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70-413: Aleksei Kruchenykh created Zaum in order to show that language was indefinite and indeterminate. Kruchenykh stated that when creating Zaum, he decided to forgo grammar and syntax rules. He wanted to convey the disorder of life by introducing disorder into the language. Kruchenykh considered Zaum to be the manifestation of a spontaneous non-codified language. Khlebnikov believed that the purpose of Zaum

140-457: A subject and a syntactic predicate , the latter typically a verb phrase composed of a verb with or without any objects and other modifiers . However, the subject is sometimes unexpressed if it is easily deducible from the context, especially in null-subject language but also in other languages, including instances of the imperative mood in English . A complete simple sentence contains

210-422: A "grammar" in the sense that most linguists use, particularly as they are prescriptive in intent rather than descriptive . Constructed languages (also called planned languages or conlangs ) are more common in the modern-day, although still extremely uncommon compared to natural languages. Many have been designed to aid human communication (for example, naturalistic Interlingua , schematic Esperanto , and

280-410: A constituent question. They are also prevalent, though, as relative pronouns, in which case they serve to introduce a relative clause and are not part of a question. The wh -word focuses a particular constituent, and most of the time, it appears in clause-initial position. The following examples illustrate standard interrogative wh -clauses. The b-sentences are direct questions (independent clauses), and

350-517: A discipline in Hellenism from the 3rd century BC forward with authors such as Rhyanus and Aristarchus of Samothrace . The oldest known grammar handbook is the Art of Grammar ( Τέχνη Γραμματική ), a succinct guide to speaking and writing clearly and effectively, written by the ancient Greek scholar Dionysius Thrax ( c.  170  – c.  90 BC ), a student of Aristarchus of Samothrace who founded

420-435: A discrepancy between contemporary usage and that which has been accepted, over time, as being standard or "correct". Linguists tend to view prescriptive grammar as having little justification beyond their authors' aesthetic tastes, although style guides may give useful advice about standard language employment based on descriptions of usage in contemporary writings of the same language. Linguistic prescriptions also form part of

490-418: A distinct Montenegrin standard is a matter of controversy, some treat Montenegrin as a separate standard lect, and some think that it should be considered another form of Serbian. Norwegian has two standards, Bokmål and Nynorsk , the choice between which is subject to controversy : Each Norwegian municipality can either declare one as its official language or it can remain "language neutral". Nynorsk

560-477: A distinctive trait that is a prominent characteristic of their syntactic form. The position of the finite verb is one major trait used for classification, and the appearance of a specific type of focusing word (e.g. 'Wh'-word ) is another. These two criteria overlap to an extent, which means that often no single aspect of syntactic form is always decisive in deciding how the clause functions. There are, however, strong tendencies. Standard SV-clauses (subject-verb) are

630-486: A mixed group. In English they can be standard SV-clauses if they are introduced by that or lack a relative pronoun entirely, or they can be wh -clauses if they are introduced by a wh -word that serves as a relative pronoun . Embedded clauses can be categorized according to their syntactic function in terms of predicate-argument structures. They can function as arguments , as adjuncts , or as predicative expressions . That is, embedded clauses can be an argument of

700-475: A non-finite clause is usually a non-finite verb (as opposed to a finite verb ). There are various types of non-finite clauses that can be acknowledged based in part on the type of non-finite verb at hand. Gerunds are widely acknowledged to constitute non-finite clauses, and some modern grammars also judge many to -infinitives to be the structural locus of non-finite clauses. Finally, some modern grammars also acknowledge so-called small clauses , which often lack

770-584: A particular language variety involves a speaker internalizing these rules, many or most of which are acquired by observing other speakers, as opposed to intentional study or instruction . Much of this internalization occurs during early childhood; learning a language later in life usually involves more direct instruction. The term grammar can also describe the linguistic behaviour of groups of speakers and writers rather than individuals. Differences in scale are important to this meaning: for example, English grammar could describe those rules followed by every one of

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840-522: A predicate, an adjunct on a predicate, or (part of) the predicate itself. The predicate in question is usually the predicate of an independent clause, but embedding of predicates is also frequent. A clause that functions as the argument of a given predicate is known as an argument clause . Argument clauses can appear as subjects, as objects, and as obliques. They can also modify a noun predicate, in which case they are known as content clauses . The following examples illustrate argument clauses that provide

