Magdeburg rights ( German : Magdeburger Recht , Polish : Prawo magdeburskie , Lithuanian : Magdeburgo teisė ; also called Magdeburg Law ) were a set of town privileges first developed by Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor (936–973) and based on the Flemish Law, which regulated the degree of internal autonomy within cities and villages granted by the local ruler. Named after the city of Magdeburg , these town charters were perhaps the most important set of medieval laws in Central Europe . They became the basis for the German town laws developed during many centuries in the Holy Roman Empire . The Magdeburg rights were adopted and adapted by numerous monarchs, including the rulers of Bohemia , Hungary , Poland , and Lithuania , a milestone in the urbanization of the region which prompted the development of thousands of villages and cities.
99-583: Zalishchyky ( Ukrainian : Залiщики , IPA: [zɑˈliʃtʃɪkɪ] ; Polish : Zaleszczyki ), also spelled Zalischyky , is a small city located on the Dniester River in Chortkiv Raion , Ternopil Oblast , western Ukraine . It hosts the administration of Zalishchyky urban hromada , one of the hromadas of Ukraine. Population: 8,928 (2022 estimate). Zalishchyky's name, as well as its precursors Zalissia and Zalishche, probably derives from "zalis",
198-414: A weak yer vowel that would eventually disappear completely, for example Old East Slavic котъ /kɔtə/ > Ukrainian кіт /kit/ 'cat' (via transitional stages such as /koˑtə̆/, /kuˑt(ə̆)/, /kyˑt/ or similar) or Old East Slavic печь /pʲɛtʃʲə/ > Ukrainian піч /pitʃ/ 'oven' (via transitional stages such as /pʲeˑtʃʲə̆/, /pʲiˑtʃʲ/ or similar). This raising and other phonological developments of the time, such as
297-542: A 17th-century Roman Catholic church, an 18th-century Town Hall and other monuments. Zalishchyky is twinned with: 48°39′N 25°44′E / 48.650°N 25.733°E / 48.650; 25.733 Ukrainian language Ukrainian ( українська мова , ukrainska mova , IPA: [ʊkrɐˈjinʲsʲkɐ ˈmɔʋɐ] ) is one of the East Slavic languages in the Indo-European languages family, and it
396-461: A Jewish family was butchered in a nearby hamlet. Zalishchyky's synagogue was destroyed in 1871 by a massive fire that also razed 170 houses. At the end of the 19th century, the area around Zalishchyky witnessed large-scale emigration to the New World , especially western Canada . In 1914, Russia captured Zalishchyky, initially killing 30 Jews, before expelling the rest of the town's Jews on 15 April of
495-610: A body of national literature, institute a Ukrainian-language educational system, and form an independent state (the Ukrainian People's Republic , shortly joined by the West Ukrainian People's Republic ). During this brief independent statehood the stature and use of Ukrainian greatly improved. In the Russian Empire Census of 1897 the following picture emerged, with Ukrainian being the second most spoken language of
594-658: A compound of the Ukrainian words "за" (za) and "ліс" (lis), together meaning "behind (the) forest". Hinterwalden , the name for a Saxon settlement in Zalishchyky, also shares this etymological root, originating from the German "hinterwald" (itself meaning, literally, "behind forest"). Others theorise the name derives from the Ukrainian word for the hazel plant ( Ukrainian : ліщина , romanized : lishchyna ), which they attribute to Zalishchyky's initial settlers. Zalishchyky
693-521: A direct rail connection with Warsaw and Gdynia (the distance of 1,314 kilometres (816 miles), the longest route in the Second Polish Republic). Furthermore, a luxtorpeda fast train connected Zalishchyky with Ternopil . Zalishchyky quickly became the vacation hub for Eastern European tourists, as well as becoming a hub for smuggling, primarily from the Romanian border which the river divided. As
792-501: A few dozen survived. Some were able to escape to areas such as Tashkent thanks to Soviet evacuations and deportations during the war. In March 1944, the region was liberated by the Russians, before briefly returning to German control, during which many Jews were murdered by the panicking Nazis. After being liberated a second time by the 1st Ukrainian Front on 24 March, survivors and some of those deported returned to Zalishchyky. While
891-612: A few of these industries lasted until the fall of the Soviet Union, after which they collapsed following the Ukraine's transition from the Soviet planned economy . Nonetheless, the city's economy continues to be concentrated on light industry , particularly the agrarian sector. In 2016, Zalishchyky celebrated the 250th anniversary of township under the Magdeburg Law with a holiday commemorating
990-566: A hundred cities, in Central Europe apart from Germany , including Schleswig , Bohemia , Poland , Pomerania , Prussia , the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (following the Christianization of Lithuania ), including present-day Belarus and Ukraine , and probably Moldavia . In these lands they were mostly known as German or Teutonic law. Since the local tribunal of Magdeburg also became
1089-724: A major centre of archaeological attention. Near various villages, especially Koshylivtsi ( Ukrainian : Кошилівці ), a little north of the Dniester , excavations were carried out which uncovered statues, coins, and other artefacts from as far back as the Neolithic Cucuteni-Trypillian culture , and extending through the period of the Roman Empire and the Migration Period in the Early Middle Ages . Zalishchyky contains
SECTION 10
#17330940566601188-505: A permission to sell meat to Christians, or employ Christian servants. By at least some contemporary observers, the parallel infrastructure of Jews and gentiles was considered significant; in medieval Poland's royal city development policy, both German merchants and Jews were invited to settle in Polish cities. Among the most advanced systems of old Germanic law of the time, in the 13th and 14th centuries, Magdeburg rights were granted to more than
