example, is mined, all forests have been destroyed by contamination, while the northern and other parts of Russia have been affected by emissions. During

9452-479: The appearance and number of design decisions were borrowed from contemporary to the time foreign firms MAN and Chausson . The ZiU-9A was an experimental version with a wide body up to 2680 mm. The only prototype was made in 1968. In August 1972, the first production series, the ZiU-682B, began production. Early trolley cars differed from later releases. Models prior to 1974 had angular wheel arches rather than circular ones. The first batch of trolleybuses used

9591-407: The body in the rear overhang. In 1985, the nameplate trolley was partially aligned with the standards forming the VIN code , which led to a change in marking HTI682V00. Since 1988, the plant switched to production modifications ZiU- 682V -012 (ZiU- 682V0A) powered DC -213 capacity of 115 kW. Since 1989, changed the shape of the housing radioreaktors roof trolley, it has decreased in size and had

9730-428: The cabin. It was adapted for the domestic market modification export version trolley ZiU- 682G -010, the production of which began in 1992. Based on ZiU- 682G -012 began the further modernization of trolley conducted mainly commissioned Mosgortransa (as most other Russian cities at that time became insolvent) and divided into several stages. For low voltage power generator instead of 63.3701 and auxiliary engine DC - 661B

9869-430: The capital city of Budapest , and a few dozen more in other cities. Regardless, some buses are still in working condition and are used occasionally by retro and heritage trolley services. ZiU-9s formerly or are currently employed in all ex-USSR countries except the Baltic states. They have also been in service in Belgrade ever since the Yugoslav period. They were also sold to Greece , Argentina , and Colombia . In

10008-425: The changes undergone interior, in particular, have been installed interior lights more modern form. From 2002 to request the trolley began to be produced in variants with altered appearance cabin (this applied fiberglass pad). Since October 2002, commercially produced modification ZiU- 682G - 016.02, which is a further development of the model ZiU- 682G -018. Siding boards made of seamless steel sheet paneling front of

10147-549: The city of Belgrade and to Georgia (country) . One was donated to the East Anglia Transport Museum . Belgrade has had ZiU-9 trolleybuses since the late 1970s. In 2010 a public action was made to save Belgrade's first ZiU-9 from being scrapped. Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ( USSR ), commonly known as the Soviet Union , was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. During its existence, it

10286-429: The country was limited. The state restricted rights of citizens to private property . According to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights , human rights are the "basic rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled." including the right to life and liberty , freedom of expression , and equality before the law ; and social, cultural and economic rights, including the right to participate in culture ,

10425-683: The creation of new state commissions and committees. It gained additional powers relating to the approval of the Five-Year Plans and the government budget . The Supreme Soviet elected a Presidium (successor of the Central Executive Committee ) to wield its power between plenary sessions, ordinarily held twice a year, and appointed the Supreme Court , the Procurator General and the Council of Ministers (known before 1946 as

10564-519: The degree of power consolidation, it was either the Politburo as a collective body or the General Secretary, who always was one of the Politburo members, that effectively led the party and the country (except for the period of the highly personalized authority of Stalin, exercised directly through his position in the Council of Ministers rather than the Politburo after 1941). They were not controlled by

10703-442: The driver's cabin. In the cabin itself changed the layout of the dashboard, which became made of black plastic. Out of the past neergonomichny remote control trolley bus right from the dashboard, consisting of two long rows of identical tumblers. Control of external light devices was moved to the steering column. On a dedicated right panel were only control door opening, the wiper switch, and the alarm. Other switches were transferred to

10842-541: The duty of the Russian Bolsheviks to protect what they had in Russia, and avoid military confrontations that might destroy their bridgehead. Russia was now a pariah state, along with Germany. The two came to terms in 1922 with the Treaty of Rapallo that settled long-standing grievances. At the same time, the two countries secretly set up training programs for the illegal German army and air force operations at hidden camps in

10981-420: The electrical introduced fiberglass boards, electrical insulation flaps passenger doors from the body, external electrical insulation rod current collectors, insulation monitoring device UKI, emergency switch, the imposition of mostly electric traction kit from under the floor to the roof, technological track on the roof to move attendants, rear stopper rods pantographs fitted to three electrical insulators, locking