910-410: A school (attached to a cathedral or monastery) that teaches Latin grammar to future priests and monks. It originally referred to a school that taught students how to read, scan, interpret, and declaim Greek and Latin poets (including Homer, Virgil, Euripides, and others). These should not be mistaken for the related, albeit distinct, modern British grammar schools. A standard language is a dialect that

980-616: A school on the Greek island of Rhodes. Dionysius Thrax's grammar book remained the primary grammar textbook for Greek schoolboys until as late as the twelfth century AD. The Romans based their grammatical writings on it and its basic format remains the basis for grammar guides in many languages even today. Latin grammar developed by following Greek models from the 1st century BC, due to the work of authors such as Orbilius Pupillus , Remmius Palaemon , Marcus Valerius Probus , Verrius Flaccus , and Aemilius Asper . The grammar of Irish originated in

1050-406: A single clause with a finite verb . Complex sentences contain at least one clause subordinated ( dependent ) to an independent clause (one that could stand alone as a simple sentence), which may be co-ordinated with other independents with or without dependents. Some dependent clauses are non-finite , i.e. they do not contain any element/verb marking a specific tense. A primary division for

1120-452: A standard defining nationality or ethnicity . Recently, efforts have begun to update grammar instruction in primary and secondary education. The main focus has been to prevent the use of outdated prescriptive rules in favor of setting norms based on earlier descriptive research and to change perceptions about the relative "correctness" of prescribed standard forms in comparison to non-standard dialects. A series of metastudies have found that

1190-450: A structurally central finite verb , whereas the structurally central word of a non-finite clause is often a non-finite verb . Traditional grammar focuses on finite clauses, the awareness of non-finite clauses having arisen much later in connection with the modern study of syntax. The discussion here also focuses on finite clauses, although some aspects of non-finite clauses are considered further below. Clauses can be classified according to

1260-428: A superordinate expression. The first is a dependent of the main verb of the matrix clause and the second is a dependent of the object noun. The arrow dependency edges identify them as adjuncts. The arrow points away from the adjunct towards it governor to indicate that semantic selection is running counter to the direction of the syntactic dependency; the adjunct is selecting its governor. The next four trees illustrate

1330-416: A transrational language" that "allows for fuller expression" whereas, he maintains, the common language of everyday speech "binds". He further maintained, in "Declaration of Transrational Language (1921)", that zaum "can provide a universal poetic language, born organically, and not artificially, like Esperanto ." Grammar In linguistics , grammar is the set of rules for how a natural language

1400-400: A verb altogether. It should be apparent that non-finite clauses are (by and large) embedded clauses. The underlined words in the following examples are considered non-finite clauses, e.g. Each of the gerunds in the a-sentences ( stopping , attempting , and cheating ) constitutes a non-finite clause. The subject-predicate relationship that has long been taken as the defining trait of clauses

1470-411: A yes/no-question via subject–auxiliary inversion , 2. they express a condition as an embedded clause, or 3. they express a command via imperative mood, e.g. Most verb first clauses are independent clauses. Verb first conditional clauses, however, must be classified as embedded clauses because they cannot stand alone. In English , Wh -clauses contain a wh -word. Wh -words often serve to help express

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1540-415: Is a relative clause, e.g. An embedded clause can also function as a predicative expression . That is, it can form (part of) the predicate of a greater clause. These predicative clauses are functioning just like other predicative expressions, e.g. predicative adjectives ( That was good ) and predicative nominals ( That was the truth ). They form the matrix predicate together with the copula . Some of

1610-421: Is backed by 27 percent of municipalities. The main language used in primary schools, chosen by referendum within the local school district, normally follows the official language of its municipality. Standard German emerged from the standardized chancellery use of High German in the 16th and 17th centuries. Until about 1800, it was almost exclusively a written language, but now it is so widely spoken that most of

1680-493: Is based on the local dialects of Buenos Aires and Montevideo ( Rioplatense Spanish ). Portuguese has, for now, two official standards , Brazilian Portuguese and European Portuguese . The Serbian variant of Serbo-Croatian is likewise divided; Serbia and the Republika Srpska of Bosnia and Herzegovina use their own distinct normative subvarieties, with differences in yat reflexes. The existence and codification of

