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58-437: The ZEUS detector comprised many different detector components, including a depleted uranium plastic- scintillator calorimeter , a central tracking detector (which was a wire chamber ), a silicon microvertex detector and muon chambers . In addition, a solenoid provided a 1.43  T magnetic field . The ZEUS detector measured 12 m × 11 m × 20 m and weighed 3600 tons. Like its partner experiment H1 ,

116-448: A compensating calorimeter the response ( e ) for an electromagnetic cascade is equal to the response ( h ) for a hadronic cascade of the same energy (i.e. e / h = 1 ). In the ZEUS calorimeter neutral pions interacted with uranium atoms to produce slow-moving neutrons which were captured by the scintillator and increased the hadronic signal. Another advantage of using uranium as the absorber

174-503: A core made using depleted uranium, later changed to tungsten . Another use of depleted uranium is in kinetic energy penetrators , anti-armor rounds such as the 120 mm sabot rounds fired from the British Challenger 1 , Challenger 2 , M1A1 and M1A2 Abrams. Kinetic energy penetrator rounds consist of a long, relatively thin penetrator surrounded by a discarding sabot. Staballoys are metal alloys of depleted uranium with

232-592: A debate in 2009 about the effects of the use of armaments and ammunitions containing depleted uranium. All other European Union nations voted in favour or abstained. The ambassador from the Netherlands explained his negative vote as being due to the reference in the preamble to the resolution "to potential harmful effects of the use of depleted uranium munitions on human health and the environment [which] cannot, in our view, be supported by conclusive scientific studies conducted by relevant international organizations." None of

290-473: A higher-than-natural concentration of lower- mass-number uranium isotopes (in particular U, which is the uranium isotope supporting the fission chain reaction ) with the bulk of the feed ending up as depleted uranium. Natural uranium metal contains about 0.71% U, 99.28% U, and about 0.0054% U. The production of enriched uranium using isotope separation creates depleted uranium containing only 0.2% to 0.4% U. Because natural uranium begins with such

348-543: A low percentage of U, enrichment produces large quantities of depleted uranium. For example, producing 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) of 5% enriched uranium requires 11.8 kilograms (26 lb) of natural uranium, and leaves about 10.8 kilograms (24 lb) of depleted uranium having only 0.3% U. Depleted uranium is further produced by recycling spent nuclear fuel , in which case it contains traces of neptunium and plutonium . These quantities are so small that they are not considered to be of serious radiological significance by

406-404: A much longer half-life than the lighter isotopes, DU is about 40% less radioactive than natural uranium. Most of the alpha radiation comes from U and U whereas beta radiation comes from decay products Th and Pa that are formed within a few weeks. The United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) defines depleted uranium as uranium with a percentage of the U isotope that

464-438: A nature to cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering and urged all states to curb the production and the spread of such weapons. Included in the list was weaponry containing depleted uranium. The committee authorized a working paper, in the context of human rights and humanitarian norms, of the weapons. The requested UN working paper was delivered in 2002 by Y. K. J. Yeung Sik Yuen in accordance with Sub-Commission on

522-503: A three-week period of conflict in Iraq during 2003, it was estimated that between 1,000 and 2,000 tonnes of depleted uranium munitions were used. More than 300,000 DU rounds were fired during the 2003 war, the vast majority by US troops. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) estimates that between 170 and 1,700 tonnes of depleted uranium was dropped in Iraq by the US military since 2003, whereas

580-523: A unanimous parliamentary vote on the issue on 22 March 2007. The text of the 2007 law allowed for two years to pass until it came into force. In April 2009, the Belgian Senate voted unanimously to restrict investments by Belgian banks into the manufacturers of depleted uranium weapons. In September 2009, the Latin American Parliament passed a resolution calling for a regional moratorium on

638-412: A very small proportion of other metals, usually titanium or molybdenum . One formulation has a composition of 99.25% by mass of depleted uranium and 0.75% by mass of titanium . Staballoys are approximately 1.67 times as dense as lead and are designed for use in kinetic energy penetrator armor-piercing ammunition. The US Army uses DU in an alloy with around 3.5% titanium. Depleted uranium is favored for

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696-419: Is also a matter of concern. Depleted uranium is very dense; at 19,050 kg/m , it is 1.67 times as dense as lead , only slightly less dense than tungsten and gold , and only 16% less than osmium or iridium , which are the densest known substances under standard (i.e., Earth-surface) pressures. Consequently, a DU projectile of given mass has a smaller diameter than an equivalent lead projectile with

