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99-499: In 1910, French-American settlers arrived; later came immigrants from Quebec and Northern United States . In 1913, Zenon Park was officially named after Zenon Chamberland, the postmaster . The economy then depended on agriculture, including alfalfa farming and lumber. Zenon Park incorporated as a village on July 28, 1941. The community has one designated heritage property, the Paroisse Notre Dame de la Nativité (Our Lady of

198-500: A Louisiana French ethnicity mainly found in the US state of Louisiana and surrounding Gulf Coast states. While Cajuns are usually described as the descendants of the Acadian exiles who went to Louisiana over the course of Le Grand Dérangement , Louisianians frequently use Cajun as a broad cultural term (particularly when referencing Acadiana ) without necessitating race or descent from

297-454: A Catholic francophone identity, the Acadian descendants were indeed and often considered to be Creoles. Documents from the late eighteenth century, such as militia rolls, make a distinction between "Acadians" (those born before or during Le Grand Dérangement ) and "Creoles" (those born after Le Grand Dérangement ), often the children of the former group, with identical surnames and belonging to

396-419: A People , that: Cajun was used by Anglos to refer to all persons of French descent and low economic standing, regardless of their ethnic affiliation. Hence poor Creoles of the bayou and prairie regions came to be permanently identified as Cajun . The term Cajun thus became a socioeconomic classification for the multicultural amalgam of several culturally and linguistically distinct groups. Cajans inhabited

495-481: A child of a French-Canadian father and an Irish mother, and counter-culture author Jack Kerouac (1922–1969) who grew up in Lowell, Massachusetts . Kerouac was the child of two French-Canadian immigrants and wrote in both English and French. Franco-American political figures from New England include U.S. Senator Kelly Ayotte ( R , New Hampshire ), Governor Paul LePage of Maine, and Presidential adviser Jon Favreau , who

594-595: A course at Harvard University. Francophonie Month (March) and St. John the Baptist Day (June 24) also provide an opportunity for celebration and increased visibility. At the same time, some members of the community are inviting reconsideration of Franco-Americans’ place in conversations about race and class. Noted American popular culture figures who maintained a close connection to their French roots include musician Rudy Vallée (1901–1986) who grew up in Westbrook, Maine ,

693-631: A humane and charitable race—simple-minded and full of queer, superstitious notions, but an orphan thrown upon their care never suffers." The Mouton family, an influential Acadian family of the period, provides an excellent case study in this regard, with secessionist Alexandre Mouton retaining the famous nickname of "the Creole Hotspur." His son, the Confederate General Alfred Mouton , is also noted in contemporary sources as "a brave and intrepid Creole". Today, by contrast, members of

792-908: A number of villages along the waterways, including Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin ; La Baye, Wisconsin ; Cahokia, Illinois ; Kaskaskia, Illinois ; Detroit , Michigan ; Sault Sainte Marie, Michigan ; Saint Ignace, Michigan ; Vincennes, Indiana ; St. Paul, Minnesota ; St. Louis , Missouri ; and Sainte Genevieve, Missouri . They also built a series of forts in the area, such as Fort de Chartres , Fort Crevecoeur , Fort Saint Louis , Fort Ouiatenon , Fort Miami (Michigan) , Fort Miami (Indiana) , Fort Saint Joseph , Fort La Baye , Fort de Buade , Fort Saint Antoine , Fort Crevecoeur , Fort Trempealeau , Fort Beauharnois , Fort Orleans , Fort St. Charles , Fort Kaministiquia , Fort Michilimackinac , Fort Rouillé , Fort Niagara , Fort Le Boeuf , Fort Venango and Fort Duquesne . The forts were serviced by soldiers and fur trappers who had long networks reaching through

891-453: A population density of 332.1/km (860.1/sq mi) in 2021. In the 2016 Census of Population , the Village of Zenon Park recorded a population of 194 living in 82 of its 88 total private dwellings, a 3.6% change from its 2011 population of 187 . With a land area of 0.56 km (0.22 sq mi), it had a population density of 346.4/km (897.2/sq mi) in 2016. Zenon Park is on

990-836: A region of Alabama called the Cajan Country , which was all of the bayou country surrounding Mobile. To the north, the Cajan Country reached the hills of Mount Vernon and Citronelle , and to the east, it reached through the bayous and forests around Daphne to the Perdido River . Cajans were of varying racial mixtures; during the segregation era , some Cajans under Alabama's new racial laws were considered black, others were considered white, and others yet designated as Indians. Cajans were discriminated against due to their racial ambiguity, and many did not have access to public schools. Cajans tended to stay among their own communities. After

1089-413: A relatively isolated region until the early 20th century, Cajuns today are largely assimilated into the mainstream society and culture. Some Cajuns live in communities outside Louisiana. Also, some people identify themselves as Cajun culturally despite lacking Acadian ancestry. In the modern era it is common to see Cajuns and Creoles discussed as separate and distinct groups; historically speaking, this