11120-742: The founding republics who signed the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR in December 1922. In 1924, during the national delimitation in Central Asia, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan were formed from parts of Russia's Turkestan ASSR and two Soviet dependencies, the Khorezm and Bukharan PSPs . In 1929, Tajikistan was split off from the Uzbekistan SSR. With the constitution of 1936, the Transcaucasian SFSR

11259-408: The front and rear position lamps. Lights original form, informally called "boats" have been replaced by unified and offset edges closer to route indicators. In 1985, similar design changes underwent external signal lights and turn indicators. From March through May 1984 trolleybuses were produced without the low-level rear accumulation area, which was due to the need to strengthen the base structure of

11398-525: The front end of the vehicle is smaller, yet nonetheless comfortable for the driver and for outgoing passengers. The exterior of the ZiU-9 is made of welded steel and is significantly cheaper and simpler than the exterior of the ZiU-5. The electrical equipment of the ZiU-9 had some minor differences from the ZiU-5. The power of the main motor was increased. The indirect resistor -based control system of electric current

11537-410: The general party membership, as the key principle of the party organization was democratic centralism , demanding strict subordination to higher bodies, and elections went uncontested, endorsing the candidates proposed from above. The Communist Party maintained its dominance over the state mainly through its control over the system of appointments . All senior government officials and most deputies of

11676-515: The globe. The post-Stalin leadership, particularly under Nikita Khrushchev , initiated a de-Stalinization process, leading to a period of liberalization and relative openness known as the Khrushchev Thaw . However, the subsequent era under Leonid Brezhnev , referred to as the Era of Stagnation , was marked by economic decline, political corruption, and a rigid gerontocracy . Despite efforts to maintain

11815-491: The government. Extensive extrajudicial powers were given to the Soviet secret police agencies . In practice, the Soviet government significantly curbed the rule of law , civil liberties , protection of law and guarantees of property , which were considered as examples of "bourgeois morality" by Soviet law theorists such as Andrey Vyshinsky . The USSR and other countries in the Soviet Bloc had abstained from affirming

11954-459: The highest bodies of the party and making the Supreme Soviet less dependent on them. The Congress of People's Deputies was established, the majority of whose members were directly elected in competitive elections held in March 1989, the first in Soviet history. The Congress now elected the Supreme Soviet, which became a full-time parliament, and much stronger than before. For the first time since

12093-463: The implementation of socialist policies and the New Economic Policy (NEP), which allowed for market-oriented reforms. The rise of Joseph Stalin in the late 1920s ushered in an era of intense centralization and totalitarianism. Stalin's rule was characterized by the forced collectivization of agriculture , rapid industrialization , and the Great Purge , which eliminated perceived enemies of

12232-601: The latter, the EDTU ( Empresa Distrital de Transportes Urbanos ) was a larger operator of these buses; they were in a very bad conservation state in the former Eastern Bloc countries. Three buses were on loan in 1973 for testing purposes in Helsinki , Finland . In 2004, the ILPAP , the operator of the trolleybuses in Athens and Piraeus , Greece donated nearly all of its old ZiU-9 trolleybuses to

12371-435: The location of windows with vents along the starboard side. Undergone significant redevelopment salon trolley. Most of the seats along the left side of the body were replaced with a double row on row, which increased the number of standing places. Changed the design of seats themselves and their handrails. Big changes undergone cab. Partition behind the driver, which had previously oval window became deaf; extended sliding door in

12510-407: The lower corner of the windshield on the driver's side, under the bonnet (North America: "hood") next to the latch, at the front end of the vehicle frame, and inside the door pillar on the driver's side. On newer vehicles VINs may be optically read with barcode scanners or digital cameras, or digitally read via OBD-II . There are smartphone applications that can pass the VIN to websites to decode

12649-463: The manufacturer of the vehicle using the world manufacturer identifier or WMI code. A manufacturer who builds fewer than 1,000 vehicles per year uses a 9 as the third digit, and the 12th, 13th and 14th position of the VIN for a second part of the identification. Some manufacturers use the third character as a code for a vehicle category (e.g., bus or truck), a division within a manufacturer, or both. For example, within 1G (assigned to General Motors in