754-552: Is considered sufficiently "hot" and dangerous to warrant these protections. But since weapons containing DU are relatively new weapons no treaty exists yet to regulate, limit or prohibit its use. The legality or illegality of DU weapons must therefore be tested by recourse to the general rules governing the use of weapons under humanitarian and human rights law which have already been analysed in Part I of this paper, and more particularly at paragraph 35 which states that parties to Protocol I to

812-501: Is controversial because of concerns about potential long-term health effects. Normal functioning of the kidney , brain , liver , heart , and numerous other systems can be affected by exposure to uranium, a toxic metal . It is only weakly radioactive because of the long radioactive half-life of U (4.468 × 10 or 4,468,000,000 years) and the low amounts of U (half-life about 246,000 years) and U (half-life 700 million years). The biological half-life (the average time it takes for

870-502: Is less than 0.711% by weight (see 10 CFR 40.4 ). The military specifications designate that the DU used by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) contain less than 0.3% U. In actuality, DoD uses only DU that contains approximately 0.2% U. Enriched uranium was first manufactured in the early 1940s when the United States and Great Britain began their nuclear weapons programs. Later in

928-555: Is radioactive, and precautions should be taken. It is also highly toxic. Whether ingested, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin , uranyl fluoride is corrosive and may harm internal organs, potentially resulting in death. Effects of exposure may be delayed. The U.S. government has been converting depleted UF 6 to solid uranium oxides for use or disposal. Such disposal of the entire D UF 6 inventory could cost anywhere from US$ 15 million to US$ 450 million. The vulnerability of DUF 6 storage cylinders to terrorist attack

986-541: Is the main component of depleted uranium. Depleted uranium is notable for the extremely high density of its metallic form: at 19.1 grams per cubic centimetre (0.69  lb/cu in ), DU is 68.4% more dense than lead . Civilian uses include counterweights in aircraft, radiation shielding in medical radiation therapy , research and industrial radiography equipment, and containers for transporting radioactive materials. Military uses include armor plating and armor-piercing projectiles . The use of DU in munitions

1044-512: The U content, which is 55 ppm in uranium from the Oklo Mine as well as all other natural sources, but will be lower in depleted uranium in accordance with the degree of depletion. About 95% of the depleted uranium produced until now is stored as uranium hexafluoride , or (D) UF 6 , in steel cylinders in open air storage yards close to enrichment plants. Each cylinder typically holds up to 12.7 tonnes (14.0 short tons) of UF 6 . In

1102-529: The 1991 Gulf War , the Bosnia war , bombing of Serbia , the 2003 invasion of Iraq , and 2015 airstrikes on ISIS in Syria. It is estimated that between 315 and 350 tons of DU were used in the 1991 Gulf War. Most depleted uranium arises as a by-product of the production of enriched uranium for use as fuel in nuclear reactors and in the manufacture of nuclear weapons . Enrichment processes generate uranium with

1160-700: The Convention on Conventional Weapons of 1980, and the Chemical Weapons Convention . Yeung Sik Yuen writes in Paragraph 133 under the title " Legal compliance of weapons containing DU as a new weapon ": Annex II to the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material 1980 (which became operative on 8 February 1997) classifies DU as a category II nuclear material. Storage and transport rules are set down for that category which indicates that DU

1218-511: The European Committee on Radiation Risk . DU from nuclear reprocessing has different isotopic ratios from enrichment-by-product DU, from which it can be distinguished by the presence of U . The only known natural source of uranium with a U content significantly different from 0.71% is found in the natural nuclear fission reactor at Oklo, Gabon . It can be "fingerprinted" as different in origin from manmade depleted uranium by

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1276-997: The GAU-8 Avenger cannon of the A-10 Thunderbolt II used by the United States Air Force . 25 mm DU rounds have been used in the M242 gun mounted on the U.S. Army's Bradley Fighting Vehicle and the Marine Corps 's LAV-25 . The U.S. Marine Corps uses DU in the 25 mm PGU-20 round fired by the GAU-12 Equalizer cannon of the AV-8B Harrier , and also in the 20 mm M197 gun mounted on AH-1 Cobra helicopter gunships. The United States Navy 's Phalanx CIWS 's M61 Vulcan Gatling gun used 20 mm armor-piercing penetrator rounds with discarding plastic sabots and

1334-537: The Gulf War . According to a 2013 study, despite the use of DU by coalition forces in Fallujah , Iraq , no DU has been found in soil samples taken from the city, although another study of 2011 had indicated elevated levels of uranium in tissues of the city inhabitants. Natural uranium contains about 0.72% U. Depleted uranium has lower mass fractions —up to three times less—of U and U than natural uranium. Since U has

