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112-521: It is not known when Zhu Kerong was born. His granduncle Zhu Ci and grandfather Zhu Tao had successively ruled Lulong Circuit from 772 until Zhu Tao's death in 785, upon which the Lulong soldiers supported Zhu Tao's cousin Liu Peng . Zhu Kerong's father Zhu Hui ( 朱洄 ) remained at Lulong Circuit and appeared to have served as an officer under Liu Peng, Liu Peng's son Liu Ji , and grandson Liu Zong , as Zhu Hui

224-503: A royal court where physical access to the ruler could wield great influence. Seemingly lowly domestic functions—such as making the ruler's bed, bathing him, cutting his hair, carrying him in his litter , or even relaying messages—could, in theory, give a eunuch "the ruler's ear" and impart de facto power on the formally humble but trusted servant. Similar instances are reflected in the humble origins and etymology of many high offices. Eunuchs supposedly did not generally have loyalties to

336-513: A chief strategist for Zhu, and he suggested that Zhu take the throne himself. Also becoming close associates of Zhu were the chancellor Li Zhongchen and the minister Zhang Guangsheng ( 張光晟 ). Yao also joined Zhu's party. Meanwhile, believing that Duan Xiushi would be similarly disaffected, Zhu also summoned him and made him a member of this inner circle or cabal, although Duan was secretly plotting to assassinate Zhu and welcome Emperor Dezong back to Chang'an. Wanting to eliminate Emperor Dezong as

448-448: A desirable commodity for tributes . Eunuchs were the only males outside the royal family allowed to stay inside the palace overnight. Court records going back to 1392 indicate that the average lifespan of eunuchs was 70.0 ± 1.76 years, which was 14.4–19.1 years longer than the lifespan of non-castrated men of similar socioeconomic status. The Vietnamese adopted the eunuch system and castration techniques from China . Records show that

560-476: A ditch. Han Min then beheaded Zhu and surrendered to Tang forces. Eunuch (court official) A eunuch ( / ˈ juː n ə k / YOO -nək ) is a male who has been castrated . Throughout history, castration often served a specific social function. The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 2nd millennium BCE. Over

672-429: A general campaign against both Wang and Zhu, but the imperial armies soon were bogged down, and the imperial treasury could not afford fighting both circuits. In winter 821, the chancellors thus suggested that, as Zhu had spared Zhang and Wang had killed Tian, there was a difference between them and that Zhu should be pardoned. Emperor Muzong agreed, and commissioned Zhu as the military governor of Lulong. After receiving

784-578: A great mansion, fields, and treasures, hoping to placate him. On November 2, 783, Jingyuan soldiers, who had been summoned to Chang'an in preparation for deployment to the wars in the east (against rebellious military governors Zhu Tao, Wang Wujun , Li Na , and Tian Yue ), were angered by a lack of rewards they were promised, and they mutinied and attacked the palace, defying their own commander Yao Lingyan ( 姚令言 ). Emperor Dezong fled to Fengtian. The soldiers decided to welcome Zhu Ci from his mansion and install him as their leader. That night, Zhu moved into

896-463: A living by going uninvited to large ceremonies such as weddings, births, new shop openings and other major family events, and singing until they are paid or given gifts to go away. The ceremony is supposed to bring good luck and fertility, while the curse of an unappeased hijra is feared by many. Hijra often engage in prostitution and begging to earn money, with begging typically accompanied by singing and dancing. Some Indian provincial officials have used

1008-534: A means of gaining employment in the imperial service. Certain eunuchs, such as the Ming dynasty official Zheng He , gained immense power that occasionally superseded that of even the Grand Secretaries . Self-castration was a common practice, although it was not always performed completely, which led to it being made illegal. It is said that the justification for the employment of eunuchs as high-ranking civil servants

1120-400: A particular lover of fine food having "consumed his estate dining lavishly and at leisure every day on tuna and garlic-honey cheese paté like a Lampsacene eunoukhos. " The earliest surviving etymology of the word is from late antiquity . The 5th century (CE) Etymologicon by Orion of Thebes offers two alternative origins for the word eunuch: first, to tēn eunēn ekhein , "guarding

1232-401: A personal characteristic), Vossius ultimately sums up his argument in a different way, saying that the word "originally signified continent men" to whom the care of women was entrusted, and later came to refer to castration because "among foreigners" that role was performed "by those with mutilated bodies". Modern etymologists have followed Orion's first option. In an influential 1925 essay on

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1344-635: A petition—signing Guo's and Zhu Ci's names as per customs of one chancellor signing petitions on behalf of other chancellors as well—requesting that Cui be punished for his insolence. Emperor Dezong initially ordered that Cui be demoted to be the deputy mayor of the eastern capital Luoyang . When this demotion was announced, however, both Guo and Zhu Ci submitted petitions in Cui's defense. Emperor Dezong summoned both of them, asking why they submitted inconsistent petitions—one seeking Cui's punishment and one defending him—and both of them stated that they did not know about

1456-423: A preceding example in the life of Muhammad himself, who used the eunuch Mabur as a servant in the house of his own slave concubine Maria al-Qibtiyya ; both of them slaves from Egypt. Eunuchs were for a long time used in relatively small numbers, exclusively inside harems, but the use of eunuchs expanded significantly when eunuchs started being used also for other offices within service and administration outside of

1568-584: A season when Tufan often attacked. However, ever since the end of the Anshi Rebellion, Lulong Circuit had not submitted to such conscription. In 773, Zhu Ci, breaking that tradition and showing submission to the imperial government, sent Zhu Tao with 5,000 elite soldiers to Chang'an to participate in the fall defense. Emperor Daizong was very pleased, and he welcomed Zhu Tao in great feasts and gave him much reward. Under Zhu Tao's subsequent suggestion—that going to Chang'an himself will show great faithfulness to

1680-453: A sign of fortune and congratulated Emperor Daizong, but Chang's subordinate Cui Youfu , who was serving as Zhongshu Sheren (中書舍人, a mid-level official at the legislative bureau of government (中書省, Zhongshu Sheng )) disagreed, argued that this was against the cat's nature and was a sign that officials were not carrying out their responsibilities. Later in the year, when there was a Tufan incursion, Zhu Ci commanded soldiers in defending against