12788-454: The manufacturer offers the following serial modifications (listed in order of increasing number of changes compared to ZiU- 682G) In 2009, Trolza developed a modified ZiU- 682G - 016.07. This machine has a total 016.04 with a different numbering and control system - TrSU " Chergos " instead of the standard rheostat- contactor. The only instance in operation in Murmansk. The serial production for

12927-401: The mid-1990s, it became apparent that the location of electrical equipment underneath the trolley did not meet modern requirements of the current equipment, because it does not protect it from moisture, anti-icing agents or other debris and damaging conditions, and also allows the bus to drag the assembly through puddles should their depth exceed ten centimeters. In 1995, the model was designed as

13066-477: The most common Russian initialization is Союз ССР (transliteration: Soyuz SSR ) which essentially translates to Union of SSRs in English. In addition, the Russian short form name Советский Союз (transliteration: Sovyetsky Soyuz , which literally means Soviet Union ) is also commonly used, but only in its unabbreviated form. Since the start of the Great Patriotic War at the latest, abbreviating

13205-424: The new control panel by trolley to the left of the driver's side near the window. Redesigned suspension and brake pedals at the same time control approached the car. On the other hand, the ZiU- 682G was supplied to provincial towns from 1993–2000. Compared to the previous model, the ZiU- 682V had significantly lighter load-bearing elements of the frame component of the supporting frame (apparently, to reduce cost). As

13344-417: The newly elected Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR , and communist hardliners. On 19–21 August 1991, a group of hardliners staged a coup attempt . The coup failed, and the State Council of the Soviet Union became the highest organ of state power 'in the period of transition'. Gorbachev resigned as General Secretary, only remaining President for the final months of the existence of the USSR. The judiciary

13483-400: The nominal head of state . The institutions at lower levels were overseen and at times supplanted by primary party organizations . However, in practice the degree of control the party was able to exercise over the state bureaucracy, particularly after the death of Stalin, was far from total, with the bureaucracy pursuing different interests that were at times in conflict with the party, nor

13622-3181: The notation below, assume that letters precede numbers and that zero is the last number. For example, 8X–82 denotes the range 8X, 8Y, 8Z, 81, 82, excluding 80. AA-AH South Africa AJ-AK Côte d'Ivoire AL-AM Lesotho AN-AP Botswana AR-AS Namibia AT-AU Madagascar AV-AW Mauritius AX-AY Tunisia AZ-A1 Cyprus A2-A3 Zimbabwe A4-A5 Mozambique A6-A0 unassigned BA-BB Angola BC Ethiopia BD-BE unassigned BF-BG Kenya BH Rwanda BJ-BK unassigned BL Nigeria BM-BP unassigned BR Algeria BS unassigned BT Swaziland BU Uganda BV-B2 unassigned B3-B4 Libya B5-B0 unassigned CA-CB Egypt CC-CE unassigned CF-CG Morocco CH-CK unassigned CL-CM Zambia CN-C0 unassigned J Japan KA-KE Sri Lanka KF-KK Israel KL-KR Korea (South) KS-KT Jordan L China MA-ME,MH,MY-M0 India MF-MK Indonesia ML-MR Thailand MS Myanmar MU Mongolia MX Kazakhstan NA-NE Iran NF-NK Pakistan NL-NR Turkey NS-NT Uzbekistan NU-N0 unassigned PA-PE Philippines PF-PK Singapore PL-PR Malaysia PS-PT Bangladesh PU-P0 unassigned RA-RE United Arab Emirates RF-RK Taiwan RL-RP Vietnam RS-RT Saudi Arabia R1-R7 Hong Kong SA-SM United Kingdom SN-ST Germany (former East Germany) SU-SZ Poland S1-S2 Latvia S3 Georgia S4 Iceland S5-S0 unassigned TA-TH Switzerland TJ-TP Czech Republic TR-TV Hungary TW-T2 Portugal T3-T5 Serbia T6 Andorra T7-T8 Netherlands T9-T0 unassigned UA-UC Spain UD-UG unassigned UH-UM Denmark UN-UR Ireland US-UT unassigned UU-UX Romania UY-UZ unassigned U1-U2 North Macedonia U3-U4 unassigned U5-U7 Slovakia U8-U0 Bosnia and Herzegovina VA-VE Austria VF-VR France VS-VW Spain VX-V2 France V3-V5 Croatia V6-V8 Estonia V9-V0 unassigned W Germany (former West Germany) XA-XC Bulgaria XD-XE Russia XF-XH Greece XJ-XK Russia XL-XR Netherlands XS-XW Russia (former USSR) XX-XY Luxembourg XZ-X0 Russia YA-YE Belgium YF-YK Finland YL-YM unassigned YN Malta YP-YR unassigned YS-YW Sweden YX-Y2 Norway Y3-Y5 Belarus Y6-Y8 Ukraine Y9-Y0 unassigned ZA-ZU Italy ZV-ZW unassigned ZX-ZZ Slovenia Z1 San Marino Z2 unassigned Z3-Z5 Lithuania Z6-Z0 Russia 1, 4, 5 or 7 United States 2 Canada 3A-3X Mexico 34 Nicaragua 35 Dominican Republic 36 Honduras 37 Panama 38-39 Puerto Rico 30 unassigned 6 Australia 6Y-61 New Zealand 8A-8E Argentina 8F-8K Chile 8L-8R Ecuador 8S-8W Peru 8X-82 Venezuela 82-82 Bolivia 83-80 unassigned 9A-9E Brazil 9F-9K Colombia 9L-9R Paraguay 9S-9W Uruguay 9X-92 Trinidad & Tobago 93–99 Brazil 90 unassigned The fourth to ninth positions in