1750-525: Is called descriptive grammar. This kind of linguistic description contrasts with linguistic prescription , a plan to marginalize some constructions while codifying others, either absolutely or in the framework of a standard language . The word grammar often has divergent meanings when used in contexts outside linguistics. It may be used more broadly as to include orthographic conventions of written language such as spelling and punctuation, which are not typically considered as part of grammar by linguists,

1820-653: Is directly based on Classical Arabic , the language of the Qur'an . The Hindustani language has two standards, Hindi and Urdu . In the United States, the Society for the Promotion of Good Grammar designated 4 March as National Grammar Day in 2008. Clause In language , a clause is a constituent or phrase that comprises a semantic predicand (expressed or not) and a semantic predicate . A typical clause consists of

1890-514: Is fully present in the a-sentences. The fact that the b-sentences are also acceptable illustrates the enigmatic behavior of gerunds. They seem to straddle two syntactic categories: they can function as non-finite verbs or as nouns. When they function as nouns as in the b-sentences, it is debatable whether they constitute clauses, since nouns are not generally taken to be constitutive of clauses. Some modern theories of syntax take many to -infinitives to be constitutive of non-finite clauses. This stance

1960-403: Is not significant and syntax is highly significant in an analytic language. For example, Chinese and Afrikaans are highly analytic, thus meaning is very context-dependent. (Both have some inflections, and both have had more in the past; thus, they are becoming even less synthetic and more "purely" analytic over time.) Latin , which is highly synthetic , uses affixes and inflections to convey

2030-399: Is promoted above other dialects in writing, education, and, broadly speaking, in the public sphere; it contrasts with vernacular dialects , which may be the objects of study in academic, descriptive linguistics but which are rarely taught prescriptively. The standardized " first language " taught in primary education may be subject to political controversy because it may sometimes establish

2100-433: Is structured, as demonstrated by its speakers or writers. Grammar rules may concern the use of clauses , phrases , and words . The term may also refer to the study of such rules, a subject that includes phonology , morphology , and syntax , together with phonetics , semantics , and pragmatics . There are, broadly speaking, two different ways to study grammar: traditional grammar and theoretical grammar . Fluency in

2170-433: Is supported by the clear predicate status of many to -infinitives. It is challenged, however, by the fact that to -infinitives do not take an overt subject, e.g. The to -infinitives to consider and to explain clearly qualify as predicates (because they can be negated). They do not, however, take overt subjects. The subjects she and he are dependents of the matrix verbs refuses and attempted , respectively, not of

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2240-588: The First Grammatical Treatise , but became influential only in the Renaissance and Baroque periods. In 1486, Antonio de Nebrija published Las introduciones Latinas contrapuesto el romance al Latin , and the first Spanish grammar , Gramática de la lengua castellana , in 1492. During the 16th-century Italian Renaissance , the Questione della lingua was the discussion on the status and ideal form of

2310-515: The conventions used for writing a language. It may also be used more narrowly to refer to a set of prescriptive norms only, excluding the aspects of a language's grammar which do not change or are clearly acceptable (or not) without the need for discussions. The word grammar is derived from Greek γραμματικὴ τέχνη ( grammatikḕ téchnē ), which means "art of letters", from γράμμα ( grámma ), "letter", itself from γράφειν ( gráphein ), "to draw, to write". The same Greek root also appears in

2380-404: The to -infinitives. Data like these are often addressed in terms of control . The matrix predicates refuses and attempted are control verbs; they control the embedded predicates consider and explain , which means they determine which of their arguments serves as the subject argument of the embedded predicate. Some theories of syntax posit the null subject PRO (i.e. pronoun) to help address

2450-587: The wh -word is a dependent of the finite verb, whereas it is the head over the finite verb in the embedded wh -clauses. There has been confusion about the distinction between clauses and phrases . This confusion is due in part to how these concepts are employed in the phrase structure grammars of the Chomskyan tradition. In the 1970s, Chomskyan grammars began labeling many clauses as CPs (i.e. complementizer phrases) or as IPs (i.e. inflection phrases), and then later as TPs (i.e. tense phrases), etc. The choice of labels