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1188-675: A rule the French language, Creoles, and all using the English tongue, Americans." In his Refutation des érreurs de M. George W. Cable sur le sujet des Créoles , published in L' Athénée Louisianais , the francophone Creole John L. Peytavin accused the writer George Washington Cable of fundamentally misrepresenting Creoles to the American public. (Cable, who was not a Creole and did not speak French, had written that Cajuns of Acadian descent were not themselves Creoles.) Peytavin declared: "The Acadian Creoles have

1287-546: A unique heritage, generally seeing themselves as distinct from Louisiana Creoles despite a number of historical documents also classifying the Acadians' descendants as Créoles . Their ancestors settled Acadia , in what is now the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick , Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island and part of Maine in the 17th and early 18th centuries. In 1755, after capturing Fort Beauséjour and several other French forts in

1386-543: Is California. Many U.S. cities have large French American populations . The city with the largest concentration of people of French extraction is Madawaska, Maine , while the largest French-speaking population by percentage of speakers in the U.S. is found in St. Martin Parish, Louisiana . Country-wide, as of 2020, there are about 9.4 million U.S. residents who declare French ancestry or French Canadian descent, and about 1.32 million per

1485-560: Is a corruption of the word Acadian . Many still live in what is known as the Cajun Country , where much of their colonial culture survives. French Louisiana , when it was sold by Napoleon in 1803, covered all or part of fifteen current U.S. states and contained French and Canadian colonists dispersed across it, though they were most numerous in its southernmost portion. During the War of 1812 , Louisiana residents of French origin took part on

1584-449: Is alive and well. He is "up front" and "main stream." He is not asking for any special treatment. By affording coverage under the "national origin" clause of Title VII he is afforded no special privilege. He is given only the same protection as those with English , Spanish , French , Iranian , Czechoslovakian , Portuguese , Polish , Mexican , Italian , Irish , et al., ancestors. The British conquest of Acadia happened in 1710. Over

1683-426: Is better viewed as geographic rather than ethnic. Residents of Acadiana —a historically isolated and rural region—do not typically make gumbo with tomatoes, regardless of ancestry or self-proclaimed identity, whereas urban New Orleanians do. Technically, "Cajun" cuisine should properly fit under the umbrella of "Creole" cuisine, much like "Cajuns" themselves traditionally fit under the "Creole" umbrella. In contrast to

1782-609: Is partly due to the tendency of Franco-American groups to identify more closely with North American regional identities such as French Canadian , Acadian , Brayon , Louisiana French ( Cajun , Creole ) than as a coherent group, but also because emigration from France during the 19th century was low compared to the rest of Europe. Consequently, there is less of a unified French American identity as with other European American ethnic groups, and Americans of French descent are highly concentrated in New England and Louisiana . Nevertheless,

1881-399: The 2010 census , spoke French at home . An additional 750,000 U.S. residents speak a French-based creole language , according to the 2011 American Community Survey . Franco-Americans are less visible than other similarly sized ethnic groups and are relatively uncommon when compared to the size of France's population, or to the numbers of German, Italian, Irish or English Americans. This

1980-513: The Adirondack Mountains and their foothills. They amounted to an ever-growing share of the region's population; by the mid-twentieth century, Franco-Americans comprised 30 percent of Maine's population. Factories could provide employment to entire nuclear families, including children. Some French-Canadian women saw New England as a place of opportunity and possibility where they could create economic alternatives for themselves distinct from

2079-629: The Boudin Bakery and French Hospital. Since the US was in high demand for labor between 1921 and 1931, it resulted in an estimated 2 million French immigrants coming to America for jobs. This not only portrayed a strong impact on the American economy, but also the French economy as well. The latter half of the 19th century progressed, French immigrants continued to arrive in San Francisco in large numbers and French entrepreneurs played significant roles in shaping

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2178-638: The Daughters of the American Revolution was formed in memory of those soldiers. The Spanish colonial government settled the earliest group of Acadian exiles west of New Orleans, in what is now south-central Louisiana—an area known at the time as Attakapas, and later the center of the Acadiana region. As Brasseaux wrote, "The oldest of the pioneer communities ... Fausse Point, was established near present-day Loreauville by late June 1765." The Acadians shared

2277-630: The Great Upheaval or Le Grand Dérangement . The Acadians' migration from Canada was spurred by the 1763 Treaty of Paris which ended the war. The treaty terms provided 18 months for unrestrained emigration. Many Acadians moved to the region of the Atakapa in present-day Louisiana, often travelling via the French colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti ). Joseph Broussard led the first group of 200 Acadians to arrive in Louisiana on February 27, 1765, aboard

2376-716: The Kingdom of France , including Huguenots , also settled alongside French-speaking Flemish Walloons in the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam , the capital of New Netherland , which later became New York City . While found throughout the country, today Franco-Americans are most numerous in New England , northern New York , the Midwest, Louisiana, and northern California . Often, Franco-Americans are identified more specifically as being of French Canadians , Cajuns or Louisiana Creole descent. A vital segment of Franco-American history involves