1792-478: A threat, Zhu commissioned Yao's subordinate Han Min ( 韓旻 ) with 3,000 soldiers to head to Fengtian—ostensibly to welcome Emperor Dezong back to Chang'an, but instead with instruction to launch a surprise attack. After Han's departure, Duan had his associate Qi Lingyue ( 岐靈岳 ) forge an order from Yao ordering Han to return to Chang'an, thus aborting the attack. Meanwhile, Zhu had convened a meeting with Li Zhongchen, Yuan, Yao, and Duan, to discuss plans for him to take

1904-454: A title that has been translated as Book of the Guide to [Divine] Benefits and Averting of [Divine] Vengeance and also as Book of Tutor of Graces and Annihilator of Misfortunes . In a chapter dedicated to eunuchs, Al-Subki made "the clear implication that 'eunuchness' is itself an office," Shaun Marmon explained, adding that al-Subki had specified occupational subgroups for the tawashiya [eunuchs]:

2016-575: A wide range of men who were seen to be physically unable to procreate . Hippocrates describes the Scythians as being afflicted with high rates of erectile dysfunction and thus "the most eunuchoid of all nations" (Airs Waters Places 22). In the Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary , the term literally used for impotent males is spado but may also be used for eunuchs. Some men have falsified

2128-610: The Prophet's Tomb , maintaining borders between males and females where needed, and keeping order in the sacred spaces. They were highly respected in their time and remained there throughout the Ottoman Empire's control of the area and afterward. In the present day, it is reported that only a few remain. Eunuchs were an active component in the slave market of the Islamic world until the early 20th-century for service in harem as well as in

2240-487: The Tang dynasty . He initially served as military governor ( Jiedushi ) of Lulong Circuit (盧龍, headquartered in modern Beijing ), but later became a general for the imperial government. Resentful that he was removed from his command due to the rebellion by his brother Zhu Tao , when Emperor Dezong of Tang fled the capital Chang'an after a mutiny, Zhu Ci declared himself emperor of a new state of Qin (later changed to Han). He

2352-718: The Three Excellencies and one of the honorary titles that Zhu carried)] has temporarily taken command of the armed forces. All of the Shence Army [(神策軍, an arm of the Tang imperial guards that directly served the imperial government)] soldiers and officials with offices and salaries should report to the Emperor's location. Those who cannot report to the Emperor's location should report to their offices. In three days, anyone who has reported to neither place will be beheaded. The declaration had

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2464-764: The Trans-Saharan slave trade , the Red Sea slave trade or the Indian Ocean slave trade , who served the concubines and officials in the Harem together with chamber maidens of low rank. The white eunuchs were slaves from the Balkans or the Caucasus , either purchased in the slave markets or taken as boys from Christian families in the Balkans who were unable to pay the jizya tax. They served

2576-701: The eunuch monitor of the army, sending them to Zhu. Meanwhile, with Wang Tingcou also having mutinied, killed Tian Hongzheng the military governor of neighboring Chengde Circuit (成德, headquartered in modern Shijiazhuang , Hebei ), and took over control of Chengde, Zhu and Wang allied and put Chengde's Shen Prefecture (深州, in modern Hengshui , Hebei ), whose prefect Niu Yuanyi ( 牛元翼 ) had refused to follow Wang, under siege. Zhu also attacked Yiwu Circuit (義武, headquartered in modern Baoding , Hebei )'s Yi Prefecture (易州, in modern Baoding) and Hedong Circuit (河東, headquartered in modern Taiyuan , Shanxi )'s Wei Prefecture (蔚州, in modern Zhangjiakou). Emperor Muzong declared

2688-530: The zimam watched over women, and the muqaddam al-mamalik over adolescent boys. Edmund Andrews of Northwestern University , in an 1898 article called "Oriental Eunuchs" in The American Journal of Medicine , refers to Coptic priests in "Abou Gerhè in Upper Egypt" castrating slave boys. Coptic castration of slaves was discussed by Peter Charles Remondino , in his book History of Circumcision from

2800-541: The Byzantine Empire, Imperial China, the Ottoman Empire, and various Middle Eastern cultures. They often held significant power and influence in these societies, particularly in royal courts and harems. Eunuch comes from the Ancient Greek word εὐνοῦχος ( eunoûkhos ), first attested in a fragment of Hipponax , the 6th century BCE comic poet and prolific inventor of compound words. The acerbic poet describes

2912-506: The Chang'an region entirely, taking up position at Hezhong (河中, in modern Yuncheng , Shanxi ). Zhu also tried to turn Li Sheng's allegiance by treating the family members of not only Li Sheng but his soldiers who remained at Chang'an well, but Li Sheng rejected his overtures. Soon, Hun Jian arrived as well, and he and Li Sheng prepared an assault on Chang'an. When Tufan forces, whom Emperor Dezong had sought help from, arrived as well, however, Zhu

3024-506: The Earliest Times to the Present , published in 1900. He refers to the "Abou-Gerghè" monastery in a place he calls "Mount Ghebel-Eter". He adds details not mentioned by Andrews such as the insertion of bamboo into the victim. Bamboo was used with Chinese eunuchs. Andrews states his information is derived from an earlier work, Les Femmes, les eunuques, et les guerriers du Soudan , published by

3136-504: The King's court of advisers. Hijra, a Hindi term traditionally translated into English as "eunuch", actually refers to what modern Westerners would call transvestites or transgender women (although some of them reportedly identify as belonging to a third gender ). The history of this third sex is mentioned in the ancient Kama Sutra , which refers to people of a "third sex" ( tritiya-prakriti ). Some of them undergo ritual castration, but

3248-547: The Prince of Wuxing. In summer 826, the Lulong soldiers mutinied and killed Zhu Kerong and his son Zhu Yanling. In the aftermaths, soldiers supported his younger son Zhu Yansi to take over the circuit. Later in the year, however, the officer Li Zaiyi killed Zhu Yansi and slaughtered the Zhu household — some 300 people. Zhu Ci Zhu Ci ( Chinese : 朱泚 ; 742–784) was a Chinese military general, monarch, and rebel during

