Optics is the branch of physics that studies the behaviour and properties of light , including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. Optics usually describes the behaviour of visible , ultraviolet , and infrared light. Light is a type of electromagnetic radiation , and other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays , microwaves , and radio waves exhibit similar properties.
141-448: Carl Zeiss AG ( / z aɪ s / ZYSE , German: [kaʁl ˈtsaɪs] ), branded as ZEISS , is a German manufacturer of optical systems and optoelectronics , founded in Jena , Germany in 1846 by optician Carl Zeiss . Together with Ernst Abbe (joined 1866) and Otto Schott (joined 1884) he laid the foundation for today's multinational company. The current company emerged from
282-418: A 1/1000s shutter speed. The lens it had equipped out of the box was Tessar optical formula derivate Industar-29 with semi-automatic diaphragm. The rough production numbers of this camera were around 50,000 units. The camera was often exported with changed name. The cameras named Zenith 80 , Revue 6x6 , Revue 80 and Vitoflex all refer to this same camera and have the same features. This camera upgraded
423-430: A broad band, or extremely low reflectivity at a single wavelength. Constructive interference in thin films can create a strong reflection of light in a range of wavelengths, which can be narrow or broad depending on the design of the coating. These films are used to make dielectric mirrors , interference filters , heat reflectors , and filters for colour separation in colour television cameras. This interference effect
564-619: A changing index of refraction; this principle allows for lenses and the focusing of light. The simplest case of refraction occurs when there is an interface between a uniform medium with index of refraction n 1 and another medium with index of refraction n 2 . In such situations, Snell's Law describes the resulting deflection of the light ray: n 1 sin θ 1 = n 2 sin θ 2 {\displaystyle n_{1}\sin \theta _{1}=n_{2}\sin \theta _{2}} where θ 1 and θ 2 are
705-507: A collaboration with HMD Global announced on 6 July 2017. On 17 December 2020, Vivo and Zeiss announced a long-term strategic partnership to jointly promote and develop breakthrough innovations in mobile imaging technology. The first “Vivo Zeiss co-engineered imaging system” will be featured in the Vivo X60 series, followed by Vivo X-Fold 3 Pro, and lowered to their V-series. As part of the collaboration agreement, Vivo and Zeiss will establish
846-475: A competent scientist so as to take the firm beyond just being another optical workshop. In 1866, the service of Dr. Ernst Abbe was enlisted. From then on novel products appeared in rapid succession which brought the Zeiss company to the forefront of optical technology. Abbe was instrumental in the development of the famous Jena optical glass. When he was trying to eliminate stigmatism from microscopes, he realized that
987-399: A converging lens has positive focal length, while a diverging lens has negative focal length. Smaller focal length indicates that the lens has a stronger converging or diverging effect. The focal length of a simple lens in air is given by the lensmaker's equation . Ray tracing can be used to show how images are formed by a lens. For a thin lens in air, the location of the image is given by
1128-453: A different lens - Volna-3. The Kiev 88 and Kiev 88 TTL were the same cameras as the Salyut S, but with added hot shoe for flash synchronization . Those cameras were equipped with Volna-3 lenses out of the box. The difference between those two models was that Kiev 88 TTL had a TTL metering prism, where Kiev 88 had a non-metering prism. Since those cameras had interchangeable viewfinders and prisms,
1269-586: A few cases recruited in West Germany. Any still available parts went in the same direction. In fact, removing the front of some very early Kiev cameras, one could see that the metal was originally stamped with the Contax name, then pressed out and re-stamped as Kiev. By the early 1950 all the parts for Kiev cameras were produced in Ukraine. The Kiev camera, like Zeiss Ikon Contax, is a full frame 35mm rangefinder camera with
1410-401: A horizontally running focal plane shutter with speeds ranging from 1/2s to 1/1000s + B. By default it was delivered with Vega-12 lens. There are export versions which instead of КИЕВ on the nameplate say KIEV, the lens as well changes from Вега to Vega. It came with either a waist-level finder which lets the user compose the photo while looking into the camera, but comes with the disadvantage of