2475-704: The New Deal Coalition . Unlike the Irish and German Catholics, very few Franco-Americans deserted the Democratic ranks because of the foreign policy and war issues of the 1940 and 1944 campaigns. In 1952 many Franco-Americans broke from the Democrats but returned heavily in 1960. Additional work has expanded Walker's findings. Ronald Petrin has explored the rise of the Republican ascendency among Massachusetts Franco-Americans in

2574-751: The Quebec diaspora of the 1840s–1930s, in which nearly one million French Canadians moved to the United States, mainly relocating to New England mill towns, fleeing economic downturn in Québec and seeking manufacturing jobs in the United States. Historically, French Canadians had among the highest birth rates in world history, explaining their relatively large population despite low immigration rates from France. These immigrants mainly settled in Québec and Acadia , although some eventually inhabited Ontario and Manitoba . Many of

2673-452: The Sale of Louisiana , the term "Creole" distinguished people of Catholic, Latin backgrounds from newly arrived Americans and other Protestant anglophones. In general, Créolité in Louisiana was largely defined by whether that person was born in Louisiana, spoke a Latin-based language (often French, Spanish or Creole ) and practiced Catholicism. Having been born on Louisianian soil and maintaining

2772-619: The Santo Domingo . On April 8, 1765, he was appointed militia captain and commander of the "Acadians of the Atakapas" region in St. Martinville . Some of the settlers wrote to their family scattered around the Atlantic to encourage them to join them at New Orleans. For example, Jean-Baptiste Semer wrote to his father in France: My dear father ... you can come here boldly with my dear mother and all

2871-634: The Thunder Rail short-line railway. 53°03′50″N 103°45′14″W  /  53.064°N 103.754°W  / 53.064; -103.754 French American 8,053,902 (2.4%) alone or in combination 2,211,954 (0.7%) French or French-Canadian alone Excluding French-Canadian: 6,464,646 (1.9%) alone or in combination 1,505,143 (0.5%) French alone Asia Middle East Europe North America South America Oceania French Americans or Franco-Americans ( French : Franco-américains ) are citizens or nationals of

2970-527: The Union forces were one of the most important Catholic groups present during the American Civil War . The exact number is unclear, but thousands of Franco-Americans appear to have served in this conflict. Union forces did not keep reliable statistics concerning foreign enlistments. However, historians have estimated anywhere from 20,000 to 40,000 Franco-Americans serving in this war. In addition to those born in

3069-447: The 17th and early 18th centuries, there was an influx of a few thousand Huguenots , who were Calvinist refugees fleeing religious persecution following the issuance of the 1685 Edict of Fontainebleau by Louis XIV of the Kingdom of France . Some of these refugees settled in the Dutch colony of New Netherland and its capital city, New Netherland , including being among the first Europeans to settle on Staten Island . In 1674, with

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3168-758: The 1890s and in Maine in the subsequent decades. A breaking point was reached during the Sentinelle affair of the 1920s, in which Franco-American Catholics of Woonsocket, Rhode Island, challenged their bishop over control of parish funds in an unsuccessful bid to wrest power from the Irish American episcopate. In a 1957 treatise on urban history, American historian Constance Green would attribute some disputes between French and Irish Catholics in Massachusetts, Holyoke in particular, as fomented by Yankee English Protestants, in

3267-469: The 1890s; the lengthy economic depression that coincided with President Grover Cleveland 's administration and Franco-Irish religious controversies were likely factors in growing support for the GOP. Petrin recognizes different political behaviors in large cities and in smaller centers. Madeleine Giguère has confirmed the later shift to the Democratic column through her research on Lewiston's presidential vote during

3366-560: The 1948–60 elections. According to Walker, from 1896 to 1924, Franco-Americans typically supported the Republican Party because of its conservatism, emphasis on order, and advocacy of the tariff to protect the textile workers from foreign competition. In 1928, with Catholic Al Smith as the Democratic candidate, the Franco-Americans moved over to the Democratic column and stayed there for six presidential elections. They formed part of

3465-468: The 1970s. For some, a “renaissance” or “revival” is under way. The New Hampshire PoutineFest, founded by Timothy Beaulieu, uses an iconic Quebec dish to broaden interest in the culture. The French-Canadian Legacy podcast offers contemporary perspectives on French-Canadian experiences on both sides of the border. Through a collaboration with the Quebec Government Office and local institutions,

3564-499: The American side in the Battle of New Orleans (December 23, 1814, through January 8, 1815). Jean Lafitte and his Baratarians later were honored by US General Andrew Jackson for their contribution to the defense of New Orleans. In Louisiana today, more than 15 percent of the population of the Cajun Country reported in the 2000 United States Census that French was spoken at home. Another significant source of immigrants to Louisiana