2520-725: The "Academy of Zaum" in Tambov . The use of Zaum peaked from 1916 to 1920 during World War I . At this time, Zaumism took root as a movement primarily involved in visual arts , literature , poetry , art manifestoes , art theory , theatre , and graphic design , and concentrated its anti war politic through a rejection of the prevailing standards in art through anti-art cultural works. Zaum activities included public gatherings, demonstrations, and publications. The movement influenced later styles, Avant-garde and downtown music movements, and groups including surrealism , nouveau réalisme , Pop Art and Fluxus . Coined by Kruchenykh in 1913,

2590-616: The 12th century, compares the Hebrew language with Arabic in the Islamic grammatical tradition . Belonging to the trivium of the seven liberal arts , grammar was taught as a core discipline throughout the Middle Ages , following the influence of authors from Late Antiquity , such as Priscian . Treatment of vernaculars began gradually during the High Middle Ages , with isolated works such as

2660-429: The 16th century onward, such as Grammatica o Arte de la Lengua General de Los Indios de Los Reynos del Perú (1560), a Quechua grammar by Fray Domingo de Santo Tomás . From the latter part of the 18th century, grammar came to be understood as a subfield of the emerging discipline of modern linguistics. The Deutsche Grammatik of Jacob Grimm was first published in the 1810s. The Comparative Grammar of Franz Bopp ,

2730-596: The 7th century with Auraicept na n-Éces . Arabic grammar emerged with Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali in the 7th century. The first treatises on Hebrew grammar appeared in the High Middle Ages , in the context of Midrash (exegesis of the Hebrew Bible ). The Karaite tradition originated in Abbasid Baghdad . The Diqduq (10th century) is one of the earliest grammatical commentaries on the Hebrew Bible. Ibn Barun in

2800-450: The Italian language, initiated by Dante 's de vulgari eloquentia ( Pietro Bembo , Prose della volgar lingua Venice 1525). The first grammar of Slovene was written in 1583 by Adam Bohorič , and Grammatica Germanicae Linguae , the first grammar of German, was published in 1578. Grammars of some languages began to be compiled for the purposes of evangelism and Bible translation from

2870-542: The absence of subject-auxiliary inversion in embedded clauses, as illustrated in the c-examples just produced. Subject-auxiliary inversion is obligatory in matrix clauses when something other than the subject is focused, but it never occurs in embedded clauses regardless of the constituent that is focused. A systematic distinction in word order emerges across matrix wh -clauses, which can have VS order, and embedded wh -clauses, which always maintain SV order, e.g. Relative clauses are

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2940-485: The actual status of the syntactic units to which the labels are attached. A more traditional understanding of clauses and phrases maintains that phrases are not clauses, and clauses are not phrases. There is a progression in the size and status of syntactic units: words < phrases < clauses . The characteristic trait of clauses, i.e. the presence of a subject and a (finite) verb, is absent from phrases. Clauses can be, however, embedded inside phrases. The central word of

3010-446: The advent of written representations , formal rules about language usage tend to appear also, although such rules tend to describe writing conventions more accurately than conventions of speech. Formal grammars are codifications of usage which are developed by repeated documentation and observation over time. As rules are established and developed, the prescriptive concept of grammatical correctness can arise. This often produces

3080-490: The appropriate intonation contour and/or the appearance of a question word, e.g. Examples like these demonstrate that how a clause functions cannot be known based entirely on a single distinctive syntactic criterion. SV-clauses are usually declarative, but intonation and/or the appearance of a question word can render them interrogative or exclamative. Verb first clauses in English usually play one of three roles: 1. They express

3150-443: The birds ", " language of the gods " and "language of the stars". The poetic output is perhaps comparable to that of the contemporary Dadaism but the linguistic theory or metaphysics behind zaum was entirely devoid of the gentle reflexive irony of that movement and in all seriousness intended to recover the sound symbolism of a lost aboriginal tongue . Exhibiting traits of a Slavic national mysticism , Kruchenykh aimed at recovering

3220-412: The c-sentences contain the corresponding indirect questions (embedded clauses): One important aspect of matrix wh -clauses is that subject-auxiliary inversion is obligatory when something other than the subject is focused. When it is the subject (or something embedded in the subject) that is focused, however, subject-auxiliary inversion does not occur. Another important aspect of wh -clauses concerns

3290-522: The content of a noun. Such argument clauses are content clauses: The content clauses like these in the a-sentences are arguments. Relative clauses introduced by the relative pronoun that as in the b-clauses here have an outward appearance that is closely similar to that of content clauses. The relative clauses are adjuncts, however, not arguments. Adjunct clauses are embedded clauses that modify an entire predicate-argument structure. All clause types (SV-, verb first, wh- ) can function as adjuncts, although