1287-530: A policy of defending Ukraine's interests within the Soviet Union. He proudly promoted the beauty of the Ukrainian language and developed plans to expand the role of Ukrainian in higher education. He was removed, however, after only a brief tenure, for being too lenient on Ukrainian nationalism. The new party boss from 1972 to 1989, Volodymyr Shcherbytsky , purged the local party, was fierce in suppressing dissent, and insisted Russian be spoken at all official functions, even at local levels. His policy of Russification
1386-555: A result of close Slavic contacts with the remnants of the Scythian and Sarmatian population north of the Black Sea , lasting into the early Middle Ages , the appearance of the voiced fricative γ/г (romanized "h"), in modern Ukrainian and some southern Russian dialects is explained by the assumption that it initially emerged in Scythian and related eastern Iranian dialects, from earlier common Proto-Indo-European *g and *gʰ . During
1485-482: A result of flooding and a lack of investment into the city, the alignment of Zalishchyky as a vacation town was short-lived. The town suffered three catastrophic floods in 1863, 1871, and 1927. Zalishchyky's already prolific reputation in the world of tourism coupled with the luxtorpeda railways revived Zalishchyky's tourist industry, and the town's economy boomed as it slowly became completely oriented to tourist activity. This bloom lasted until 1939 when Germany commenced
1584-624: A self-aware Ukrainian nation would threaten the unity of the empire. In 1804 Ukrainian as a subject and language of instruction was banned from schools. In 1811, by order of the Russian government, the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy was closed. In 1847 the Brotherhood of St Cyril and Methodius was terminated. The same year Taras Shevchenko was arrested, exiled for ten years, and banned for political reasons from writing and painting. In 1862 Pavlo Chubynsky
1683-883: A variant name of the Little Russian language . In a private letter from 1854, Taras Shevchenko lauds "our splendid Ukrainian language". Valuyev's decree from 1863 derides the "Little Russian" language throughout, but also mentions "the so-called Ukrainian language" once. In Galicia, the earliest applications of the term Ukrainian to the language were in the hyphenated names Ukrainian-Ruthenian (1866, by Paulin Święcicki ) or Ruthenian-Ukrainian (1871, by Panteleimon Kulish and Ivan Puluj ), with non-hyphenated Ukrainian language appearing shortly thereafter (in 1878, by Mykhailo Drahomanov ). A following ban on Ukrainian books led to Alexander II 's secret Ems Ukaz , which prohibited publication and importation of most Ukrainian-language books, public performances and lectures, and even banned
1782-625: Is based on the character of contemporary written sources, ultimately reflecting socio-historical developments, and he further subdivides the Middle period into three phases: Ukraine annually marks the Day of Ukrainian Writing and Language on 9 November, the Eastern Orthodox feast day of Nestor the Chronicler . The era of Kievan Rus' ( c. 880–1240) is the subject of some linguistic controversy, as
1881-421: Is located at the southern edge of Ternopil Oblast near a place where three oblasts (Ternopil, Ivano-Frankivsk , and Chernivtsi ) joint together. Geographically the city is located in southeastern Galicia (near historical border with Podillia , which was the river Zbruch ), directly opposite the historical land of Bukovina , in valley of Dniester which forms in this area so called Dniester canyon . Through
1980-412: Is more mutual intelligibility with Belarusian , and a closer lexical distance to West Slavic Polish and South Slavic Bulgarian . Ukrainian is a descendant of Old East Slavic , a language spoken in the medieval state of Kievan Rus' . In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , the language developed into Ruthenian , where it became an official language, before a process of Polonization began in
2079-514: Is referred to as "Old Ukrainian", but elsewhere, and in contemporary sources, is known as the Ruthenian language, and from the end of the 18th century to the present what in Ukraine is known as "Modern Ukrainian", but elsewhere is known as just Ukrainian. Magdeburg Law Being a member of the Hanseatic League , Magdeburg was one of the most important trade cities, maintaining commerce with
SECTION 20
#17330940566602178-626: Is spoken primarily in Ukraine . It is the first (native) language of a large majority of Ukrainians . Written Ukrainian uses the Ukrainian alphabet , a variant of the Cyrillic script . The standard language is studied by the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and Potebnia Institute of Linguistics . Comparisons are often made between Ukrainian and Russian , another East Slavic language, yet there
2277-512: The Imperial Reform of 1495. The first town to be granted Magdeburg rights in Poland was Złotoryja in 1211. Soon many towns were vested with the law including Wrocław , Opole , Inowrocław , Sandomierz , Gniezno , Poznań , Bochnia , Głogów , Bytom , Sieradz , Kraków , Legnica , Opatów , Konin , Piotrków , Racibórz in the 13th century, whereas Szczecin and Stargard were granted
2376-598: The Invasion of Poland , igniting World War II and leading Soviet Ukraine , a constituent republic of the Soviet Union, to annex Zalishchyky on 17 September, during the Polish September Campaign . After Soviet capture and occupation of Zalishchyky, the beaches and orchards were destroyed, the Baroque town hall was demolished, and a monument of Lenin was erected in its spot. The Roman Catholic church of St. Stanislaus