1392-474: The United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research , depleted uranium does not meet the legal definitions of nuclear, radiological, toxin, chemical, poison or incendiary weapons, as far as DU ammunition is not designed nor intended to kill or wound by its chemical or radiological effects. A number of anti-war activists specializing in international humanitarian law have questioned the legality of

1450-589: The Czech Republic, which voted against the resolution in 2007, abstained. The two other states that voted against the resolution were Israel and the United States (both of which voted against in 2007), while as before China was absent for the vote, and Russia abstained. In June 2009, Belgium became the first country in the world to ban: "inert ammunition and armour that contains depleted uranium or any other industrially manufactured uranium." The move followed

1508-704: The Geneva Conventions of 1949 have an obligation to ascertain that new weapons do not violate the laws and customs of war or any other international law. As mentioned, the International Court of Justice considers this rule binding customary humanitarian law. Louise Arbour , chief prosecutor for the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia led a committee of staff lawyers to investigate possible treaty prohibitions against

1566-483: The Geneva Protocol of 17 June 1925—did not cover nuclear weapons, because their prime or exclusive use was not to poison or asphyxiate. This ICJ opinion was about nuclear weapons, but the sentence "The terms have been understood, in the practice of States, in their ordinary sense as covering weapons whose prime, or even exclusive, effect is to poison or asphyxiate," also removes depleted uranium weaponry from coverage by

1624-905: The Promotion and Protection of Human Rights resolution 2001/36. He argues that the use of DU in weapons, along with the other weapons listed by the Sub‑Commission, may breach one or more of the following treaties: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights , the Charter of the United Nations , the Genocide Convention , the United Nations Convention Against Torture , the Geneva Conventions including Protocol I ,

1682-419: The U.S. 560,000 tonnes (620,000 short tons) of depleted UF 6 had accumulated by 1993. In 2008, 686,500 tonnes (756,700 short tons) in 57,122 storage cylinders were located near Portsmouth , Ohio; Oak Ridge , Tennessee; and Paducah , Kentucky. The storage of (D) UF 6 presents environmental, health, and safety risks because of its chemical instability. When UF 6 is exposed to water vapor in

1740-779: The UK reported firing 1.9 tonnes of depleted uranium weapons in Iraq In March 2023, the UK government confirmed it was sending DU rounds to Ukraine along with its Challenger 2 tanks with its 120mm ammunition during the Russian invasion . In 1996, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) gave an advisory opinion on the " legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons ". This made it clear, in paragraphs 54–56, that international law on poisonous weapons—the Second Hague Declaration of 29 July 1899, Hague Convention IV of 18 October 1907 and

1798-502: The ZEUS detector were the tracking components, the calorimeter and the muon detectors. The purpose of the ZEUS detector was to collect data to allow the reconstruction of physics events in a consistent way so they can be analyzed. The ZEUS Calorimeter was a uranium scintillator based sampling calorimeter and divided into three main sections: the BCAL (Barrel CALorimeter), FCAL (Forward CALorimeter), and RCAL (Rear CALorimeter). Each section

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1856-524: The ZEUS experiment studied the internal structure of the proton through measurements of deep inelastic scattering by colliding leptons ( electrons or positrons ) with protons in the interaction point of ZEUS. These measurements were also used to test and study the Standard Model of particle physics as well as to search for particles beyond the Standard Model, laying the foundation to much of

1914-408: The air, it reacts with the moisture to produce UO 2 F 2 (uranyl fluoride), a solid, and HF (hydrogen fluoride), a gas, both of which are highly soluble and toxic. The uranyl fluoride solid acts to plug the leak, limiting further escape of depleted UF 6 . Release of the hydrogen fluoride gas to the atmosphere is also slowed by the plug formation. Like any other uranium compound, it

1972-427: The armor plating in the front of the turret, and there is a program to upgrade older tanks. Depleted uranium can be used as a tamper , or neutron reflector , in fission bombs . A high density tamper like DU makes for a longer-lasting, more energetic, and more efficient explosion. Most military use of depleted uranium has been as 30 mm ordnance, primarily the 30 mm PGU-14/B armor-piercing incendiary round from

2030-549: The continued use of depleted uranium weapons, highlighting that the effects may breach the principle of distinction (between civilians and military personnel). Some states and the International Coalition to Ban Uranium Weapons , a coalition of more than 155 non-governmental organizations , have asked for a ban on the production and military use of depleted uranium weapons. The European Parliament has repeatedly passed resolutions requesting an immediate moratorium on