3360-481: The Vietnamese performed castration in a painful procedure by removing the entire genitalia with both penis and testicles being cut off with a sharp knife or metal blade. The procedure was agonizing since the entire penis was cut off. The young man's thighs and abdomen would be tied and others would pin him down on a table. The genitals would be washed with pepper water and then cut off. A tube would be then inserted into

3472-626: The acting military governor. Zhu Hui declined, but recommended Zhu Kerong, and the soldiers agreed. The imperial government reacted to the mutiny by ordering that Zhang be demoted, while transferring Liu Wu the military governor of Zhaoyi Circuit (昭義, headquartered in modern Changzhi , Shanxi ) to Lulong. Liu Wu, however, feared Zhu Kerong's strength and did not dare to try to head to Lulong, so Emperor Muzong allowed him to return to Zhaoyi. Mo Prefecture troops soon mutinied as well and allowed Zhu's mutineers to enter Mo Prefecture; shortly thereafter, Ying Prefecture troops also mutinied and seized Lu and

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3584-441: The armies of the generals Li Jianhui ( 李建徽 ) and Yang Huiyuan ( 楊惠元 ), and publicly declaring that he was now in peaceful relations with Zhu and that Emperor Dezong should flee. Emperor Dezong, fearing the consequences of a joint attack by Li Huaiguang and Zhu, fled to Xingyuan (興元, in modern Hanzhong , Shaanxi ). In light of Emperor Dezong's flight, a number of Tang officials who had previously refused to submit to Zhu, including

3696-489: The assistance of hijras to collect taxes in the same fashion—they knock on the doors of shopkeepers, while dancing and singing, embarrassing them into paying. Recently, hijras have started to found organizations to improve their social condition and fight discrimination, such as the Shemale Foundation Pakistan. The eunuchs of Korea, called Korean : 내시, 內侍 , romanized :  naesi , were officials to

3808-741: The bed", a derivation inferred from eunuchs' established role at the time as "bedchamber attendants" in the imperial palace, and second, to eu tou nou ekhein , "being good with respect to the mind", which Orion explains based on their "being deprived of intercourse ( esterēmenou tou misgesthai ), the things that the ancients used to call irrational ( anoēta , literally: 'mindless')". Orion's second option reflects well-established idioms in Ancient Greek, as shown by entries for transl.  grc  – transl.  noos , eunoos and ekhein in Liddell and Scott 's Greek-English Lexicon, while

3920-463: The calamity.) Li Huaiguang sent repeated accusations to Emperor Dezong, forcing him to demote Lu, Zhao, and Bai, but even after the demotions had occurred, only slowly advanced toward Chang'an. Zhu, seeing that Li Huaiguang was disaffected, sent secret messengers to Li Huaiguang, offering to honor Li Huaiguang as an older brother, with both of them serving as emperors of their own independent realms. Li Huaiguang thus turned against Emperor Dezong—seizing

4032-480: The caliph resulted in his assassination in 1000 CE on the orders of al-Hakim. Since imams during this period ruled over a majority non-Shi'a population, the court eunuchs served an important informal role as ambassadors of the caliph, promoting loyalty and devotion to the Shi'a sect and the imam-caliph himself. The multicultural, multilingual eunuchs were able to connect to the commoners through shared cultural ground. During

4144-441: The circuit himself, refused to welcome Zhu and sought aid from Tufan. Emperor Dezong ordered Li Huaiguang and Zhu to attack Liu. Zhu put Jing Prefecture (the capital of Jingyuan Circuit) under siege, and, with Tufan refusing to aid Liu Wenxi, Liu Wenxi's subordinate Liu Haibin ( 劉海賓 ) killed Liu Wenxi and surrendered. Subsequently, Emperor Dezong gave Zhu the greater chancellor title of Zhongshu Ling ( 中書令 ), making him titularly

4256-578: The commission, Zhu released Zhang and Lu to the imperial government. However, Zhu and Wang (who was also pardoned and commissioned shortly after) continued to have Shen Prefecture under siege, and after they captured Gonggao (弓高, in modern Cangzhou) to cut off the supply routes for the imperial troops, the imperial forces and Niu were in desperate straits. When Pei Du the military governor of Hedong sent letters to rebuke them, Zhu withdrew from Shen Prefecture, although Wang continued to put Shen Prefecture under siege, forcing Niu to eventually fight his way out of

4368-452: The construction project. Duan's former subordinate Liu Wenxi ( 劉文喜 ), knowing that the Jingyuan troops feared Li Huaiguang, rose in rebellion and submitted a petition ostensibly requesting that Duan be returned or, in the alternative, Zhu be made military governor. Emperor Dezong initially tried to placate Liu by in fact naming Zhu the military governor of Jingyuan, but Liu, who actually wanted

4480-857: The corps of mostly African eunuchs, known as the Aghawat , who guarded the Prophet Muhammad's tomb in Medina and the Kaʿba in Mecca. Most slaves trafficked to Hijaz came there via the Red Sea slave trade . Small African boys were castrated before they were trafficked to the Hijaz, where they were bought at the slave market by the Chief Agha to become eunuch novices. It was noted that boys from Africa were still openly bought to become eunuch novices to serve at Medina in 1895. In Medina there

4592-530: The court in Thailand and advise them on court ritual since they held them in high regard. In Imperial China, eunuchs managed the imperial household and were involved in state affairs, often wielding significant political power. Sir Henry Yule saw many Muslims serving as eunuchs during the Konbaung dynasty period of Burma (modern Myanmar ) while on a diplomatic mission. In China, castration included removal of

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4704-428: The east but immediately headed toward Chang'an upon hearing of Emperor Dezong's plight, arrived with his elite Shuofang Army. On December 18, with Li Huaiguang not quite yet at Fengtian but having defeated Qin forces at Liquan (醴泉, in modern Xianyang), Zhu, fearful that he would be defeated by Li Huaiguang, lifted Fengtian's siege and returned to Chang'an. He would not threaten Fengtian again, although he tried to keep