2475-719: The Latin language. Much of the influence of Poland on the development of the Ukrainian language has been attributed to this period and is reflected in multiple words and constructions used in everyday Ukrainian speech that were taken from Polish or Latin. Examples of Polish words adopted from this period include zavzhdy (always; taken from old Polish word zawżdy ) and obitsiaty (to promise; taken from Polish obiecać ) and from Latin (via Polish) raptom (suddenly) and meta (aim or goal). Significant contact with Tatars and Turks resulted in many Turkic words, particularly those involving military matters and steppe industry, being adopted into
2574-517: The Low Countries , the Baltic states , and the interior (for example Braunschweig ). As with most medieval city laws, the rights were primarily targeted at regulating trade to the benefit of the local merchants and artisans, who formed the most important part of the population of many such cities. External merchants coming into the city were not allowed to trade on their own, but were instead forced to sell
2673-557: The Novgorod Republic did not call themselves Rus ' until the 14th century; earlier Novgorodians reserved the term Rus ' for the Kiev , Pereyaslavl and Chernigov principalities. At the same time as evidenced by contemporary chronicles, the ruling princes and kings of Galicia–Volhynia and Kiev called themselves "people of Rus ' " (in foreign sources called " Ruthenians "), and Galicia–Volhynia has alternately been called
2772-497: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , to which the town became a seat for their county in 1774. In 1578, the village officially adopted the name "Zalishchyky". In 1594, Stanisław Żółkiewski raised an army in Zalishchyky and defended the locale from a Tartar invasion. In 1669, the village was completely destroyed by Turk invaders, and the survivors were almost wiped out under the rule of the sultan Mehmed IV during
2871-541: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . By the 18th century, Ruthenian diverged into regional variants, and the modern Ukrainian language developed in the territory of present-day Ukraine. Russification saw the Ukrainian language banned as a subject from schools and as a language of instruction in the Russian Empire , and continued in various ways in the Soviet Union . Even so, the language continued to see use throughout
2970-632: The Russian Empire . During the 19th century, the area around Zalishchyky was populated primarily by Ukrainian country folk, though the town had a large Polish and Jewish population. By then, the city was associated with the best peaches, plums and grapes in the Austrian Empire. On 18 June 1809, during the War of the Fifth Coalition , the town was the site of a fierce battle ( Polish : Bitwa pod Zaleszczykami ) that ended with an Austrian victory. In 1838,
3069-570: The Teutonic Order and Duchy of Masovia , as well as some cities under direct Polish and Lithuanian rule, obtained Chełmno rights , a local variant of Magdeburg rights, which prevailed in the area roughly corresponding to today's northeastern quarter of Poland, including the current Polish capital of Warsaw . In addition to this, many towns in the Duchy of Pomerania in modern north-western Poland and other Baltic port cities were granted Lübeck law , thus
Zalishchyky - Misplaced Pages Continue
3168-399: The law of Ukraine "On protecting the functioning of the Ukrainian language as the state language" was approved by the parliament, formalizing rules governing the usage of the language and introducing penalties for violations. The literary Ukrainian language, which was preceded by Old East Slavic literature, may be subdivided into two stages: during the 12th to 18th centuries what in Ukraine
3267-469: The superior court for these towns, Magdeburg, together with Lübeck , practically defined the law of northern Germany, Poland and Lithuania for centuries, being the heart of the most important "family" of city laws. This role remained until the old Germanic laws were successively replaced with Roman law under the influence of the Reichskammergericht , in the centuries after its establishment during
3366-425: The 11th–12th century, but started becoming more similar to them around the 13th–15th centuries. The modern Russian language hence developed from the fusion of this Novgorod dialect and the common dialect spoken by the other Kievan Rus', whereas the modern Ukrainian and Belarusian languages developed from dialects which did not differ from each other in a significant way. Ukrainian linguist Stepan Smal-Stotsky denies
3465-451: The 13th century, eastern parts of Rus (including Moscow) came under Tatar rule until their unification under the Tsardom of Muscovy , whereas the south-western areas (including Kyiv ) were incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . For the following four centuries, the languages of the two regions evolved in relative isolation from each other. Direct written evidence of the existence of
3564-666: The 13th century, when German settlers were invited to Ukraine by the princes of the Kingdom of Ruthenia, German words began to appear in the language spoken in Ukraine. Their influence would continue under Poland not only through German colonists but also through the Yiddish-speaking Jews. Often such words involve trade or handicrafts. Examples of words of German or Yiddish origin spoken in Ukraine include dakh ("roof"), rura ("pipe"), rynok ("market"), kushnir ("furrier"), and majster ("master" or "craftsman"). In