1551-416: A long rangefinder base and combined rangefinder-viewfinder. It has a metal "window blind" shutter, which runs vertically. Shutter speeds range from 1/2s to 1/1250s + B. The four digit serial numbers (first two digits represent the production year, and four additional digits represent the actual serial number) and research suggest production of less than 5,000 cameras annually. The Kiev 2 was very similar to
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#17330853773831692-464: A lot more than the original Kievs, and was sold in parallel to them, causing them to have a comparatively short lifespan. The total production numbers are estimated between 8,000 and 50,000 units, making the camera quite rare. Some Kiev lenses are the same as Soviet m39 lenses for Zorki / FED rangefinders , but there are some exceptions. Orion-15 is a very rare lens in Contax/Kiev mount. Unlike
1833-684: A new asymmetrical lens with four thin elements, the Unar Series Ib, with apertures up to f/4.5. Due to its high speed, it was used extensively on hand cameras. The most important Zeiss lens by Rudolph was the Tessar , first sold in 1902 in its Series IIb f/6.3 form. It can be said as a combination of the front half of the Unar with the rear half of the Protar. This proved to be the most valuable and flexible design, with tremendous development potential. Its maximum aperture
1974-449: A reunification of Carl Zeiss companies in East and West Germany with a consolidation phase in the 1990s. ZEISS is active in four business segments with approximately equal revenue (Industrial Quality and Research, Medical Technology, Consumer Markets and Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology) in almost 50 countries, has 30 production sites and around 25 development sites worldwide. Carl Zeiss AG
2115-633: A self-timer. Kiev medium format cameras can generally be divided into two families. The Kiev brand of medium format cameras started forming, when the Arsenal factory decided to try copying the Hasselblad 1600F around 1956–57. These cameras used a screw-type lens mount similar to the original Hasselblad mount, however, there are mixed reports on compatibility between the two. Most film backs are not compatible between Kievs and Hasselblads due to different gear mechanisms. However, Kiev viewfinders are compatible with
2256-477: A single scalar quantity to represent the electric field of the light wave, rather than using a vector model with orthogonal electric and magnetic vectors. The Huygens–Fresnel equation is one such model. This was derived empirically by Fresnel in 1815, based on Huygens' hypothesis that each point on a wavefront generates a secondary spherical wavefront, which Fresnel combined with the principle of superposition of waves. The Kirchhoff diffraction equation , which
2397-496: A single combination with four cemented elements, which can be considered as having all the elements of the Protar stuck together in one piece. Marketed in 1894, it was called the Protarlinse Series VII, the most highly corrected single combination lens with maximum apertures between f/11 and f/12.5, depending on its focal length. But the important thing about this Protarlinse is that two of these lens units can be mounted in
2538-522: A single point on the image, while chromatic aberration occurs because the index of refraction of the lens varies with the wavelength of the light. In physical optics, light is considered to propagate as waves. This model predicts phenomena such as interference and diffraction, which are not explained by geometric optics. The speed of light waves in air is approximately 3.0×10 m/s (exactly 299,792,458 m/s in vacuum ). The wavelength of visible light waves varies between 400 and 700 nm, but
2679-437: A spectrum. The discovery of this phenomenon when passing light through a prism is famously attributed to Isaac Newton. Some media have an index of refraction which varies gradually with position and, therefore, light rays in the medium are curved. This effect is responsible for mirages seen on hot days: a change in index of refraction air with height causes light rays to bend, creating the appearance of specular reflections in
2820-465: A thickness of one-fourth the wavelength of incident light. The reflected wave from the top of the film and the reflected wave from the film/material interface are then exactly 180° out of phase, causing destructive interference. The waves are only exactly out of phase for one wavelength, which would typically be chosen to be near the centre of the visible spectrum, around 550 nm. More complex designs using multiple layers can achieve low reflectivity over