2088-462: The decade, France and the Soviet Union began their nuclear weapons and nuclear power programs. Depleted uranium was originally stored as an unusable waste product ( uranium hexafluoride ) in the hope that improved enrichment processes could extract additional quantities of the fissionable U isotope . This re-enrichment recovery of the residual uranium-235 is now in practice in some parts of

2146-524: The further use of depleted uranium ammunition, but France and Britain – the only European states that are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council —have consistently rejected calls for a ban, maintaining that its use continues to be legal, and that the health risks are unsubstantiated. In 2007, France, Britain, the Netherlands, and the Czech Republic voted against a United Nations General Assembly resolution to hold

2204-479: The human body to eliminate half the amount in the body) for uranium is about 15 days. The aerosol or spallation frangible powder produced by impact and combustion of depleted uranium munitions (or armour) can potentially contaminate wide areas around the impact sites, leading to possible inhalation by human beings. The actual level of acute and chronic toxicity of DU is also controversial. Several studies using cultured cells and laboratory rodents suggest

2262-481: The impact of uranium munitions by late 2010—to coincide with the General Assembly's 65th Session, four voted against, 34 abstained and 13 were absent. As before Britain and France voted against the resolution. All other European Union nations voted in favour or abstained: the Netherlands, which voted against a resolution in 2007, voted in favour, as did Finland and Norway , both of which had abstained in 2007, while

2320-434: The issue. The report was largely split between states concerned about depleted uranium's use, such as Finland , Cuba , Japan , Serbia , Argentina , and predominantly NATO members, who do not consider the use of depleted uranium munitions problematic. In December 2008, 141 states supported a resolution requesting that three UN agencies: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), WHO and IAEA update their research on

2378-409: The late 1990s to armor-piercing tungsten. Only the US and the UK have acknowledged using DU weapons. The Soviet Union and Russia have used DU weaponry since the 3BM-32 Vant, designed for the 125 mm tank cannons. In 2018, TASS reported that Russia was arming some of its T-80 models with 3BM60 Svinets-2 DU rounds. 782,414 DU rounds were fired during the 1991 war in Iraq, mostly by US forces. In

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2436-526: The long-term environmental impacts of depleted uranium identified by the United Nations Environment Programme, states should adopt a precautionary approach to its use. In December 2014, 150 states supported a United Nations' General Assembly resolution encouraging states to provide assistance to states affected by the use of depleted uranium weapons, in particular in identifying and managing contaminated sites and material. In contrast to

2494-440: The mushroomed tip improves penetration properties compared to the complete dispersal that takes place with tungsten penetrators, therefore DU penetrators are 20% more effective than tungsten rounds. The impact and subsequent release of heat energy causes it to ignite when in contact with oxygen. When a DU penetrator reaches the interior of an armored vehicle, it catches fire, often igniting ammunition and fuel and possibly causing

2552-721: The other permanent members of the United Nations Security Council supported the resolution as China was absent for the vote, Russia abstained and the United States voted against the resolution. In September 2008, and in response to the 2007 General Assembly resolution, the UN Secretary General published the views of 15 states alongside those of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and World Health Organization (WHO). The IAEA and WHO evidence differed little from previous statements on

2610-421: The penetrator because it is self-sharpening and flammable . On impact with a hard target, such as an armored vehicle, the tip of the projectile will be "mushroomed", while the back of the projectile is still a rigid solid, this leads to adiabatic shearing and together with the spin of the projectile results in a shedding of the mushroomed plastic phase in such a way that it forms a new sharp tip. This shedding of

2668-696: The possibility of leukemogenic , genetic , reproductive , and neurological effects from chronic exposure. According to an article in Al Jazeera , DU from American artillery is suspected to be one of the major causes of an increase in the general mortality rate in Iraq since 1991. A 2005 epidemiology review concluded "In aggregate the human epidemiological evidence is consistent with increased risk of birth defects in offspring of persons exposed to DU." A 2021 study concluded that DU from exploding munitions did not lead to Gulf War illness in American veterans deployed in

2726-926: The previous biennial resolutions, Germany moved to an abstention from supporting to the resolutions. Prior to the vote, in a report to the United Nations Secretary General requested by 2012's resolution published in June 2014, Iraq had called for a global treaty ban on depleted uranium weapons. Depleted uranium has a very high density and is primarily used as shielding material for other radioactive material, and as ballast . Examples include sailboat keels , as counterweights and as shielding in industrial radiography cameras. Most civilian nuclear reactors , as well as all naval reactors , require fuel containing concentrated U, and production of that fuel generates depleted uranium as residue. Some power-generating reactors design are able to use unenriched fuel, for example