13761-406: The number of fixtures in the cabin has been reduced from 12 to 11, every other window in the cabin lost air vents. Since 1978, the number of ceiling hatches reduced to three (due to the hatch on the front axle), and steel trolley equipped with electric shtangoulovitelyami (apparently on the orders, since their machines in Moscow weren't there until 1996). Since 1983, changed the shape and location of

13900-603: The official Soviet system of importance (ground forces were second, Air Force fourth, and Navy fifth). The army had the greatest political influence. In 1989, there served two million soldiers divided between 150 motorized and 52 armored divisions. Until the early 1960s, the Soviet navy was a rather small military branch, but after the Caribbean crisis , under the leadership of Sergei Gorshkov , it expanded significantly. It became known for battlecruisers and submarines. In 1989, there served 500 000 men. The Soviet Air Force focused on

14039-531: The only legal party and the final policymaker in the country. At the top of the Communist Party was the Central Committee , elected at Party Congresses and Conferences. In turn, the Central Committee voted for a Politburo (called the Presidium between 1952 and 1966), Secretariat and the general secretary (First Secretary from 1953 to 1966), the de facto highest office in the Soviet Union. Depending on

14178-629: The other order until 1936 . In addition, in the regional languages of several republics, the word council or conciliar in the respective language was only quite late changed to an adaptation of the Russian soviet and never in others, e.g. Ukrainian SSR . СССР (in the Latin alphabet: SSSR ) is the abbreviation of the Russian-language cognate of USSR, as written in Cyrillic letters . The Soviets used this abbreviation so frequently that audiences worldwide became familiar with its meaning. After this,

14317-462: The outdated DC-207G engine, which was replaced by the DC-210 110 kW engine in 1973. Suspension on the first ZiU-682B was pneumatic, with torque rods as guiding elements, and was later replaced with pneumatic spring guiding elements. The rear area had a lowered floor, to reduce the number of steps at the back door, thus allowing the loading of wheelchairs, prams, and large items. However, this "advantage"

14456-560: The partition of Poland. In response, Britain and France declared war on Germany, marking the beginning of World War II . Up until his death in 1953, Joseph Stalin controlled all foreign relations of the Soviet Union during the interwar period . Despite the increasing build-up of Germany 's war machine and the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War , the Soviet Union did not cooperate with any other nation, choosing to follow its own path. However, after Operation Barbarossa ,

14595-529: The party's highest body the Politburo . Operations were handled by the separate Ministry of Foreign Affairs . It was known as the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs (or Narkomindel), until 1946. The most influential spokesmen were Georgy Chicherin (1872–1936), Maxim Litvinov (1876–1951), Vyacheslav Molotov (1890–1986), Andrey Vyshinsky (1883–1954) and Andrei Gromyko (1909–1989). Intellectuals were based in