4816-442: The effect of causing officials to come out of hiding and report to Zhu. Some suggested to Zhu that he welcome Emperor Dezong back to Chang'an—which visibly displeased him. Seeing this, some of the officials loyal to Emperor Dezong began to flee. Meanwhile, the official Yuan Xiu ( 源休 ), who believed himself to be highly capable but who had been blocked off from becoming chancellor by Emperor Dezong's trusted chancellor Lu Qi , became

4928-477: The efforts of the Tang generals Hang Yougui ( 韓遊瓌 ) and Hun Jian in fighting off the Qin siege, Fengtian was soon in a desperate state, with its food supplies cut off. Tang resistance forces were then harassing the Qin forces left at Chang'an, and in response, Zhu intensified his siege of Fengtian. However, after Fengtian was under siege for more than a month, Li Huaiguang, who had been fighting Wang Wujun and Tian Yue to

5040-657: The emperor—Zhu Ci himself offered to command the Lulong troops in fall defense in 774. Emperor Daizong agreed, and further built a large mansion for Zhu Ci in anticipation of his arrival. In fall 774, Zhu Ci, leaving Zhu Tao in acting command of Lulong, left Lulong and headed for Chang'an. When he got to Wei Prefecture (蔚州, in modern Zhangjiakou , Hebei ), he grew ill. His subordinates requested that he return to Lulong and wait until his illness got better. Zhu Ci refused, stating, "Even if I die, continue on and carry my body to Chang'an." The subordinates did not dare to urge him otherwise any further. When he arrived at Chang'an, as he

5152-576: The entry from Orion, but stands by the first option, while attributing the second option to what "some say". In the late 12th century, Eustathius of Thessalonica ( Commentaries on Homer 1256.30, 1643.16) offered an original derivation of the word from eunis + okheuein , "deprived of mating". In translations of the Bible into modern European languages, such as the Luther Bible or the King James Bible ,

5264-486: The fall defense troops were divided into four commands, between Zhu Ci and three other prominent generals, Guo Ziyi , Li Baoyu , and Ma Lin ( 馬璘 ). After Zhu Ci left Lulong, however, even though he remained military governor, Zhu Tao killed a number of his close associates, and the relationship between the brothers deteriorated. Zhu Ci, believing that it would not be safe for him to return to Lulong, requested to remain at Chang'an. Emperor Daizong agreed, but let him keep

5376-549: The first option is not listed as an idiom under eunē in that standard reference work. However, the first option was cited by the late 9th century Byzantine emperor Leo VI in his New Constitution 98 banning the marriage of eunuchs, in which he noted eunuchs' reputation as trustworthy guardians of the marriage bed ( eunē ) and claimed that the very word eunuch attested to this kind of employment. The emperor also goes further than Orion by attributing eunuchs' lack of male–female intercourse specifically to castration, which he said

5488-451: The former chancellor Qiao Lin , came out of hiding and joined Zhu's administration. Meanwhile, though, after Li Huaiguang publicly broke with Emperor Dezong, many of Li Huaiguang's subordinates rose against him, weakening his army substantially. Zhu then turned against Li Huaiguang as well—no longer honoring him as an older brother, but treating him as a subject. Li Huaiguang, in anger and in fear that Li Sheng would attack him, withdrew from

5600-554: The general Xue Ping ; and Ying ( 瀛州 ) and Mo (莫州, both in modern Cangzhou , Hebei ) Prefectures be given to the official Lu Shimei ( 盧士玫 ). (Liu had made these recommendations on the bases that when Zhang ruled Hedong, which neighbored Lulong, Liu had often heard good opinions of Zhang's governance; that Xue was the son of Xue Song and familiar with the region; and that Lu was a relative of Liu's wife's.) Emperor Muzong accepted Liu's submission, but did not fully implement Liu's partition plan; Ying and Mo were given to Lu Shimei, but

5712-921: The harem, a use which expanded gradually during the Umayyad Caliphate and had its breakthrough during the Abbasid Caliphate . During the Abbasid period, eunuchs became a permanent institution inside the Islamic harems after the model of the Abbasid harem , such as in the Fatimid harem , Safavid harem and the Qajar harem . For several centuries, Muslim Eunuchs were tasked with honored roles in Medina and Mecca . They are thought to have been instituted in their role there by Saladin , but perhaps earlier. Their tasks included caring for

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5824-541: The head of the legislative bureau. In 782, Zhu Tao, angry that he was not given part of Chengde Circuit (成德, headquartered in modern Shijiazhuang , Hebei ) after he, pursuant to imperial orders, had participated in the campaign that led to the death of Li Weiyue and had, briefly, returned Chengde to imperial control, rebelled against Emperor Dezong. He went secret letters to Zhu Ci asking Zhu Ci to rebel as well. The letters, however, were intercepted by imperial forces and never reached Zhu Ci. Emperor Dezong, upon reviewing

5936-644: The incursion, along with Guo Ziyi and Duan Xiushi . In 779, his noble title was changed from Prince of Huaining to Prince of Suining. Later in 779, Emperor Daizong died and was succeeded by his son Emperor Dezong . In the aftermaths of Emperor Daizong's death, Chang and Cui had a major dispute over the proper period for the officials to wear mourning clothes for Emperor Daizong—whether they should wear mourning clothes for only three days (as per Emperor Daizong's will), which Cui advocated, or 27 days (the same length as Emperor Dezong himself were to do so), as Chang advocated. Chang became sufficiently angry that he submitted

6048-571: The institution of slavery in the Fatimid Caliphate . These eunuchs were normally purchased from slave auctions and typically came from a variety of Arab and non-Arab minority ethnic groups. In some cases, they were purchased from various noble families in the empire, which would then connect those families to the caliph. Generally, though, foreign slaves were preferred, described as the "ideal servants". Once enslaved, eunuchs were often placed into positions of significant power in one of four areas:

6160-646: The king and other royalty in traditional Korean society. The first recorded appearance of a Korean eunuch was in Goryeosa ("History of Goryeo"), a compilation about the Goryeo dynasty period. In 1392, with the founding of the Joseon dynasty , the naesi system was revised, and the department was renamed the "Department of Naesi ". The naesi system included two ranks, those of Korean : 상선, 尙膳 , romanized :  Sangseon , lit.   'Chief of Naesi', who held