2784-511: The same kinetic energy , with less aerodynamic drag and deeper penetration because of a higher pressure at point of impact. DU projectiles are inherently incendiary because they become pyrophoric upon impact with the target. Because of its high density, depleted uranium can also be used in tank armor, sandwiched between sheets of steel armor plate. For instance, some late-production M1A1 and M1A2 Abrams tanks built after 1998 have DU modules integrated into their Chobham armor , as part of

2842-506: The same treaties as their primary use is not to poison or asphyxiate, but to destroy materiel and kill soldiers through kinetic energy . The Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities of the United Nations Human Rights Commission , passed two motions —the first in 1996 and the second in 1997. They listed weapons of mass destruction , or weapons with indiscriminate effect, or of

2900-597: The science done at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at the CERN particle physics laboratory today. The German national laboratory DESY was founded in 1959 and started operating its first particle accelerator in 1964. Since then, it has been a highly regarded center for particle physics , photon science, astroparticle physics , and the development, construction and operation of particle accelerators. The design effort for ZEUS can be traced back to 1982. A Letter of Intent

2958-495: The use of DU in weapons. Their findings were that: There is no specific treaty ban on the use of DU projectiles. There is a developing scientific debate and concern expressed regarding the impact of the use of such projectiles and it is possible that, in future, there will be a consensus view in international legal circles that use of such projectiles violate general principles of the law applicable to use of weapons in armed conflict. No such consensus exists at present. According to

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3016-621: The use, production and procurement of uranium weapons. It also called on the Parlatino's members to work towards an international uranium weapons treaty. In November 2010 the Irish Senate passed a bill seeking to outlaw depleted uranium weapons, but it lapsed before approval by the Dáil . In December 2010, 148 states supported a United Nations' General Assembly resolution calling for the states that use depleted uranium weapons in conflict to reveal where

3074-633: The vehicle to explode. DU is used by the U.S. Army in 120 mm or 105 mm cannons employed on the M1 Abrams tank . The DU content in various ammunition is 180 g in 20 mm projectiles, 200 g in 25 mm ones, 280 g in 30 mm, 3.5 kg in 105 mm, and 4.5 kg in 120 mm penetrators. DU was used during the mid-1990s in the U.S. to make hand grenades , and land mines , but those applications have been discontinued, according to Alliant Techsystems . The US Navy used DU in its 20 mm Phalanx CIWS guns, but switched in

3132-461: The weapons have been fired when asked to do so by the country upon whose territory they have been used. In April 2011, the Congress of Costa Rica passed a law prohibiting uranium weapons in its territories, becoming the second country in the world to do so. In December 2012, 155 states supported a United Nations' General Assembly resolution that recalled that, because of the ongoing uncertainties over

3190-575: The world; e.g. in 1996 over 6000 metric tonnes were upgraded in a Russian plant. In the 1970s, the Pentagon reported that the Soviet military had developed armor plating for Warsaw Pact tanks that NATO ammunition could not penetrate. The Pentagon began searching for material to make denser armor-piercing projectiles . After testing various metals, ordnance researchers settled on depleted uranium. The US and NATO militaries used DU penetrator rounds in

3248-508: Was subdivided transversely into towers, and longitudinally into EMC (Electro-Magnetic Calorimeter) or HAC (HAdronic Calorimeter). The smallest subdivision in the calorimeter was called a cell. Each cell was read out by two photomultiplier tubes (PMTs), which helped ensure that there were no holes in the coverage if one of the two PMTs failed. Uranium was chosen as an absorber so that the calorimeter would be compensating. Electrons and photons deposit energy differently from hadrons , but in

3306-472: Was submitted in 1985. The ZEUS detector was operational with the first collisions of the HERA collider in 1992. The last electron–proton collisions at ZEUS were recorded on 30 June 2007. The other multi-purpose experiment at the HERA collider was the competing H1 experiment. Since May 2012, the former ZEUS detector hall has been used as a lab space for the international European XFEL project. The main components of

3364-472: Was that the natural radioactivity allowed the calorimeter's sensitivity to be conveniently monitored. 53°34′29″N 9°53′44″E  /  53.574603°N 9.89555°E  / 53.574603; 9.89555 Depleted uranium Depleted uranium ( DU ; also referred to in the past as Q-metal , depletalloy or D-38 ) is uranium with a lower content of the fissile isotope U than natural uranium. The less radioactive and non-fissile U

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