14734-452: The protective coating. On trolley mounted traction motor DC - 213A production Moscow factory "Dinamo" 110 kW. Control system - rheostat- contactor. Most of traction electric trolley put to the roof. Collectors located on the roof, power resistors, group controller, radioreaktory circuit breaker WB -7 (there is an option to install instead of the WB -7 breaker manual AV- 8 in the cab at the rear),

14873-426: The rank of permanent options included installing electronic route signs and a marquee in the passenger compartment and ABS that ZiU-682G-ZiU 016.02 and 016.03-682G-performed by the customer. Note that in approximately 2003 JSC "Trolza" changed several notations for produced models of the ZiU- 682G family, considering them all modifications ZiU- 682G -016 (VIN- code starts with all modifications XTU682G0M). As of 2010,

15012-490: The roof of the cabin was equipped with four ceiling hatches, and sliding side window panes. Currently, the only instance of ZIU-9B is preserved and operated in the city of Zaporozhye and has the side number 562. At the end of 1976, mass production of the updated ZiU- 682V began, which replaced the ZiU- 682B. Due to the presence of design flaws that emerged during the first years of operation, rather than jet thrust-bearing elements such as suspension springs were used. Since 1976,

15151-525: The sets of information contained in it were introduced gradually. For example, Volkswagen started to encode bigger chunks of information during 1995–1997, and the control digit during 2009–2015 for selected models from the group. The VIN control digit is also used, although not in all brand-models. In the European vehicles, it can be found e.g. in Audi A1. There are at least four competing standards used to calculate

15290-529: The state. The Soviet Union played a crucial role in the Allied victory in World War II , but at a tremendous human cost, with millions of Soviet citizens perishing in the conflict. The Soviet Union emerged as one of the world's two superpowers, leading the Eastern Bloc in opposition to the Western Bloc during the Cold War . This period saw the USSR engage in an arms race, the Space Race , and proxy wars around

15429-469: The struggle for dominance was expressed via indirect means such as psychological warfare , propaganda campaigns, espionage , far-reaching embargoes , rivalry at sports events and technological competitions such as the Space Race . Constitutionally, the USSR was a federation of constituent Union Republics, which were either unitary states, such as Ukraine or Byelorussia (SSRs), or federations, such as Russia or Transcaucasia (SFSRs), all four being

15568-439: The termination of a license to manufacture trolleybuses, issue ZiU 682G016.02 - and - ZiU 682G016.03 were discontinued. Since September 2009, JSC "Trolza" in accordance with an obtained production license started production of trolleybuses ZiU-682G-016.04 and ZiU-682G-016.05. And apparently, these trolleys and constructive modifications almost completely replicate their predecessors ZiU-682G-016.02 and ZiU-682G-016.03. As changes in

15707-453: The trolley system with open doors, emergency (spare) the passenger area lighting system ANTI passenger doors, emergency exits through the windows of the cabin, equipment service doors from inside and outside governments to open in an emergency installation on the roof of a high-speed circuit-breaker with remote control, etc. The trolley ZiU- 682G - 016.03 has also been produced commercially since 2004. Its main difference from ZiU - 682G - 016.02

15846-414: The trolley were combined with the use of fiberglass panels; the front bumper was also made of fiberglass. Passenger cabin windows are tinted glass, and a new panoramic windshield was installed. Increased corrosion protection was added to the body, including the use of conductive soils firm «Sikkens» in lap welds, phosphate protective coating, as well as additional coverage of the base, sides, front and rear of

15985-492: The truth". Human rights in the Soviet Union were severely limited. The Soviet Union was a totalitarian state from 1927 until 1953 and a one-party state until 1990. Freedom of speech was suppressed and dissent was punished. Independent political activities were not tolerated, whether these involved participation in free labour unions , private corporations , independent churches or opposition political parties . The freedom of movement within and especially outside

16124-525: The vehicle. Example: for the 2007 Chevrolet Corvette, U is for a 6.0-liter V8 engine , and E is for a 7.0-liter V8. One element that is inconsistent is the use of position nine as a check digit , compulsory for vehicles in North America and China, but not Europe. The 10th to 17th positions are used as the vehicle identifier section or VIS. This is used by the manufacturer to identify the individual vehicle in question. This may include information on options installed or engine and transmission choices, but often