3360-422: The discussion of clauses is the distinction between independent clauses and dependent clauses . An independent clause can stand alone, i.e. it can constitute a complete sentence by itself. A dependent clause, by contrast, relies on an independent clause's presence to be efficiently utilizable. A second significant distinction concerns the difference between finite and non-finite clauses. A finite clause contains

3430-416: The distinction mentioned above between matrix wh -clauses and embedded wh -clauses The embedded wh -clause is an object argument each time. The position of the wh -word across the matrix clauses (a-trees) and the embedded clauses (b-trees) captures the difference in word order. Matrix wh -clauses have V2 word order , whereas embedded wh-clauses have (what amounts to) V3 word order. In the matrix clauses,

3500-405: The distinctions presented above are represented in syntax trees. These trees make the difference between main and subordinate clauses very clear, and they also illustrate well the difference between argument and adjunct clauses. The following dependency grammar trees show that embedded clauses are dependent on an element in the independent clause, often on a verb: The independent clause comprises

3570-578: The entire trees in both instances, whereas the embedded clauses constitute arguments of the respective independent clauses: the embedded wh -clause what we want is the object argument of the predicate know ; the embedded clause that he is gaining is the subject argument of the predicate is motivating . Both of these argument clauses are dependent on the verb of the matrix clause. The following trees identify adjunct clauses using an arrow dependency edge: These two embedded clauses are adjunct clauses because they provide circumstantial information that modifies

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3640-418: The explanation for variation in speech, particularly variation in the speech of an individual speaker (for example, why some speakers say "I didn't do nothing", some say "I didn't do anything", and some say one or the other depending on social context). The formal study of grammar is an important part of children's schooling from a young age through advanced learning , though the rules taught in schools are not

3710-475: The explicit teaching of grammatical parts of speech and syntax has little or no effect on the improvement of student writing quality in elementary school, middle school or high school; other methods of writing instruction had far greater positive effect, including strategy instruction, collaborative writing, summary writing, process instruction, sentence combining and inquiry projects. The preeminence of Parisian French has reigned largely unchallenged throughout

3780-459: The facts of control constructions, e.g. With the presence of PRO as a null subject, to -infinitives can be construed as complete clauses, since both subject and predicate are present. PRO-theory is particular to one tradition in the study of syntax and grammar ( Government and Binding Theory , Minimalist Program ). Other theories of syntax and grammar (e.g. Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar , Construction Grammar , dependency grammar ) reject

3850-693: The former German dialects are nearly extinct. Standard Chinese has official status as the standard spoken form of the Chinese language in the People's Republic of China (PRC), the Republic of China (ROC), and the Republic of Singapore . Pronunciation of Standard Chinese is based on the local accent of Mandarin Chinese from Luanping, Chengde in Hebei Province near Beijing, while grammar and syntax are based on modern vernacular written Chinese . Modern Standard Arabic

3920-416: The highly logical Lojban ). Each of these languages has its own grammar. Syntax refers to the linguistic structure above the word level (for example, how sentences are formed) – though without taking into account intonation , which is the domain of phonology. Morphology, by contrast, refers to the structure at and below the word level (for example, how compound words are formed), but above

3990-454: The history of modern French literature. Standard Italian is based on the speech of Florence rather than the capital because of its influence on early literature. Likewise, standard Spanish is not based on the speech of Madrid but on that of educated speakers from more northern areas such as Castile and León (see Gramática de la lengua castellana ). In Argentina and Uruguay the Spanish standard

4060-439: The language's speakers. At smaller scales, it may refer to rules shared by smaller groups of speakers. A description, study, or analysis of such rules may also be known as a grammar, or as a grammar book . A reference work describing the grammar of a language is called a reference grammar or simply a grammar . A fully revealed grammar, which describes the grammatical constructions of a particular speech type in great detail

4130-402: The level of individual sounds, which, like intonation, are in the domain of phonology. However, no clear line can be drawn between syntax and morphology. Analytic languages use syntax to convey information that is encoded by inflection in synthetic languages . In other words, word order is not significant, and morphology is highly significant in a purely synthetic language, whereas morphology