3663-589: The Cossack motherland, Ukrajina , as a self-appellation for the nation of Ukrainians, and Ukrajins'ka mova for the language. Many writers published works in the Romantic tradition of Europe demonstrating that Ukrainian was not merely a language of the village but suitable for literary pursuits. However, in the Russian Empire expressions of Ukrainian culture and especially language were repeatedly persecuted for fear that
3762-575: The Magdeburg rights. In 1832, the city of Chernivtsi was granted Magdeburg rights by the Austrian authorities. The old towns of Kraków , Lviv , Vilnius and Zamość , considerably developed under the Magdeburg rights, are World Heritage Sites , and Kazimierz Dolny , Lublin , Paczków , Poznań , Przemyśl , Rydzyna , Sandomierz , Stary Sącz , Tykocin and Wrocław are also designated Historic Monuments of Poland . There are memorials to
3861-551: The Nazi forces had been defeated, conditions hardly improved. While Moscow lauded the liberation of the city, even naming a battle division after the city, Communist control soon proved to be worse than Nazi occupation in many ways. Starting less than a day after liberation, denizens of Zalishchyky were arrested by SMERSH and presumably murdered by operatives of the NKVD . In October, more than 800 citizens from Zalishchyky were forcibly drafted by
3960-544: The Orthodox church spoke Ruthenian. The 1654 Pereiaslav Agreement between Cossack Hetmanate and Alexis of Russia divided Ukraine between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Tsardom of Russia. During the following century, both monarchies became increasingly intolerant of Ukrainian own cultural and political aspirations. Ukrainians found themselves in a colonial situation. The Russian centre adopted
4059-834: The Pious in 1253. Following the formation of the Polish–Lithuanian union in 1385, Magdeburg rights spread to Lithuania, first granted to the chief cities of Vilnius , Brest and Kaunas , although more slowly than earlier in Poland, especially late in the east and in private towns . In the 15th and 16th centuries, the rights were granted to many other towns, including, chronologically, Trakai , Grodno , Kyiv , Polotsk , Minsk , Novogrudok , Rechytsa , Slonim , Barysaw , Mogilev , Mazyr , Mir , Pińsk , Alytus , Nyasvizh , Šiauliai , Biržai , Lida , Kėdainiai and Vitebsk . Magdeburg rights in Lithuania were initially modeled after
Zalishchyky - Misplaced Pages Continue
4158-1047: The Polish cities of Kraków and Lublin , and then after Vilnius. Hundreds of towns in Poland and Lithuania, some now located in Belarus, Latvia and Ukraine , were formerly governed on the basis of the location privilege known as the "settlement with German law", excluding local variants of Magdeburg rights, with some of the more notable cities being, chronologically, Lublin , Zielona Góra , Tarnów , Olkusz , Sanok , Bydgoszcz , Rzeszów , Lwów , Będzin , Kielce , Krosno , Wieliczka , Częstochowa , Jarosław , Przemyśl , Chełm , Kazimierz Dolny , Łódź , Kamieniec Podolski , Łuck , Żytomierz , Rivne , Kowel , Siedlce , Leszno , Tarnopol , Rydzyna , Augustów , Płoskirów , Zamość , Daugavpils , Brody , Orsza , Biała Cerkiew , Nowogród Siewierski , Czernihów , Nizhyn , Krzemieńczuk , Vinnytsia , Poltava , Stanisławów , Jēkabpils , Suwałki , Białystok , Uman , Palanga , Telšiai , Cherkasy and Marijampolė . The rights reached
4257-510: The Polish nobility. Many Ukrainian nobles learned the Polish language and converted to Catholicism during that period in order to maintain their lofty aristocratic position. Lower classes were less affected because literacy was common only in the upper class and clergy. The latter were also under significant Polish pressure after the Union with the Catholic Church . Most of the educational system
4356-530: The Principality or Kingdom of Ruthenia. Also according to Andrey Zaliznyak, the Novgorodian dialect differed significantly from that of other dialects of Kievan Rus during the 11th–12th century, but started becoming more similar to them around 13th–15th centuries. The modern Russian language hence developed from the fusion of this Novgorodian dialect and the common dialect spoken by the other Kievan Rus, whereas
4455-552: The Russian Empire. According to the Imperial census's terminology, the Russian language ( Русскій ) was subdivided into Ukrainian (Малорусскій, ' Little Russian '), what is known as Russian today (Великорусскій, ' Great Russian '), and Belarusian (Бѣлорусскій, 'White Russian'). The following table shows the distribution of settlement by native language ( "по родному языку" ) in 1897 in Russian Empire governorates ( guberniyas ) that had more than 100,000 Ukrainian speakers. Although in
4554-460: The Soviet Union and a special term, "a language of inter-ethnic communication", was coined to denote its status. After the death of Stalin (1953), a general policy of relaxing the language policies of the past was implemented (1958 to 1963). The Khrushchev era which followed saw a policy of relatively lenient concessions to development of the languages at the local and republic level, though its results in Ukraine did not go nearly as far as those of
4653-460: The Soviet policy of Ukrainianization in the 1920s. Journals and encyclopedic publications advanced in the Ukrainian language during the Khrushchev era, as well as transfer of Crimea under Ukrainian SSR jurisdiction. Yet, the 1958 school reform that allowed parents to choose the language of primary instruction for their children, unpopular among the circles of the national intelligentsia in parts of