2961-476: A variety of technologies and everyday objects, including mirrors , lenses , telescopes , microscopes , lasers , and fibre optics . Optics began with the development of lenses by the ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians . The earliest known lenses, made from polished crystal , often quartz , date from as early as 2000 BC from Crete (Archaeological Museum of Heraclion, Greece). Lenses from Rhodes date around 700 BC, as do Assyrian lenses such as
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#17330853773833102-525: A wide range of scientific topics, and discussed light from four different perspectives: an epistemology of light, a metaphysics or cosmogony of light, an etiology or physics of light, and a theology of light, basing it on the works of Aristotle and Platonism. Grosseteste's most famous disciple, Roger Bacon , wrote works citing a wide range of recently translated optical and philosophical works, including those of Alhazen, Aristotle, Avicenna , Averroes , Euclid, al-Kindi, Ptolemy, Tideus, and Constantine
3243-591: Is a more comprehensive model of light, which includes wave effects such as diffraction and interference that cannot be accounted for in geometric optics. Historically, the ray-based model of light was developed first, followed by the wave model of light. Progress in electromagnetic theory in the 19th century led to the discovery that light waves were in fact electromagnetic radiation. Some phenomena depend on light having both wave-like and particle-like properties . Explanation of these effects requires quantum mechanics . When considering light's particle-like properties,
3384-427: Is a simple paraxial physical optics model for the propagation of coherent radiation such as laser beams. This technique partially accounts for diffraction, allowing accurate calculations of the rate at which a laser beam expands with distance, and the minimum size to which the beam can be focused. Gaussian beam propagation thus bridges the gap between geometric and physical optics. In the absence of nonlinear effects,
3525-431: Is also faster. Arsenal also made a range of 35 mm SLR cameras. They are not as well known as Zenit cameras, but they are still desirable for some of the innovative features they offer. The unique Kiev Automat SLRs used their own unique lens mount; only a handful of lenses were available in that format. All these cameras use an unusual fan-shaped shutter. They are collector's items that were not exported. Kiev 10
3666-659: Is also what causes the colourful rainbow patterns seen in oil slicks. Kiev (brand) Kiev is a Soviet and Ukrainian brand of photographic equipment including cameras manufactured by the Arsenal Factory in Kyiv , Ukraine . The camera nameplates show the name "KIEV", with older cameras using "КИЕВ" (in Russian) or "КИЇВ" (in Ukrainian) in Cyrillic . In November 2009, it
3807-435: Is around 2mm wider. It offers electronically controlled shutter with aperture priority mode. Shutter speeds range from 4s to 1/500s. It has hot shoe flash synchronization . The film speed settings range from 22 to 700 GOST (15-30 DIN). The lens on this camera is MC Korsar 35mm f/2.8. This is a modernized version of Kiev 35A. Besides the cosmetic changes, shutter speeds have been reduced to range from 2s to 1/500s. It also added
3948-486: Is considered to travel in straight lines, while in physical optics, light is considered as an electromagnetic wave. Geometrical optics can be viewed as an approximation of physical optics that applies when the wavelength of the light used is much smaller than the size of the optical elements in the system being modelled. Geometrical optics , or ray optics , describes the propagation of light in terms of "rays" which travel in straight lines, and whose paths are governed by
4089-484: Is derived using Maxwell's equations, puts the Huygens-Fresnel equation on a firmer physical foundation. Examples of the application of Huygens–Fresnel principle can be found in the articles on diffraction and Fraunhofer diffraction . More rigorous models, involving the modelling of both electric and magnetic fields of the light wave, are required when dealing with materials whose electric and magnetic properties affect
4230-502: Is generally believed to be a very good lens, usually surpassing the Jupiter-8 in reviews. The Kiev TTL is a next development of the Kiev rangefinder series, but was never mass-produced, remaining a prototype. It features the same rangefinder as with previous Kiev rangefinders, but has a bright, 1:1 viewfinder. The most noticeable feature is TTL metering. For this, it uses two selenium cells behind
4371-523: Is located underneath the viewfinder window. The Kiev 3 was a copy of the Contax III officially introduced in 1952, though earlier models were built from 1948 on, based on German Contax parts. It was built until 1955, after which it was replaced by the Kiev 3A, essentially the same camera with flash synchronization. It was very similar to the Kiev 2, but it included an uncoupled selenium light meter . It likely had top plates and meter cells from Zeiss Ikon in