16263-514: The west further raised concerns. In the past, there were accidents involving submarines K-19 , K-8 , a K-129 , K-27 , K-219 and K-278 Komsomolets . There were three power hierarchies in the Soviet Union: the legislature represented by the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union , the government represented by the Council of Ministers , and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU),

16402-459: The world's largest lakes; the Caspian Sea (shared with Iran ), and Lake Baikal , the world's largest (by volume) and deepest freshwater lake that is also an internal body of water in Russia. Neighbouring countries were aware of the high levels of pollution in the Soviet Union but after the dissolution of the Soviet Union it was discovered that its environmental problems were greater than what

16541-552: Was a coastline . The country bordered Afghanistan , the People's Republic of China , Czechoslovakia , Finland , Hungary , Iran , Mongolia , North Korea , Norway , Poland , Romania , and Turkey from 1945 to 1991. The Bering Strait separated the USSR from the United States . The country's highest mountain was Communism Peak (now Ismoil Somoni Peak ) in Tajikistan , at 7,495 metres (24,590 ft). The USSR also included most of

16680-524: Was also the industrial center of the Soviet Union. Historian Matthew White wrote that it was an open secret that the country's federal structure was 'window dressing' for Russian dominance. For that reason, the people of the USSR were usually called 'Russians', not 'Soviets', since 'everyone knew who really ran the show'. Under the Military Law of September 1925, the Soviet Armed Forces consisted of

16819-480: Was brought under strict party control after Stalin's death. Under Yuri Andropov , the KGB engaged in the suppression of political dissent and maintained an extensive network of informers, reasserting itself as a political actor to some extent independent of the party-state structure, culminating in the anti-corruption campaign targeting high-ranking party officials in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The constitution , which

16958-528: Was carried out within the terms of the Soviet Civil Code. Some Soviet legal scholars even said that "criminal repression" may be applied in the absence of guilt. Martin Latsis , chief of Soviet Ukraine 's secret police explained: "Do not look in the file of incriminating evidence to see whether or not the accused rose up against the Soviets with arms or words. Ask him instead to which class he belongs, what

17097-525: Was colloquially, but incorrectly, referred to as Russia . The history of the Soviet Union began with the ideals of the Bolshevik Revolution and ended in dissolution amidst economic collapse and political disintegration. Established in 1922 following the Russian Civil War , the Soviet Union quickly became a one-party state under the Communist Party . Its early years under Lenin were marked by

17236-404: Was dissolved, resulting in its constituent republics of Armenia , Georgia and Azerbaijan being elevated to Union Republics, while Kazakhstan and Kirghizia were split off from the Russian SFSR, resulting in the same status. In August 1940, Moldavia was formed from parts of Ukraine and Soviet-occupied Bessarabia , and Ukrainian SSR. Estonia , Latvia and Lithuania were also annexed by

17375-507: Was leveled by a high handrail on the steps separating the rear and middle doors. The transition from a high floor in the cabin to a lower back floor was facilitated by sloping the aisle between the rear wheel arches, which caused inconvenience to passengers at peak hours (especially in winter), standing on an icy ramp. In 1991 developers replaced the high-speed separator handrail attached to the door, but by this time all storage sites were at three stages from sidewalk level. For natural ventilation,

17514-466: Was no error in the calculation), then there is a mistake in the VIN. However, a match does not prove the VIN is correct, because there is still a 1/11 chance that any two distinct VINs have a matching check digit: for example, the valid VINs 5GZCZ43D13S812715 (correct with leading five) and SGZCZ43D13S812715 (incorrect with leading character "S"). The VINs in the Porsche image, WP0ZZZ99ZTS392124 , and

17653-424: Was no large-scale fighting directly between the two superpowers , but they each supported major regional conflicts known as proxy wars . The conflict was based around the ideological and geopolitical struggle for global influence by these two superpowers, following their temporary alliance and victory against Nazi Germany in 1945. Aside from the nuclear arsenal development and conventional military deployment,