4752-768: The Soviets drowned close to a thousand civilians in the Dniester in what became the Zalishchyky tragedy . On 8 July 1941, German forces entered Zalishchyky and immediately began persecuting the town's Jews – more than 3,700 civilians from Zalishchyky and the surrounding locales were murdered. Many were sent to be slave labor in Nazi-controlled Zhvanets in the fall. On 14 November, several Jews were deported to work camps, 200 to Kamianka-Buzka , and 40 to numerous smaller locales, such as Kutno . Shortly after, 800 Jews were forced to
4851-538: The Soviets to so called penal military units ( Russian : штрафной батальон , Shtrafbaty ) to fight in the Baltic Offensive , less than 20 survived. After the war, the town was largely repaired, as industrial plants, buildings, and roads were rebuilt and recommissioned. In addition, canneries were widely re-established, leading to the opening of bakeries, dairy plants, corn-calibrating plants, as well as factories which produced textiles and other consumer goods. Quite
4950-543: The USSR, meant that non-Russian languages would slowly give way to Russian in light of the pressures of survival and advancement. The gains of the past, already largely reversed by the Stalin era, were offset by the liberal attitude towards the requirement to study the local languages (the requirement to study Russian remained). Parents were usually free to choose the language of study of their children (except in few areas where attending
5049-564: The Ukrainian language dates to the late 16th century. By the 16th century, a peculiar official language formed: a mixture of the liturgical standardised language of Old Church Slavonic , Ruthenian and Polish . The influence of the latter gradually increased relative to the former two, as the nobility and rural large-landowning class, known as the szlachta , was largely Polish-speaking. Documents soon took on many Polish characteristics superimposed on Ruthenian phonetics. Polish–Lithuanian rule and education also involved significant exposure to
SECTION 50
#17330940566605148-470: The Ukrainian language held the formal position of the principal local language in the Ukrainian SSR . However, practice was often a different story: Ukrainian always had to compete with Russian, and the attitudes of the Soviet leadership towards Ukrainian varied from encouragement and tolerance to de facto banishment. Officially, there was no state language in the Soviet Union until the very end when it
5247-465: The Ukrainian language. Examples include torba (bag) and tyutyun (tobacco). Because of the substantial number of loanwords from Polish, German, Czech and Latin, early modern vernacular Ukrainian ( prosta mova , " simple speech ") had more lexical similarity with West Slavic languages than with Russian or Church Slavonic. By the mid-17th century, the linguistic divergence between the Ukrainian and Russian languages had become so significant that there
5346-409: The Ukrainian school might have required a long daily commute) and they often chose Russian, which reinforced the resulting Russification. In this sense, some analysts argue that it was not the "oppression" or "persecution", but rather the lack of protection against the expansion of Russian language that contributed to the relative decline of Ukrainian in the 1970s and 1980s. According to this view, it
5445-489: The better part of the Second Polish–Ottoman War . In 1750, at the invitation of Prince Stanisław Poniatowski , Saxon weavers of Silesian cloth settled on part of an historically older portion of Zalishchyky, and named it Hinterwälden. The establishment marked Zalishchyky's transition from a village to a true town. Hinterwälden still survives today, and is now known as "Old Zalishchyky". In 1766, Zalishchyky received
5544-407: The chancellery and gradually evolved into the Ruthenian language. Polish rule, which came later, was accompanied by a more assimilationist policy. By the 1569 Union of Lublin that formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a significant part of Ukrainian territory was moved from Lithuanian rule to Polish administration, resulting in cultural Polonization and visible attempts to colonize Ukraine by
5643-427: The city passes important European route E85 which connects Baltic coast with the coast of Aegean Sea in northern Greece . Zalishchyky's climate is quite mild, with grapes, peaches and other fruits growing in the area. It is especially famous for its tomatoes. Since the inter-war era, it has been a centre for the tourist industry. Before the collapse of the Soviet Union , some 10,000 visitors arrived annually. In
5742-497: The city. A two-day long "Zalishchyky Fest" ensued. Concurrently, Zalishchyky's government has begun work on repairing infrastructure, such as asphalt repair, paved lighting, new lights, benches, litter bins, and a number of improvements to either of the city's local parks; one of which, the Zalishchyky Central Park, houses a number of historic monuments and rare species of flora. This park and Zalishchyky Park which lies to
5841-482: The commander of Zalishchyky's infantry battalion reported the beginnings of a peasant revolt against the didych ( Ukrainian : дідичів ), the land owners. No battles or skirmishes actually occurred during this "revolt", instead peasants went on strike and lodged complaints to the district council from the government. The Austrian government took many measures to suppress the peasant discontent, and finally in July 1838 evacuated
5940-571: The country, and remained particularly strong in Western Ukraine . Specific developments that led to a gradual change of the Old East Slavic vowel system into the system found in modern Ukrainian began approximately in the 12th/13th century (that is, still at the time of the Kievan Rus') with a lengthening and raising of the Old East Slavic mid vowels e and o when followed by a consonant and