3663-571: The Americanization of Acadiana between the 1950s and 1970s, the term "Cajun" became synonymous with "white French Louisianian", due in part to CODOFIL's decision to promote Louisiana's link to Acadia in the "Cajun Renaissance". It is common to see various demographic differences assigned to the Cajun/Creole binary. A typical example is cuisine: Many claim that "Cajun" gumbo does not include tomatoes whereas "Creole" gumbo does, but this distinction

3762-515: The Black Cajun Frenchman." People of Acadiana have historically described what the Cajun nationality means to them; Brandon Moreau, a Cajun of Basile, Louisiana , described Cajun as an "inclusive term designating region, descent, or heritage – not race." Moreau also described an incident of where he used the term coonass with a good friend of his: "We were all talking in the hall, and I said I

3861-570: The British sought to neutralize the Acadian military threat and to interrupt their vital supply lines to Louisbourg by deporting Acadians from Acadia. The territory of Acadia was afterward divided and apportioned to various British colonies, now Canadian provinces: Nova Scotia , New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island , the Gaspe Peninsula in the province of Quebec . The deportation of the Acadians from these areas beginning in 1755 has become known as

3960-498: The Cajuns have become famous for their French dialect, Louisiana French , and have developed a rich culture including folkways , music , and cuisine . Acadiana is heavily associated with them. The term "Cajun" comes from a rural pronunciation of Acadien (Acadian). The first usage of the term "Cajun" came about during the American Civil War , during the Union 's invasion of French Louisiana . After conquering Vermilionville ,

4059-559: The Cajuns in the first place. Non-Acadian French Creoles in rural areas were absorbed into Cajun communities. Some Cajun parishes, such as Evangeline and Avoyelles , possess relatively few inhabitants of actual Acadian origin. Their populations descend in many cases from settlers who migrated to the region from Quebec , Mobile , or directly from France ( French emigration ). Regardless, Acadian influences are generally acknowledged to have prevailed in most sections of south Louisiana. Many Cajuns have ancestors who were not French. Some of

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4158-484: The Cajuns. A correspondent for the New York Herald reported: "Our forces captured some prisoners. Many deserters and refugees came within our lines. The rebel deserters are principally French Creoles , or Arcadians ..." War correspondent Theophilus Noel reported for his newspaper: "You must not use the word Cagin , implying thereby that there is any nigger blood in the party to whom you are talking." After

4257-572: The Civil War, urban Creoles began referring to the peasant class ( petits habitants ) as "Cajuns". Cajuns inhabited the "Cajun Countries" of Alabama , Mississippi , and Louisiana . At the same time, "Creole" increasingly referred to Creoles of the middle class ( bourgeoisie ) or aristocratic class ( grands habitants ), and served as a designation for inhabitants of the "Creole Cities": Mobile, Alabama and New Orleans, Louisiana . Carl Brasseaux notes in Acadian to Cajun, Transformation of

4356-756: The Franco-American experience as members of religious orders. The first hospital in Lewiston, Maine, became a reality in 1889 when the Sisters of Charity of Montreal, the 'Grey Nuns,' opened the Asylum of Our Lady of Lourdes. This hospital was central to the Grey Nuns' mission of providing social services for Lewiston's predominately French-Canadian mill workers. The Grey Nuns struggled to establish their institution despite meager financial resources, language barriers, and opposition from

4455-754: The French presence has had an outsized impact on American toponyms . Some Franco-Americans arrived prior to the founding of the United States , settling in places like the Midwest , Louisiana or Northern New England . In these same areas, many cities and geographic features retain their names given by the first Franco-American inhabitants, and in sum, 23 of the Contiguous United States were colonized in part by French pioneers or French Canadians, including settlements such as Iowa ( Des Moines ), Missouri ( St. Louis ), Kentucky ( Louisville ) and Michigan ( Detroit ), among others. Settlers and political refugees from

4554-745: The French-Canadian immigrants, who wanted their language taught in the parochial schools. The Irish controlled all the Catholic colleges in New England, except for Assumption College in Massachusetts, controlled by the French and one school in New Hampshire controlled by Germans. Tensions between these two groups bubbled up in Fall River in 1884–1886, in Danielson, Connecticut and North Brookfield, Massachusetts in

4653-753: The Great Lakes back to Montreal. Sizable agricultural settlements were established in the Pays des Illinois . The region was relinquished by France to the British in 1763 as a result of the Treaty of Paris . Three years of war by the Natives, called Pontiac's War , ensued. It became part of the Province of Quebec in 1774, and was seized by the United States during the Revolution. In

4752-460: The Louisiana militia made up of 600 Acadian volunteers and captured the British strongholds of Fort Bute at Bayou Manchac , across from the Acadian settlement at St. Gabriel. On September 7, 1779, Galvez attacked Fort Bute and then on September 21, 1779, attacked and captured Baton Rouge . A review of participating soldiers shows many common Acadian names among those who fought in the battles of Baton Rouge and West Florida. The Galvez Chapter of