17792-526: Was not accepted by all within the Russian Republic , resulting in the Russian Civil War . The RSFSR and its subordinate republics were merged into the Soviet Union in 1922. Following Lenin's death in 1924, Joseph Stalin came to power, inaugurating rapid industrialization and forced collectivization that led to significant economic growth but contributed to a famine between 1930 and 1933 that killed millions. The Soviet forced labour camp system of

17931-450: Was not independent of the other branches of government. The Supreme Court supervised the lower courts ( People's Court ) and applied the law as established by the constitution or as interpreted by the Supreme Soviet. The Constitutional Oversight Committee reviewed the constitutionality of laws and acts. The Soviet Union used the inquisitorial system of Roman law , where the judge, procurator , and defence attorney collaborate to "establish

18070-481: Was promulgated in 1924 , 1936 and 1977 , did not limit state power. No formal separation of powers existed between the Party, Supreme Soviet and Council of Ministers that represented executive and legislative branches of the government. The system was governed less by statute than by informal conventions, and no settled mechanism of leadership succession existed. Bitter and at times deadly power struggles took place in

18209-477: Was repeatedly postponed. Formal recognition came when the new Labour Party came to power in 1924. All the other countries followed suit in opening trade relations. Henry Ford opened large-scale business relations with the Soviets in the late 1920s, hoping that it would lead to long-term peace. Finally, in 1933, the United States officially recognized the USSR, a decision backed by the public opinion and especially by US business interests that expected an opening of

18348-480: Was set low noise static converter. Been improved waterproofing and grounding. The trolleybuses began to possess higher corrosion protection, a number of components now composed of aluminum, stainless steel, and fiberglass. In parallel with ZiU- 682G -012, in 1998, production began for the transition to modification ZiU- 682G -014 (ZiU- 682G0E), which replaced the old sofas in the lounge with individual padded seats, applied laser (source?) Heaters cabin windows. This version

18487-404: Was slightly modified to deal with the increased power of the main motor. While western designers developed new semiconductor -based control devices, Soviet engineers decided to retain the old resistor-based system for ease of maintenance. The first prototype vehicles were tested in Moscow in 1971 and were approved for mass production after some minor design adjustments. The '9' in the vehicle name

18626-482: Was that "the Constitution was written not for you, but for American Negroes, so that they know how happy the lives of Soviet citizens are". Crime was determined not as the infraction of law, instead, it was determined as any action which could threaten the Soviet state and society. For example, a desire to make a profit could be interpreted as a counter-revolutionary activity punishable by death. The liquidation and deportation of millions of peasants in 1928–31

18765-467: Was the largest country by area , extending across eleven time zones and sharing borders with twelve countries , and the third-most populous country . An overall successor to the Russian Empire , it was nominally organized as a federal union of national republics , the largest and most populous of which was the Russian SFSR . In practice, its government and economy were highly centralized . As

18904-587: Was the Russian responsibility to assist them. The Comintern was the weapon of choice. A few revolutions did break out, but they were quickly suppressed (the longest lasting one was in Hungary)—the Hungarian Soviet Republic —lasted only from 21 March 1919 to 1 August 1919. The Russian Bolsheviks were in no position to give any help. By 1921, Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin realized that capitalism had stabilized itself in Europe and there would not be any widespread revolutions anytime soon. It became

19043-404: Was the first major accident at a civilian nuclear power plant . Unparalleled in the world, it resulted in a large number of radioactive isotopes being released into the atmosphere. Radioactive doses were scattered relatively far. Although long-term effects of the accident were unknown, 4,000 new cases of thyroid cancer which resulted from the accident's contamination were reported at the time of

19182-455: Was the initial project index of the design team. However, after launching mass production, the new trolleybus received a new index, '682' from the united classification of non-rail public transport vehicles. All series vehicles went by the ZiU-682 designation, but the number '682' proved difficult to pronounce and the shorter '9' still lives in the everyday language of drivers and servicemen. In 1986,

19321-481: Was the party itself monolithic from top to bottom, although factions were officially banned . The Supreme Soviet (successor of the Congress of Soviets ) was nominally the highest state body for most of the Soviet history, at first acting as a rubber stamp institution, approving and implementing all decisions made by the party. However, its powers and functions were extended in the late 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, including

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