6039-474: The district administration and started a riot in Zalishchyky, all the while torturing innocent civilians. In 1863, the town's Christians rioted against the Jewish population after a Jewish business owner attempted to collect on a loan to a Christian storekeeper. In the ensuing chaos, Jews were beaten and Jewish property was destroyed before police from Chernivtsi were able to suppress the incident. Later that same year
SECTION 60
#17330940566606138-623: The easternmost cities of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , including Roslavl , Smolensk and Starodub , now part of Russia . The advantages of the Magdeburg rights were not only economic, but also political. Members of noble families were able to join the city patriciate usually unchallenged. There were cases of changing the type of municipal rights, such as in Błonie from Magdeburg to Chełmno rights , and in Bielsk Podlaski and Tykocin from Chełmno to Magdeburg rights. Most towns ruled by
6237-407: The existence of a common Old East Slavic language at any time in the past. Similar points of view were shared by Yevhen Tymchenko , Vsevolod Hantsov , Olena Kurylo , Ivan Ohienko and others. According to this theory, the dialects of East Slavic tribes evolved gradually from the common Proto-Slavic language without any intermediate stages during the 6th through 9th centuries. The Ukrainian language
6336-427: The following year, many of whom died of typhus and syphilis . Following the end of the First World War in 1917, the town's economy was bilious and many Jews were either widowed or orphaned by the war. The town recovered from its wartime loses thanks to aid from the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee and Jews from neighboring towns and oblasts. After the dissolution of Austria-Hungary in 1918, Zalishchyky
6435-410: The goods they had brought into the city to local traders, if any wished to buy them. Jews and Germans were sometimes competitors in those cities. Jews lived under privileges that they carefully negotiated with the king or emperor . They were not subject to city jurisdiction. These privileges guaranteed that they could maintain communal autonomy, live according to their laws, and be subjected directly to
6534-450: The interwar period, the town was an important tourist centre of Poland . It is also one of the few wine growing areas in that part of Ukraine. While the first known mention of Zalishchyky is traced back to 1340, the village had already existed for some time, and given its proximity to a number of other prehistoric settlements, probably dates back to the Cucuteni–Trypillia culture of late Paleolithic antiquity. The 'original' Zalishchyky
6633-417: The language of much of the literature was purely or heavily Old Church Slavonic . Some theorists see an early Ukrainian stage in language development here, calling it Old Ruthenian; others term this era Old East Slavic . Russian theorists tend to amalgamate Rus' to the modern nation of Russia, and call this linguistic era Old Russian. However, according to Russian linguist Andrey Zaliznyak (2012), people from
6732-416: The merger of the Old East Slavic vowel phonemes и /i/ and ы /ɨ/ into the specifically Ukrainian phoneme /ɪ ~ e/, spelled with и (in the 13th/14th centuries), and the fricativisation of the Old East Slavic consonant г /g/, probably first to /ɣ/ (in the 13th century), with /ɦ/ as a reflex in Modern Ukrainian, did not happen in Russian. Only the fricativisation of Old East Slavic г /g/ occurred in Belarusian, where
6831-402: The modern Ukrainian and Belarusian languages developed from the dialects which did not differ from each other in a significant way. After the fall of the Kingdom of Ruthenia, Ukrainians mainly fell under the rule of Lithuania and then Poland . Local autonomy of both rule and language was a marked feature of Lithuanian rule. In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Old East Slavic became the language of
6930-443: The name Little Russia for Ukraine and Little Russian for the language, an expression that originated in Byzantine Greek and may originally have meant "old, original, fundamental Russia", and had been in use since the 14th century. Ukrainian high culture went into a long period of steady decline. The Kyiv-Mohyla Academy was taken over by the Russian Empire. Most of the remaining Ukrainian schools also switched to Polish or Russian in
7029-412: The native language for the majority in the nation on the eve of Ukrainian independence, a significant share of ethnic Ukrainians were russified. In Donetsk there were no Ukrainian language schools and in Kyiv only a quarter of children went to Ukrainian language schools. The Russian language was the dominant vehicle, not just of government function, but of the media, commerce, and modernity itself. This
7128-461: The old common law of Poland in private relations. Local variants of Magdeburg law were created, such as Środa law based on the rights granted to Środa Śląska by Henry the Bearded in 1235, Kalisz law, a variant of the Środa law, based on the rights granted to Kalisz by Bolesław the Pious before 1268, and Poznań law, a variant of Magdeburg rights, based on the rights granted to Poznań by Bolesław
7227-481: The original Magdeburg law was relatively rare in what is now northern Poland. In the medieval Kingdom of Hungary , the first town to receive the Magdeburg rights was Székesfehérvár in 1237, followed by Trnava (1238), Nitra (1248), Levoča (1271) and Žilina (1369). Towns and cities including Bardejov , Buda , Bratislava and Košice adopted the Southern German Nuremberg town rights, rather than