4851-696: The Massachusetts Bay Colony and the Provinces of Pennsylvania and Carolina due in large part to colonial anti-Catholic sentiment, during the period of the Edict of Fontainebleau . The 19th century would see the arrival of others from Switzerland. From the 1870s to the 1920s in particular, there was tension between the English-speaking Irish Catholics , who dominated the Church in New England, and

4950-515: The Mouton family are referred to as "Acadians" or "Cajuns" more often than as "Creoles". In 1885, the New Iberia Enterprise (taken from a section of advice for American editors) wrote: "Although all men born here, of whatever color and using whatever language, are Americans, it is the custom to designate the descendants of the old French, Spanish, and Acadian settlers of the country and using as

5049-570: The Nativity Roman Catholic Church) (previously called the Eglise Notre Dame de la Nativité ) was constructed in between 1930 - 1931 by Filion & Sons Co. In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada , Zenon Park had a population of 176 living in 82 of its 100 total private dwellings, a change of -9.3% from its 2016 population of 194 . With a land area of 0.53 km (0.20 sq mi), it had

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5148-429: The US government as a national ethnic group in 1980 per a discrimination lawsuit filed in federal district court. Presided over by Judge Edwin Hunter, the case, known as Roach v. Dresser Industries Valve and Instrument Division (494 F.Supp. 215, D.C. La., 1980), hinged on the issue of the Cajuns' ethnicity: We conclude that plaintiff is protected by Title VII's ban on national origin discrimination. The Louisiana Acadian

5247-399: The United States Most Franco Americans have a Roman Catholic heritage (which includes most French Canadians and Cajuns). Protestants would arrive in two smaller waves, with the earliest arrivals being the Huguenots who fled from France in the colonial era, many of whom would settle in Boston, Charleston, New York and Philadelphia. Huguenots and their descendants would immigrate to

5346-428: The United States who identify themselves with having full or partial French or French-Canadian heritage, ethnicity and/or ancestral ties . They include French-Canadian Americans , whose experience and identity differ from the broader community. The state with the largest proportion of people identifying as having French ancestry is Maine , while the state with the largest number of people with French ancestry

5445-577: The United States, many who served in the Union forces came from Canada or had resided there for several years. Canada's national anthem was written by such a soldier named Calixa Lavallée , who wrote this anthem while he served for the Union, attaining the rank of Lieutenant. Leading Confederate General P.G.T. Beauregard was a notably francophone Louisiana Creole. Walker (1962) examines the voting behavior in U.S. presidential elections from 1880 to 1960, using election returns from 30 Franco-American communities in New England, along with sample survey data for

5544-762: The annual cross- Pacific Galleon or Manila Galleon trade with neighboring Acapulco, Mexico ; descendants of African slaves; and some Cuban Americans have also settled along the Gulf Coast , and in some cases, intermarried into Cajun families. One obvious result of this cultural mixture is the variety of surnames common among the Cajun population. Surnames of the original Acadian settlers (which are documented) have been augmented by French and non-French family names that have become part of Cajun communities. The spelling of many family names has changed over time. (See, for example, Eaux ) . Cajuns as an ethnic group historically included Indians and Blacks. Black Louisiana Frenchmen have historically self-identified as Cajun, using

5643-467: The capital of Nouvelle Acadie (New Acadia) in 1863, Lieutenant George C. Harding of the 21st Indiana Infantry used the term "Cajun" to describe the region's inhabitants: I will try and tell what a Cajun is. He is a half-savage creature, of mixed French and Indian blood, lives in swamps and subsists by cultivating small patches of corn and sweet potatoes. The wants of the Cajun are few, and his habits are simple... I can not say that we were abused by

5742-407: The city's culinary, fashion, and financial sectors. This led to the city earning the nickname "Paris of the Pacific". French immigrants and their descendants also began settling in what is now the North Bay , becoming instrumental in the development of Wine Country and the modern California wine industry. Following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake , French architecture (especially Beaux-Arts )

5841-433: The colonial American population with roots in France , in collaboration with the American Council of Learned Societies , by scholarly classification of the names of all White heads of families recorded in the first U.S. census of 1790 . The government required accurate counts of the origins of colonial stock as basis for computing National Origins Formula immigration quotas in the 1920s; for this task scholars estimated

5940-408: The colony to Spain in 1762 , prior to their defeat by Britain and two years before the first Acadians began settling in Louisiana. The interim French officials provided land and supplies to the new settlers. The Spanish governor , Bernardo de Gálvez , later proved to be hospitable, permitting the Acadians to continue to speak their language, practice their native religion ( Roman Catholicism – which

6039-482: The deported Acadians. Although the terms Cajun and Creole today are often portrayed as separate identities, Louisianians of Acadian descent have historically been known as, and are, a subset of Creoles (synonymous for "Louisianais", which is a demonym for French Louisianians ). Cajuns make up a significant portion of south Louisiana's population and have had an enormous impact on the state's culture. While Lower Louisiana had been settled by French colonists since