4200-410: The norm in English. They are usually declarative (as opposed to exclamative, imperative, or interrogative); they express information neutrally, e.g. Declarative clauses like these are by far the most frequently occurring type of clause in any language. They can be viewed as basic, with other clause types being derived from them. Standard SV-clauses can also be interrogative or exclamative, however, given

4270-408: The presence of null elements such as PRO, which means they are likely to reject the stance that to -infinitives constitute clauses. Another type of construction that some schools of syntax and grammar view as non-finite clauses is the so-called small clause . A typical small clause consists of a noun phrase and a predicative expression, e.g. The subject-predicate relationship is clearly present in

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4340-582: The primeval Slavic mother-tongue in particular. Kruchenykh would author many poems and mimeographed pamphlets written in Zaum. These pamphlets combine poetry, illustrations, and theory. In modern times, since 1962 Serge Segay was creating zaum poetry. Rea Nikonova started creating zaum verses probably a bit later, around 1964. Their zaum poetry can be seen e.g. in issues of the famous "Transponans" samizdat magazine. In 1990, contemporary avant-garde poet Sergei Biriukov has founded an association of poets called

4410-418: The same information that Chinese does with syntax. Because Latin words are quite (though not totally) self-contained, an intelligible Latin sentence can be made from elements that are arranged almost arbitrarily. Latin has a complex affixation and simple syntax, whereas Chinese has the opposite. Prescriptive grammar is taught in primary and secondary school. The term "grammar school" historically referred to

4480-649: The starting point of modern comparative linguistics , came out in 1833. Frameworks of grammar which seek to give a precise scientific theory of the syntactic rules of grammar and their function have been developed in theoretical linguistics . Other frameworks are based on an innate " universal grammar ", an idea developed by Noam Chomsky . In such models, the object is placed into the verb phrase. The most prominent biologically oriented theories are: Parse trees are commonly used by such frameworks to depict their rules. There are various alternative schemes for some grammar: Grammars evolve through usage . Historically, with

4550-399: The stereotypical adjunct clause is SV and introduced by a subordinator (i.e. subordinate conjunction , e.g. after , because , before , now , etc.), e.g. These adjunct clauses modify the entire matrix clause. Thus before you did in the first example modifies the matrix clause Fred arrived . Adjunct clauses can also modify a nominal predicate. The typical instance of this type of adjunct

4620-414: The underlined strings. The expression on the right is a predication over the noun phrase immediately to its left. While the subject-predicate relationship is indisputably present, the underlined strings do not behave as single constituents , a fact that undermines their status as clauses. Hence one can debate whether the underlined strings in these examples should qualify as clauses. The layered structures of

4690-536: The word zaum is made up of the Russian prefix за "beyond, behind" and noun ум "the mind, nous " and has been translated as "transreason", "transration" or "beyonsense." According to scholar Gerald Janecek, zaum can be defined as experimental poetic language characterized by indeterminacy in meaning. Kruchenykh, in "Declaration of the Word as Such (1913)", declares zaum "a language which does not have any definite meaning,

4760-540: The words graphics , grapheme , and photograph . The first systematic grammar of Sanskrit originated in Iron Age India , with Yaska (6th century BC), Pāṇini (6th–5th century BC ) and his commentators Pingala ( c.  200 BC ), Katyayana , and Patanjali (2nd century BC). Tolkāppiyam , the earliest Tamil grammar, is mostly dated to before the 5th century AD. The Babylonians also made some early attempts at language description. Grammar appeared as

4830-484: Was influenced by the theory-internal desire to use the labels consistently. The X-bar schema acknowledged at least three projection levels for every lexical head: a minimal projection (e.g. N, V, P, etc.), an intermediate projection (e.g. N', V', P', etc.), and a phrase level projection (e.g. NP, VP, PP, etc.). Extending this convention to the clausal categories occurred in the interest of the consistent use of labels. This use of labels should not, however, be confused with

4900-510: Was to find the essential meaning of word roots in consonantal sounds . He believed such knowledge could help create a new universal language based on reason. Examples of zaum include Kruchenykh's poem " Dyr bul shchyl ", Kruchenykh's libretto for the Futurist opera Victory over the Sun with music by Mikhail Matyushin and stage design by Kazimir Malevich , and Khlebnikov's so-called " language of

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