7326-590: The outskirts of Zalishchyky, where they were murdered. In 2011, a monument was erected near the execution site (now a sports stadium). The proper site of the execution was developed with residential houses and garages after the end of the Second World War. Much of the town died of hunger and typhoid in the winter of 1941, and Jews were moved to neighboring ghettos, mainly to Tłuste , beginning on 20 September 1942. From Tłuste, most of them were shipped to Bełżec extermination camp , others died during deportations. Only
7425-472: The population said Ukrainian was their native language. Until the 1920s the urban population in Ukraine grew faster than the number of Ukrainian speakers. This implies that there was a (relative) decline in the use of Ukrainian language. For example, in Kyiv, the number of people stating that Ukrainian was their native language declined from 30.3% in 1874 to 16.6% in 1917. During the seven-decade-long Soviet era ,
7524-510: The present-day reflex is /ɣ/. Ahatanhel Krymsky and Aleksey Shakhmatov assumed the existence of the common spoken language of Eastern Slavs only in prehistoric times. According to their point of view, the diversification of the Old East Slavic language took place in the 8th or early 9th century. Russian linguist Andrey Zaliznyak stated that the Old Novgorod dialect differed significantly from that of other dialects of Kievan Rus' during
7623-522: The printing of Ukrainian texts accompanying musical scores. A period of leniency after 1905 was followed by another strict ban in 1914, which also affected Russian-occupied Galicia. For much of the 19th century the Austrian authorities demonstrated some preference for Polish culture, but the Ukrainians were relatively free to partake in their own cultural pursuits in Halychyna and Bukovina , where Ukrainian
7722-512: The right to self-governance under the Magdeburg Law . The new town's seal read, Sigillum civitatis (Za)leszczyki . The 1772 census lists 159 Jewish families of varying professions dwelling in Zalishchyky. Between 1772 and 1918 Zalishchyky was ruled by the Austrian states of the Habsburg monarchy , Austrian Empire , and finally Austria-Hungary , though between 1809 and 1816 it was under control of
7821-402: The rights in 1243 by the duke of Pomerania. The Law of Magdeburg implemented in Poland was different from its original German form. It was combined with a set of civil and criminal laws, and adjusted to include the urban planning popular across Western Europe – which was based (more or less) on the ancient Roman model. Meanwhile, country people often ignorant of the actual German text, practiced
7920-448: The royal jurisdiction in matters concerning Jews and Christians. One of the provisions granted to Jews was that a Jew could not be compelled to be a Gewährsmann /informant; that is, he had the right to keep confidential how he had acquired objects in his possession. A Jew with this right could voluntarily divulge who had gifted, sold, or loaned him the object, but it was illegal to coerce him to say. Other provisions frequently mentioned were
8019-562: The rural regions of the Ukrainian provinces, 80% of the inhabitants said that Ukrainian was their native language in the Census of 1897 (for which the results are given above), in the urban regions only 32.5% of the population claimed Ukrainian as their native language. For example, in Odesa (then part of the Russian Empire), at the time the largest city in the territory of current Ukraine, only 5.6% of
8118-661: The sixteenth and first half of the 17th century, when Ukraine was part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, albeit in spite of being part of the PLC, not as a result. Among many schools established in that time, the Kyiv-Mohyla Collegium (the predecessor of the modern Kyiv-Mohyla Academy ), founded by the Orthodox Metropolitan Peter Mogila , was the most important. At that time languages were associated more with religions: Catholics spoke Polish, and members of
8217-406: The south are a Ukrainian national park. Until 18 July 2020, Zalishchyky was the administrative centre of Zalishchyky Raion . The raion was abolished in July 2020 as part of the administrative reform of Ukraine, which reduced the number of raions of Ternopil Oblast to three. The area of Zalishchyky Raion was merged into Chortkiv Raion. Before the Second World War, the area around Zalishchyky became
8316-462: The term native language may not necessarily associate with the language they use more frequently. The overwhelming majority of ethnic Ukrainians consider the Ukrainian language native , including those who often speak Russian. According to the official 2001 census data, 92.3% of Kyiv region population responded "Ukrainian" to the native language ( ridna mova ) census question, compared with 88.4% in 1989, and 7.2% responded "Russian". In 2019,
8415-558: The territories controlled by these respective countries, which was followed by a new wave of Polonization and Russification of the native nobility. Gradually the official language of Ukrainian provinces under Poland was changed to Polish, while the upper classes in the Russian part of Ukraine used Russian. During the 19th century, a revival of Ukrainian self-identification manifested in the literary classes of both Russian-Empire Dnieper Ukraine and Austrian Galicia . The Brotherhood of Sts Cyril and Methodius in Kyiv applied an old word for
8514-516: The use of Ukrainian. The educational system in Ukraine has been transformed over the first decade of independence from a system that is partly Ukrainian to one that is overwhelmingly so. The government has also mandated a progressively increased role for Ukrainian in the media and commerce. In the 2001 census , 67.5% of the country's population named Ukrainian as their native language (a 2.8% increase from 1989), while 29.6% named Russian (a 3.2% decrease). For many Ukrainians (of various ethnic origins),