6272-455: The letters, recalled Zhu Ci to Chang'an and showed him the letters. Zhu, in fear, begged forgiveness. Emperor Dezong responded, "You are thousands of li away from each other, and it is clear that you did not join his plot. This is no sin of yours." Despite this assurance, however, Emperor Dezong, while permitting Zhu to retain all of his titles, did not permit him to return to Fengxiang. Instead, he kept Zhu at Chang'an, although he gave him

6384-432: The long-ruined palaces and governmental offices at Luoyang, offers that Emperor Jingzong declined, and Emperor Jingzong subsequently abandoned the plan to visit Luoyang, at the urging of Pei Du, who was then chancellor. Zhu also demanded silk and claimed that the soldiers would clamor to rebel if he did not receive silk. Emperor Jingzong was angered, but at Pei's urging sent edicts with kind words to calm Zhu, and created him

6496-514: The military, the aristocracy, or a family of their own (having neither offspring nor in-laws, at the very least). They were thus seen as more trustworthy and less interested in establishing a private dynasty. Because their condition usually lowered their social status, they could also be easily replaced or killed without repercussion. In cultures that had both harems and eunuchs, eunuchs were sometimes used as harem servants. Eunuchs have been documented in several ancient and medieval societies, including

6608-460: The millennia since, they have performed a wide variety of functions in many different cultures: courtiers or equivalent domestics , for espionage or clandestine operations , castrato singers, concubines or sexual partners, religious specialists, soldiers, royal guards, government officials, and guardians of women or harem servants. Eunuchs would usually be servants or slaves who had been castrated to make them less threatening servants of

6720-405: The morale of his forces in check at Chang'an by periodically spreading rumors that Fengtian had fallen. By this point, however, it was said that he controlled little more than Chang'an itself. It was the consensus at the time that if Li Huaiguang had arrived three days later than he actually did, Fengtian would have fallen. On January 27, 784, apparently trying to change his fortune, Zhu changed

6832-801: The most powerful Chief Eunuchs was Beshir Agha in the 1730s, who played a crucial role in establishing the Ottoman version of Hanafi Islam throughout the Empire by founding libraries and schools. In the 16th century, an Englishman, Samson Rowlie , was captured and castrated to serve the Ottoman governor in Algiers. In the 14th century, the Muslim Egyptian religious scholar Taj-al-Din Abu Nasr 'Abdal-Wahhab al-Subki discussed eunuchs in his book Kitab Mu'id al-Ni'am wa Mubid al-Niqam ( Arabic : كتاب معيد النعم ومبيد النقم ),

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6944-436: The name of his state to Han. At Yuan Xiu's suggestion, he slaughtered a large number of Emperor Dezong's imperial clan and other relatives, but he refused suggestions to force Tang officials into serving him and to destroy the Tang imperial temples. Meanwhile, Emperor Dezong, believing that he needed to pacify all of the other warlords who had turned against him, issued a general pardon that included even Zhu Tao, although Zhu Ci

7056-407: The officers arrested. That night, the soldiers mutinied, killed Wei and several other staff member of Zhang's, and put Zhang under arrest. The next day, the mutineers began to regret their actions, but when they met Zhang to ask for forgiveness, Zhang did not speak at all. The mutineers believed that Zhang was not intending to pardon them, and instead supported Zhu Kerong's father Zhu Hui to serve as

7168-519: The official title of senior second rank, and Korean : 내관, 內官 , romanized :  Naegwan , lit.   'Common official naesi', both of which held rank as officers. A total of 140 naesi served the palace in the Joseon dynasty period. They also took the exam on Confucianism every month. The naesi system was repealed in 1894 following Gabo reform . During the Yuan dynasty , eunuchs became

7280-640: The ones in direct service to the caliph and the royal household as chamberlains, treasurers, governors, and attendants. Their direct proximity to the caliph and his household afforded them a great amount of political sway. One eunuch, Jawdhar , became hujja to Imam-Caliph al-Qa'im , a sacred role in Shia Islam entrusted with the imam's choice of successor upon his death. There were several other eunuchs of high regard in Fatimid history, mainly being Abu'l-Fadi Rifq al-Khadim and Abu'l-Futuh Barjawan al-Ustadh . Rifq

7392-401: The others to return to Lulong, further angering them. Meanwhile, Zhang further drew the anger of the people and soldiers of Lulong over a number of actions: In fall 821, when a low-level officer accidentally collided with Wei's guards, Wei ordered the officer whipped, but the other officers were unaccustomed to this kind of punishment and refused to carry out the punishment. Zhang Hongjing had

7504-399: The palace and originally declared himself acting commander of the armed forces. The next day, he issued a declaration that appeared to show intent to welcome Emperor Dezong back to Chang'an: Jingyuan soldiers had long been on the border and not familiar with proper etiquette. They thus surprised the Emperor in the palace and shocked him into surveying to the west. The Taiwei [(太尉, one of

7616-610: The penis as well as the testicles (see emasculation ). Both organs were cut off with a knife at the same time. Eunuchs existed in China from about 4,000 years ago, were imperial servants by 3,000 years ago, and were common as civil servants by the time of the Qin dynasty . From those ancient times until the Sui dynasty , castration was both a traditional punishment (one of the Five Punishments ) and

7728-630: The period of slavery in the Ottoman Empire , eunuchs were typically slaves imported from outside their domains. A fair proportion of male slaves were imported as eunuchs. The Ottoman court harem —within the Topkapı Palace (1465–1853) and later the Dolmabahçe Palace (1853–1909) in Istanbul —was under the administration of the eunuchs. These were of two categories: black eunuchs and white eunuchs. Black eunuchs were slaves from sub-Saharan Africa via

7840-548: The personal will of the Emperor, while the officials represented the alternative political will of the bureaucracy . The clash between them would thus have been a clash of ideologies or political agenda. The number of eunuchs in imperial employ fell to 470 by 1912, when the practice of using them ceased. The last imperial eunuch, Sun Yaoting , died in December 1996. Eunuchs were frequently employed in imperial palaces by some Muslim rulers as servants for female royalty, as guards of