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6138-485: The established medical community. The French-Canadian community in the Northeast tried to preserve its inherited cultural norms. This happened within the institutions of the Catholic Church, though it involved struggling with little success against Irish clerics. According to Raymond Potvin, the predominantly Irish hierarchy was slow to recognize the need for French-language parishes; several bishops even called for assimilation and English language-only parochial schools. By

6237-847: The expectations of their farm families in Canada. By the early twentieth century, some saw temporary migration to the United States as a rite of passage and a time of self-discovery and self-reliance. Most moved permanently to the United States, using the inexpensive railroad system to visit Quebec from time to time. When these women did marry, they had fewer children with longer intervals between children than their Canadian counterparts. Some women never married and oral accounts suggest that self-reliance and economic independence were important reasons for choosing work over marriage and motherhood. These women conformed to traditional gender ideals in order to retain their 'Canadienne' cultural identity, but they also redefined these roles in ways that provided them increased independence as wives and mothers. Women also shaped

6336-641: The first French-Canadian migrants to the U.S. worked in the New England lumber industry, and, to a lesser degree, in the burgeoning mining industry in the upper Great Lakes . This initial wave of seasonal migration was then followed by more permanent relocation in the United States by French-Canadian millworkers. Louisiana Creole people refers to those who are descended from the colonial settlers in Louisiana, especially those of French and Spanish descent but also including individuals of mixed-race heritage (cf. Creoles of Color ). Louisiana Creoles of any race have common European heritage and share cultural ties, such as

6435-402: The halls of power and more easily turned towards the Democrats. During the 1920s, the regional disparity disappeared. Due to the nativist and anti-labor policies of Republican state governments, an increasingly unionized Franco-American working class lent its support to the Democrats across the region. Elite "Francos" continued to prefer the GOP. As the ancestors of most Franco-Americans had for

6534-640: The hopes that a split would diminish Catholic influence. Marie Rose Ferron was a mystic stigmatic ; she was born in Quebec and lived in Woonsocket, Rhode Island. Between about 1925 and 1936, she was a popular "victim soul" who suffered physically to redeem the sins of her community. Father Onésime Boyer promoted her cult. Cajuns Asia Middle East Europe North America South America Oceania The Cajuns ( / ˈ k eɪ dʒ ən z / ; French : les Cadjins [le kadʒɛ̃] or les Cadiens [le kadjɛ̃] ), also known as Louisiana Acadians (French: les Acadiens ), are

6633-505: The ideology of survivance —the effort to preserve the traditional culture through faith and language. A product of the commercial and industrial economy of these areas, by 1913, the French and French-Canadian populations of New York City, Fall River (Massachusetts), and Manchester (New Hampshire) were the largest in the country. Out of the 20 largest Franco-American populations in the United States, only four cities were outside of New York and New England, with New Orleans ranking 18th largest in

6732-476: The late 17th century, many Cajuns trace their roots to the influx of Acadian settlers after the Great Expulsion from their homeland during the French and British hostilities prior to the French and Indian War (1756 to 1763). The Acadia region to which many modern Cajuns trace their origin consisted largely of what are now Nova Scotia , New Brunswick , Prince Edward Island plus parts of eastern Quebec and northern Maine . Since their establishment in Louisiana,

6831-435: The main theaters of the Revolutionary War. At the end of the war, New York State formed the Canadian and Nova Scotia Refugee Tract stretching westward from Lake Champlain. Though many of the veterans sold their claim in this vast region, some remained and the settlement held. From early colonizing efforts in the 1780s to the era of Quebec's "great hemorrhage," the French-Canadian presence in Clinton County in northeastern New York

6930-432: The most part left France before the French Revolution , they usually prefer the fleur-de-lis to the modern French tricolor . In 2008, the state of Connecticut made June 24 Franco-American Day, recognizing French Canadians for their culture and influence on Connecticut. The states of Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont, have now also held Franco-American Day festivals on June 24. The Census Bureau produced estimates of

7029-434: The most significant French minorities could be found in the Middle Colonies of New York and New Jersey , and the Southern Colonies of South Carolina and Georgia . [REDACTED] Estimated French American population in the Continental United States as of the 1790 Census [REDACTED] According to the U.S. Census Bureau of 2000, 5.3 percent of Americans are of French or French Canadian ancestry. In 2013

7128-601: The nation. Because of this, a number of French institutions were established in New England, including the Société Historique Franco-américaine in Boston and the Union Saint-Jean-Baptiste d’Amérique of Woonsocket , the largest French-Catholic cultural and mutual benefit society in the United States in the early twentieth century. Immigration from Quebec dwindled in the 1920s. Amid the decline of