8613-575: Was a need for translators during negotiations for the Treaty of Pereyaslav , between Bohdan Khmelnytsky , head of the Zaporozhian Host , and the Russian state. By the 18th century, Ruthenian had diverged into regional variants, developing into the modern Belarusian , Rusyn , and Ukrainian languages. The accepted chronology of Ukrainian divides the language into Old Ukrainian, Middle Ukrainian, and Modern Ukrainian. Shevelov explains that much of this
8712-509: Was actually founded in the area just outside of the modern town's borders, on the land that is now the Ukrainian village of Dobrivliany (which existed as a subdivision of the modern city between 1981 and 1986). In 1469, this village was a peasant farming community under the name Zalissia ( Залісся ) and later Zalishche ( Залісще ) in the 15th century. In 1569, Zalishchyky was assigned to the Podolian Voivodship , an administrative unit of
8811-566: Was annexed along with the majority of East Galicia by the short-lived West Ukrainian People's Republic , following which Yevhen Petrushevych was appointed as the town dictator. After the subsequent Polish–Ukrainian War ended in Polish victory, and the total looting of Zalishchyky, the town was again under Polish sovereignty. Zalishchyky became part of the Tarnopol Voivodeship . Under the Second Polish Republic , Zalishchyky
8910-476: Was devastated, and turned into fertilizer storage. All Jewish activity ceased, with the exception of some continuing education in Yiddish schools. Following the onset of the war, many officials from the Polish government and military travelled through Zalishchyky en route to Romania , whose borders still remain within a considerably short distance from the modern town. In early July 1941, on a date not certainly known,
9009-548: Was exiled for seven years to Arkhangelsk . The Ukrainian magazine Osnova was discontinued. In 1863, the tsarist interior minister Pyotr Valuyev proclaimed in his decree that "there never has been, is not, and never can be a separate Little Russian language". Although the name of Ukraine is known since 1187, it was not applied to the language until the mid-19th century. The linguonym Ukrainian language appears in Yakub Holovatsky 's book from 1849, listed there as
9108-448: Was formed by convergence of tribal dialects, mostly due to an intensive migration of the population within the territory of today's Ukraine in later historical periods. This point of view was also supported by George Shevelov 's phonological studies, which argue that specific features were already recognizable in the southern dialects of Old East Slavic (seen as ancestors to Ukrainian) as far back as these varieties can be documented. As
9207-407: Was gradually Polonized. In Ruthenia, the language of administrative documents gradually shifted towards Polish. Polish has had heavy influences on Ukrainian (particularly in Western Ukraine ). The southwestern Ukrainian dialects are transitional to Polish. As the Ukrainian language developed further, some borrowings from Tatar and Turkish occurred. Ukrainian culture and language flourished in
9306-554: Was inevitable that successful careers required a good command of Russian, while knowledge of Ukrainian was not vital, so it was common for Ukrainian parents to send their children to Russian-language schools, even though Ukrainian-language schools were usually available. The number of students in Russian-language in Ukraine schools was constantly increasing, from 14 percent in 1939 to more than 30 percent in 1962. The Communist Party leader from 1963 to 1972, Petro Shelest , pursued
9405-482: Was lessened only slightly after 1985. The management of dissent by the local Ukrainian Communist Party was more fierce and thorough than in other parts of the Soviet Union. As a result, at the start of the Mikhail Gorbachev reforms perebudova and hlasnist’ (Ukrainian for perestroika and glasnost ), Ukraine under Shcherbytsky was slower to liberalize than Russia itself. Although Ukrainian still remained
9504-400: Was located in the extreme southeast corner of the country, and developed into a very popular spa, and was dubbed the "Polish Meran " or the "Polish Riviera ", especially popular were the sandy beaches located along the Dniester . The town was regarded as the warmest town in Poland and the Polish capital of grapevine , with annual grape festivals taking place here every summer. Zalishchyky had
9603-537: Was proclaimed in 1990 that Russian language was the all-Union state language and that the constituent republics had rights to declare additional state languages within their jurisdictions. Still it was implicitly understood in the hopes of minority nations that Ukrainian would be used in the Ukrainian SSR, Uzbek would be used in the Uzbek SSR , and so on. However, Russian was used as the lingua franca in all parts of
9702-400: Was substantially less the case for western Ukraine, which escaped the artificial famine , Great Purge , and most of Stalinism . And this region became the center of a hearty, if only partial, renaissance of the Ukrainian language during independence. Since 1991, Ukrainian has been the official state language in Ukraine, and the state administration implemented government policies to broaden
9801-532: Was widely used in education and official documents. The suppression by Russia hampered the literary development of the Ukrainian language in Dnipro Ukraine, but there was a constant exchange with Halychyna, and many works were published under Austria and smuggled to the east. By the time of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the collapse of Austro-Hungary in 1918, Ukrainians were ready to openly develop
#659340