7952-444: The petition seeking punishment. Emperor Dezong, who did not know that it was customary for chancellors to sign petitions for each other, believed Chang to have forged Guo's and Zhu's signatures, and, in anger, demoted Chang to be the prefect of the distant Chao Prefecture (潮州, roughly modern Chaozhou , Guangdong ) and made Cui chancellor. Subsequently, Zhu's defense post was moved to Fengxiang (鳳翔, in modern Baoji , Shaanxi ), and he

8064-627: The recruits at the Palace School and were from 1582 prohibited from entering the Harem. An important figure in the Ottoman court was the Chief Black Eunuch ( Kızlar Ağası or Darüssaade Ağası ). In control of both the harem and a net of spies among the black eunuchs, the Chief Eunuch was involved in almost every palace intrigue and thereby could gain power over either the sultan or one of his viziers, ministers, or other court officials. One of

8176-525: The remaining prefectures were all given to Zhang, under the suggestion of the chancellors Cui Zhi and Du Yuanying , who did not understand the rationale of Liu's plan. Further, Zhu and the other officers that Liu sent to Chang'an were not given offices or salaries, and it was said that as they lacked income, they fell into financial desperation, even requiring loans for their food and clothing, despite their frequent submission of requests for offices to Cui and Du. When Zhang arrived at Lulong, he ordered Zhu and

8288-581: The royal harem, and as sexual mates for the nobles. Some of them attained high-status positions in society. An early example of such a high-ranking eunuch was Malik Kafur . Eunuchs in imperial palaces were organized in a hierarchy, often with a senior or Chief Eunuch (Urdu: Khwaja Saras ), directing junior eunuchs below him. Eunuchs were highly valued for their strength and trustworthiness, allowing them to live amongst women with fewer worries. This enabled eunuchs to serve as messengers, watchmen, attendants and guards for palaces. Often, eunuchs also doubled as part of

8400-487: The service of the emperor and virtuous Confucian officials is a familiar theme in Chinese history. In his History of Government , Samuel Finer points out that reality was not always that clear-cut. There were instances of very capable eunuchs who were valuable advisers to their emperor, and the resistance of the "virtuous" officials often stemmed from jealousy on their part. Ray Huang argues that in reality, eunuchs represented

8512-422: The service of the male members of the court; the service of the Fatimid harem , or female members of the court; administrative and clerical positions; and military service. For example, during the Fatimid occupation of Cairo, Egyptian eunuchs controlled military garrisons ( shurta ) and marketplaces ( hisba ), two positions beneath only the city magistrate in power. However, the most influential Fatimid eunuchs were

8624-400: The siege. In summer 822, Zhu submitted a tribute of horses and goats to the imperial government — but as part of the tribute, demanded rewards for his soldiers. It is not clear how the imperial government reacted. In 826, by which time Emperor Muzong's son Emperor Jingzong was emperor, there was an occasion when imperial eunuch messengers were delivering new uniforms to the circuits. When

8736-446: The soldiers were angry at Zhu Xicai, assassinated him. Initially, the headquarters fell a state of confusion. Zhu Tao, who commanded the headquarters guards at the time, quickly induced his soldiers into proclaiming that the only person qualified to succeed as military governor was Zhu Ci. The other officers agreed, and Zhu Ci, who was then outside the circuit capital, was welcomed back to the capital to take over command. Zhu Ci claimed

8848-611: The status of their castration to gain entrance into the palace. Chinese eunuch Lao Ai , for instance, became the lover of the mother of Qin Shi Huang , who bore him two sons, before Lao Ai and his sons were executed after participating in a rebellion against Qin Shi Huang. In Siam (modern Thailand) Indian Muslims from the Coromandel Coast served as eunuchs in the Thai palace and court. The Thai at times asked eunuchs from China to visit

8960-613: The support of his soldiers. Zhu Ci served under Li Huaixian as well, but in 768, he and his younger brother Zhu Tao , as well as a colleague, Zhu Xicai , plotted to kill Li. Under the plan, Zhu Ci and Zhu Tao arrived at Li's headquarters and killed the guards on the outside, but when Zhu Xicai did not then arrive with his troops to enter and kill Li, Zhu Ci became apprehensive and considered fleeing, staying only after Zhu Tao admonished, "If our plan fails, we will die anyway. Why bother fleeing?" Zhu Xicai soon arrived, and they entered, killed Li, and slaughtered his family. Zhu Xicai claimed

9072-620: The throne, as it seems to be the case for the Syro-Hittite state of Carchemish . Political eunuchism became a fully established institution among the Achaemenid Empire . Eunuchs (called Imperial Aramaic : סריס , romanized:  səris , an Assyrian loanword) held powerful positions in the Achaemenid court. The eunuch Bagoas (not to be confused with Alexander's Bagoas ) was the vizier of Artaxerxes III and Artaxerxes IV , and

9184-605: The throne. At the meeting, Duan tried to assassinate Zhu, but failed. Duan was killed by Zhu's guards despite Zhu's attempt to spare him. On November 6, Zhu declared himself the emperor of a new state of Qin. He made Yao, Li Zhongchen, and Yuan his chancellors, and Zhu Tao crown prince . Zhu Ci made it a priority to capture Fengtian to extinguish the hopes of Emperor Dezong's being restored. He left Li Zhongchen and Qiu Jingzhong ( 仇敬忠 ) in charge of Chang'an, and personally led his army, assisted by Yao Lingyan and Zhang Guangsheng, to Fengtian. He put Fengtian under siege, and despite

9296-410: The title of acting military governor and sent messengers to the Tang capital Chang'an to report what had happened. Emperor Daizong made Zhu Ci the military governor and created him the Prince of Huaining. At that time, the Tang western border was often subject to Tufan incursions, and the imperial governor regularly conscripted troops from the circuits to participate in defense in the fall —

9408-411: The title of acting military governor. The imperial government, later in the year, acquiesced and made Zhu Xicai military governor. Zhu Ci continued to serve under Zhu Xicai, and it was said that because they shared the same surname, Zhu Xicai trusted him greatly. Zhu Xicai, however, was said to be cruel and harsh, alienating his subordinates. In 772, Zhu Xicai's secretary Li Huaiyuan ( 李懷瑗 ), because