7227-599: The next 45 years, the Acadians refused to sign an unconditional oath of allegiance to the Crown . During this period, Acadians participated in various military operations against the British and maintained vital supply lines to the French fortress of Louisbourg and Fort Beausejour . During the French and Indian War (part of the Seven Years' War and known by that name in Canada and Europe),

7326-511: The nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, today's Cajuns and Creoles are often presented as distinct groups, and some Cajuns disavow a Creole identity whereas others embrace it. Surnames and geographic location are not necessarily markers of either identity. The Cajuns retain a unique dialect of the French language called Louisiana French (or more commonly known as Cajun French), and hold numerous other cultural traits that distinguish them as an ethnic group. Cajuns were officially recognized by

7425-403: The nineteenth century, many people of French heritage arrived from Quebec and New Brunswick to work in manufacturing cities, especially textile centers, in New England and New York State. They came together in enclaves known as " Little Canadas ". In the same period, Francophones from Quebec became a majority of workers in other regions and sectors, for instance the saw mill and logging camps in

7524-465: The number of people living in the U.S. who were born in France was estimated at 129,520. Franco-Americans made up close to, or more than, 10 percent of the population of seven states, six in New England and Louisiana. Population wise, California has the greatest Franco population followed by Louisiana, while Maine has the highest by percentage (25 percent). Between 1820 and 1920, 530,000 French people came to

7623-682: The original settlers in Louisiana were Spanish Basques and Spanish Canary Islanders . A later migration included Irish and German immigrants who began to settle in Louisiana before and after the Louisiana Purchase , particularly on the German Coast along the Mississippi River north of New Orleans . People of Latin American origin; a number of early Filipino settlers (notably in Saint Malo, Louisiana ) who were known as " Manilamen " from

7722-485: The other Acadian families. They will always be better off than in France. There are neither duties nor taxes to pay and the more one works, the more one earns without doing harm to anyone. The Acadians were scattered throughout the eastern seaboard. Families were split and boarded ships with different destinations. Many ended up west of the Mississippi River in what was then French-colonized Louisiana, including territory as far north as Dakota territory . France had ceded

7821-462: The podcast’s team established a GeoTour dedicated to Franco-American life in major New England cities. Acts of commemoration have lately extended to pioneer suffragist Camille-Lessard Bissonnette. Abby Paige has, for her part, brought the community’s history and its complicated legacies to the stage. The culture and its manifestations in Louisiana, the Midwest, and the Northeast have become the focus of

7920-531: The proportion of names in each state determined to be of French derivation. The report concluded that, in 1790, French Americans made up roughly 2.3% of the population inhabiting the Continental United States ; the highest concentrations of French Americans resided in the territories that had historically formed colonial New France to the west of British America . Within the Thirteen Colonies ,

8019-463: The region, British authorities demanded the Acadians swear an oath of loyalty to the British Crown , which the majority refused to do. In response, the British deported them to the Thirteen Colonies in the south in what has become known as the expulsion of the Acadians . Over the next generation, some four thousand Acadians made the long trek to Louisiana, where they began a new life. The name Cajun

8118-454: The same families. Today, members of these families—including, among many others, those with surnames such as Broussard, Hébert, and Thibodeaux—usually consider these names Cajun rather than Creole. Sources from the 19th century sometimes make specific references to "Acadian Creoles" in particular—a term entirely absent from contemporary Louisiana. One article in vol. 56 of The Youth's Companion notes that, "The Acadian Creoles of Louisiana are

8217-474: The same right to be called Creoles as others of foreign descent." Not all Cajuns descend solely from Acadian exiles who settled in south Louisiana in the 18th century. Cajuns include people with Irish and Spanish ancestry, and to a lesser extent of Germans and Italians; Many also have Native American , African and Afro-Latin Creole admixture. Historian Carl A. Brasseaux asserted that this process of mixing created

8316-567: The signing of the Treaty of Westminster to end the Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672-1674), the Netherlands ceded the colony to Great Britain , who renamed the colony New York , and its capital to New York City , after Prince James, Duke of York , the brother of King Charles II of England . For nearly a century, French settlers fostered a distinctive French Protestant identity that enabled them to remain aloof from American society, but by

8415-664: The swamps, bayous, and prairies with the Attakapa and Chitimacha Native American tribes. After the end of the American Revolutionary War , about 1,500 more Acadians arrived in New Orleans. About 3,000 Acadians had been deported to France during the Great Upheaval. In 1785, about 1,500 were authorized to emigrate to Louisiana, often to be reunited with their families, or because they could not settle in France. Living in

8514-463: The term in regards to the ethnicity of Acadiana and the language they speak: Amédé Ardoin for example spoke only Cajun French and at his height was known as the first Black Cajun recording artist; Clifton Chenier the King of Zydeco , routinely self-identified as a Black Cajun: "Bonjour, comment ça va monsieur?" Clifton Chenier greeted his cheering crowd at the 1975 Montreux Jazz Festival. "They call me