9520-524: The title of military governor while making Zhu Tao acting military governor. In 775, Zhu Ci was put in charge of the defense post Fengtian (奉天, in modern Xianyang , Shaanxi ), and in 776 was given the de jure chancellor designation of Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi ( 同中書門下平章事 ). He returned to Chang'an around the new year 778. He was soon given the additional title of military governor of Longyou Circuit (隴右, headquartered in modern Haidong Prefecture , Qinghai ) -- which had fallen to Tufan and thus

9632-421: The uniforms reached Lulong Circuit, Zhu Kerong complained that the uniforms were of low quality and detained the eunuchs. At that time, Emperor Jingzong was originally intent on visiting the eastern capital Luoyang and restoring the early Tang customs of the emperor spending time in both the main capital Chang'an and Luoyang. Both Wang Tingcou and Zhu sent arrogantly-worded offers to contribute troops to repair

9744-537: The urethra to allow urination during healing. Many Vietnamese eunuchs were products of self castration to gain access to the palaces and power. In other cases they might be paid to become eunuchs. They served in many capacities, from supervising public works, to investigating crimes, to reading public proclamations. The four-thousand-year-old Egyptian Execration Texts threaten enemies in Nubia and Asia, specifically referencing "all males, all eunuchs, all women." Castration

9856-522: The vast majority do not. They usually dress in saris or shalwar kameez (traditional garbs worn by women in South Asia) and wear heavy make-up. They typically live on the margins of society and face discrimination. Hijra tend to have few options for earning a wage, with many turning to sex work and others performing ritualistic songs and dances. They are integral to several Hindu ceremonies, such as dance programs at marriage ceremonies. They may also earn

9968-602: The way, when he went past Jing Prefecture (the capital of Jingyuan Circuit), Tian Xijian ( 田希鑒 ), a general who had submitted to Zhu who was in control of Jingyuan Circuit, turned against him and refused to welcome him. Zhu, in anger, attacked Jing Prefecture but could not capture it. The Jingyuan soldiers in Zhu's army killed Yao Lingyan and surrendered to Tian. Zhu, with only his Lulong troops continuing with him, continued to flee. When he reached Pengyuan (彭原, in modern Qingyang , Gansu ), his subordinate Liang Tingfen ( 梁庭芬 ) suddenly hit him with an arrow, causing him to fall into

10080-565: The word eunuchs as found in the Latin Vulgate is usually rendered as an officer, official or chamberlain, consistent with the idea that the original meaning of eunuch was bed-keeper (Orion's first option). Modern religious scholars have been disinclined to assume that the courts of Israel and Judah included castrated men, even though the original translation of the Bible into Greek used the word eunoukhos . The early 17th-century scholar and theologian Gerardus Vossius therefore explains that

10192-496: The word eunuch and related terms, Ernst Maass suggested that Eustathius's derivation "can or must be laid to rest", and he affirmed the derivation from eunē and ekhein ("guardian of the bed"), without mentioning the other derivation from eunoos and ekhein ("having a well-disposed state of mind"). In Latin, the words eunuchus , spado (Greek: σπάδων spadon ), and castratus were used to denote eunuchs. The term eunuch has sometimes figuratively been used for

10304-516: The word originally designated an office, and he affirms the view that it was derived from eunē and ekhein (i.e. "bed-keeper"). He says the word came to be applied to castrated men in general because such men were the usual holders of that office. Still, Vossius notes the alternative etymologies offered by Eustathius ("deprived of mating") and others ("having the mind in a good state"), calling these analyses "quite subtle". Then, after having previously declared that eunuch designated an office (i.e., not

10416-581: Was a European eunuch during late Fatimid rule who gained power through his military and political savvy which brought peace between them and the Byzantine empire. Moreover, he squashed revolts in the Libya and the Levant. Given his reputation and power in the court and military he took the reins of the caliphate from his then student al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ; then ruled as the de facto Regent 997 CE. His usurpation of power from

10528-421: Was a largely honorary title—and was given the command of the armies originally sent from Hexi (河西, headquartered in modern Wuwei, Gansu , which had also fallen to Tufan since their departure) and Zelu (澤潞, headquartered in modern Changzhi , Shanxi ) Circuits. In 778, he submitted to Emperor Daizong what he thought to be a sign of fortune—a mouse living peacefully with a cat and her kittens. Chang considered this

10640-562: Was a part of town named Harat al-Aghawat (Neighborhood of the Aghas). The Red Sea slave trade became gradually more suppressed during the 20th-century, and Slavery in Saudi Arabia was abolished in 1962. In 1979, the last Agha was appointed. In 1990 seventeen eunuchs remained. In the Isma'ili Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171 CE), eunuchs played major roles in the politics of the caliphate's court within

10752-609: Was able to persuade them to depart by bribing them. On June 12, 784, Li Sheng declared that the assault against Chang'an would be starting, and advanced into Chang'an's vicinity. On June 18, the Han generals Zhang Tingzhi ( 張庭芝 ) and Li Xiqian (李希倩, Li Xilie's brother) tried to preempt Li Sheng by attacking him, and Li Sheng defeated them. Zhang Guangsheng, who had been in secret contact with Li Sheng, then persuaded Zhu to flee Chang'an. Zhu did so on June 20, and Li Sheng entered Chang'an, reclaiming it for Tang. Zhu decided to flee to Tufan. On

10864-514: Was an African eunuch general who served as governor of the Damascus until he led an army of 30,000 men in a campaign to expand Fatimid control northeast to the city of Aleppo, Syria. He was noted for being able to unite a diverse group of Africans, Arabs, Bedouins, Berbers, and Turks into one coherent fighting force which was able to successfully combat the Mirdasids , Bedouins , and Byzantines. Barjawan

10976-438: Was angered when Emperor Dezong refused to meet him and instead ordered him to attack Chang'an immediately, along with Li Sheng and several other generals. (Emperor Dezong had done so at Lu Qi's suggestion—as Lu feared that if Emperor Dezong met Li Huaiguang, given Li Huaiguang's achievements, Emperor Dezong would accept Li Huaiguang's opinion that Lu and his associates Zhao Zan ( 趙贊 ) and Bai Zhizhen ( 白志貞 ) were responsible for

11088-429: Was concerned that his officers might not abide by the decision he made, he further proposed that Lulong be divided into three circuits, with the circuit capital, You Prefecture ( 幽州 ), along with Zhuo Prefecture (涿州, in modern Baoding , Hebei ), be given to former chancellor Zhang Hongjing ; Ji (薊州, in modern Tianjin ), Gui (媯州, in modern Zhangjiakou , Hebei ), and Tan (檀州, in modern Beijing) Prefectures be given to

11200-503: Was defeated and forced to flee Chang'an in 784 and was killed in flight. Zhu Ci was born in 742, during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong . His family was from You Prefecture (幽州, in modern Beijing ). Both his great-grandfather Zhu Li ( 朱利 ) and grandfather Zhu Siming ( 朱思明 ) served as minor imperial officials. His father Zhu Huaigui ( 朱懷珪 ) served as an officer under Pei Kuan ( 裴寬 ) the military governor of Fanyang Circuit (范陽, headquartered at You Prefecture), commanding Pei's guards, and

11312-441: Was due to the trust that certain jealous and suspicious foreign rulers placed in the loyalty of their eunuchized servants. Theophylact of Ohrid in a dialogue In Defence of Eunuchs also stated that the origin of the word was from eupnoeic and ekhein , "to have, hold", since they were always "well-disposed" toward the master who "held" or owned them. The 12th century Etymologicum Magnum (s.v. eunoukhos ) essentially repeats

11424-496: Was excluded from the general pardon. (In response, Wang Wujun, Li Na, and Tian Yue all gave up independent princely titles they had claimed for themselves and nominally submitted to Tang rule again, although neither Zhu Tao nor another military governor who had rebelled, Li Xilie , did so, and Li Xilie soon declared himself emperor of his own state of Chu.) Meanwhile, though, Tang efforts to recapture Chang'an soon fell victim to infighting—as Li Huaiguang, who had saved Emperor Dezong,

11536-601: Was given a general title. Zhu Huaigui later served as a general for the rebel Yan state after An Lushan , then the military governor of Fanyang, rebelled against Emperor Xuanzong's rule in 755. At the end of the rebellion , when the Yan general then in charge of Fanyang, Li Huaixian , submitted to the rule of Emperor Xuanzong's grandson Emperor Daizong , Li Huaixian made Zhu Huaigui the prefect of Ji Prefecture (薊州, in modern Tianjin ), and Zhu Huaigui continued to serve under Li Huaixian until Zhu Huaigui's death in 766. Zhu Ci himself

11648-429: Was later referred to as a senior officer. Zhu Kerong, in his youth, also became an officer under Liu Zong. After Liu Zong submitted to imperial authority in 818, during the reign of Emperor Xianzong , he became concerned, as Lulong had long been unaccustomed to following imperial orders, that a number of officers were difficult to control and would create problems later on. Around the time that Emperor Xianzong died and

11760-772: Was made the mayor of Fengxiang Municipality. In 780, Yang Yan , then the most powerful chancellor in Emperor Dezong's administration, wanted to rebuild Yuan Prefecture (原州, in modern Guyuan , Gansu ) -- which was formerly Tang territory but since then had become part of the no-man's land between Tang and Tufan—to serve as a forward advance post, and Yang was so intent on the project that when Duan Xiushi opposed, he had Duan removed from his post as military governor of Jingyuan Circuit (涇原, headquartered in modern Pingliang , Gansu ) and replaced him with Li Huaiguang —a general known for his strictness and harshness. He subsequently ordered Li Huaiguang, Cui Ning , and Zhu to command troops in

11872-528: Was performed with the intention "that they will no longer do the things that males do, or at least to extinguish whatever has to do with desire for the female sex". The 11th century Byzantine monk Nikon of the Black Mountain , opting instead for Orion's second alternative, stated that the word came from eunoein ( eu "good" + nous "mind"), thus meaning "to be well-minded, well-inclined, well-disposed or favorable", but unlike Orion he argued that this

11984-420: Was said to have started a military career in his youth on account of his father. He was strong and large in size, and he was capable in horsemanship, archery, and other military arts. He was said to appear lenient but actually stricter than he appeared. However, he was also said to be generous, and whenever he led a military mission, he would distribute the spoils to his subordinates. He was thus able to receive

12096-670: Was sometimes punitive; under Assyrian law , homosexual acts were punishable by castration. Eunuchs were familiar figures in the Neo-Assyrian Empire ( Akkadian : ša rēš šarri izuzzū "the one who stands by the head of the king", often abbreviated as ša rēš ; c.  850 until 622 BCE) and in the court of the Egyptian pharaohs (down to the Lagid dynasty known as Ptolemies, ending with Cleopatra VII , 30 BCE). Eunuchs sometimes were used as regents for underage heirs to

12208-441: Was succeeded by his son Emperor Muzong , Liu Zong sent those officers to the capital Chang'an and requested the imperial government give them commissions and honors, with the hopes that the honors received by those officers would encourage the Lulong officers in being faithful to the imperial government. Liu Zong himself resigned his governorship in spring 821, took tonsure , and became a Buddhist monk . Prior to doing so, as Liu

12320-429: Was that, since they were incapable of having children, they would not be tempted to seize power and start a dynasty. In many cases, eunuchs were considered more reliable than the scholar-officials. As a symbolic assignment of heavenly authority to the palace system, a constellation of stars was designated as the Emperor's, and, to the west of it, four stars were identified as his "eunuchs." The tension between eunuchs in

12432-427: Was the first military governor who had ever visited Chang'an from An Lushan's old territory since the Anshi Rebellion, the officials and people were lined up to welcome him, in such a massive display that it was said that they looked like long walls. Emperor Daizong invited Zhu Ci and his subordinates to a feast at Yanying Hall ( 延英殿 ), and it was said that Emperor Daizong gave him unprecedented rewards. For that fall,

12544-408: Was the primary power behind the throne during their reigns until he was killed by Darius III . Marmon (1995) writes " Mamluk biographies of the eunuchs often praise their appearance with adjectives such as jamil (beautiful), wasim (handsome), and ahsan (the best, most beautiful) or akmal (the most perfect)." The custom of using eunuchs as servants for women inside the Islamic harems had

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