8613-462: The textile industry from the 1920s to the 1950s, the French element experienced a period of upward mobility and assimilation. This pattern of assimilation increased during the 1970s and 1980s as many Catholic organizations switched to English and parish children entered public schools; some parochial schools closed in the 1970s. In recent decades, self-identification has moved away from the French language. Franco-American culture continues to evolve in

8712-520: The time of the American Revolution , they had generally intermarried and merged into the larger Presbyterian community. In 1700, they constituted 13% of the white population of the Province of Carolina , and 5% of the white population of the Province of New York . The largest number settling in South Carolina , where the French comprised 4% of the white population in 1790. With the help of

8811-714: The traditional use of the French language and the continuing practice of Catholicism ; in most cases, the people are related to each other. Those of mixed race also sometimes have African and Native American ancestry. As a group, the mixed-race Creoles rapidly began to acquire education, skills (many in New Orleans worked as craftsmen and artisans), businesses and property. They were overwhelmingly Catholic, spoke Colonial French (although some also spoke Louisiana Creole ) and kept up many French social customs, modified by other parts of their ancestry and Louisiana culture. The free people of color married among themselves to maintain their class and social culture. The Cajuns of Louisiana have

8910-464: The twentieth century, a number of parochial schools for Francophone students opened, though they gradually closed later in the century and a large share of the French-speaking population left the Church. At the same time, the number of priests available to staff these parishes diminished. Like Church institutions, such Franco-American newspapers as Le Messager and La Justice served as pillars of

9009-502: The twentieth century. In the most in-depth study of Franco-American political choices, Patrick Lacroix finds different patterns of partisan engagement across New England and New York State. In southern New England, Republicans actively courted the "Franco" vote and offered nominations. The party nominated Aram J. Pothier , a native of Quebec, who won his bid for the governorship of Rhode Island and served seven terms in that office. In northern New England, Franco-Americans faced exclusion from

9108-467: The twenty-first century. Well-established genealogical societies and public history venues still seek to share the Franco-American story. Their work is occasionally supported by the commercial and cultural interests of Quebec and state governments in the Northeast. New groups and events have contributed to the effort. Some observers have drawn a comparison between recent developments and the appropriation and modernization of “Franco” culture by young people in

9207-526: The well-organized international Huguenot community, many also moved to Virginia. In the north, Paul Revere of Boston was a prominent figure. A new influx of French-heritage people occurred at the very end of the colonial era. Following the failed invasion of Quebec in 1775-1776 , hundreds of French-Canadian men who had enlisted in the Continental Army remained in the ranks. Under colonels James Livingston and Moses Hazen, they saw military action across

9306-640: Was Saint-Domingue (today Haiti ); many Saint Dominicans fled during this time, and half of the diaspora eventually settled in New Orleans. Biloxi in Mississippi , and Mobile in Alabama , still contain French American heritage since they were founded by the Canadian Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville . The Houma Tribe in Louisiana still speak the same French they had been taught 300 years ago. In

9405-457: Was also the official religion of Spain), and otherwise pursue their livelihoods with minimal interference. Some families and individuals did travel north through the Louisiana territory to set up homes as far north as Wisconsin . Acadians fought in the American Revolution . Although they fought for Spanish General Galvez, their contribution to the winning of the war has been recognized. Galvez left New Orleans with an army of Spanish regulars and

9504-583: Was born and raised in Massachusetts. During the early years of the California Gold Rush , over 20,000 migrants from France arrived in the state. By the mid-1850s, San Francisco had emerged as the center of the French population on the West Coast, with over 30,000 people of French descent, more than any other ethnic group except Germans. During this period, the city's French Quarter was established, along with important businesses and institutions such as

9603-556: Was heavily used in the rebuilding of the city, as evidenced in its City Hall , Legion of Honor Museum , and downtown news kiosks. As a result of historic connections and cultural exchanges between France and the region, the majority of French multinational businesses have established their U.S. headquarters or subsidiaries in the San Francisco Bay Area since the rise of Silicon Valley and the Dot-com bubble . Franco-Americans in

9702-543: Was inescapable. From the beginning of the 17th century, French Canadians explored and traveled to the region with their coureur de bois and explorers, such as Jean Nicolet , Robert de LaSalle , Jacques Marquette , Nicholas Perrot , Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville , Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac , Pierre Dugué de Boisbriant , Lucien Galtier , Pierre Laclède , René Auguste Chouteau , Julien Dubuque , Pierre de La Vérendrye and Pierre Parrant . The French Canadians set up

9801-542: Was not necessarily the case. Many historical accounts exist wherein persons with Acadian surnames (and of various races) either self-identify or are described by others as Creoles. In Louisiana, the French word Créole (itself borrowed from Spanish and Portuguese) meant "born in the New World" (compare with Spanish Criollo ). This label was meant to distinguish the native-born population from newly arrived European immigrants and from slaves imported from Africa. Likewise, after

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