Carl Zeiss AG - Misplaced Pages Continue
4512-502: Is mainly known in the trade for their association with the German camera manufacturer Arri for whom they currently produce lenses. Current models of Zeiss cinema lenses are: Carl Zeiss AG has produced lenses for Hasselblad and Rollei cameras, including: Zeiss has produced lenses for large format and press cameras, including: Zeiss has departed the large-format optics field along with Nikon , leaving Schneider and Rodenstock as
4653-424: Is supposed to see with frame lines showing what 50mm lens would see. Some models even had four angle marks for 85mm lenses. It did not offer the long rangefinder base of previous Kiev rangefinders. All the Kiev 5s offered the selenium light meter. It also replaced the shutter winding knob with a level, rendering it much more user-friendly. It offered a lens mount similar to the older Kiev rangefinders, but it removed
4794-696: Is the glass manufacturer Schott AG , located in Mainz and Jena. Carl Zeiss is one of the oldest existing optics manufacturers in the world. Carl Zeiss opened an optics workshop in Jena in 1846. By 1847 he was making microscopes full-time. In 1861 the rapidly growing company had a staff of about 20 and won a gold medal at the Thuringian Industrial Exposition. By 1866 Zeiss sold their 1,000th microscope. In 1872 physicist Ernst Abbe joined Zeiss, and along with Otto Schott designed greatly improved lenses for
4935-531: Is the holding of all subsidiaries within Zeiss Group , of which Carl Zeiss Meditec AG is the only one that is traded at the stock market. Carl Zeiss AG is owned by the foundation Carl-Zeiss-Stiftung . The Zeiss Group has its headquarters in southern Germany, in the small town of Oberkochen , with its second largest, and founding site, being Jena in eastern Germany. Also controlled by the Carl-Zeiss-Stiftung
5076-409: Is to the lens, the further the image is from the lens. With diverging lenses, incoming parallel rays diverge after going through the lens, in such a way that they seem to have originated at a spot one focal length in front of the lens. This is the lens's front focal point. Rays from an object at a finite distance are associated with a virtual image that is closer to the lens than the focal point, and on
5217-476: The Book of Optics ( Kitab al-manazir ) in which he explored reflection and refraction and proposed a new system for explaining vision and light based on observation and experiment. He rejected the "emission theory" of Ptolemaic optics with its rays being emitted by the eye, and instead put forward the idea that light reflected in all directions in straight lines from all points of the objects being viewed and then entered
5358-552: The Exakta 66 ), Kilfitt and others in addition to lenses made by Arsenal Factory . These cameras have a simpler frame-advancement mechanism than the Pentacon Six but it is often poorly adjusted at the factory resulting in incorrect frame spacing. This problem can be fixed. This is a 6x6 SLR which can use both 120 and 220 film. Shutter release button is located on the left of the camera. It has interchangeable viewfinders. It uses
5499-503: The Leica screw mount version of the same lens, this one is not rangefinder coupled. There are multiple versions of Jupiter-8 lens available in Contax/Kiev mount. The -M version of the lens has click stops on aperture ring and the -NB version uses the external bayonet – it was introduced with Kiev 5, which does not have the internal one. The usual Jupiter-8 is the same lens than in M39 . Helios-94 has
5640-607: The Nimrud lens . The ancient Romans and Greeks filled glass spheres with water to make lenses. These practical developments were followed by the development of theories of light and vision by ancient Greek and Indian philosophers, and the development of geometrical optics in the Greco-Roman world . The word optics comes from the ancient Greek word ὀπτική , optikē ' appearance, look ' . Greek philosophy on optics broke down into two opposing theories on how vision worked,
5781-515: The Pentacon Six lens mount and has Volna-3 lens out of the box. The shutter speeds range from 4s to 1/1000s + B. The other family of Kiev medium format cameras are based on Pentacon Six and probably inspired by Zenit 70. Those cameras look like enlarged 35mm SLRs . They use the same breech-lock lens mount as Pentacon Six , allowing them to use all the lenses made for that system, including, but not limited to, lenses made by Meyer Optik Görlitz , Carl Zeiss Jena , Schneider Kreuznach (for
Carl Zeiss AG - Misplaced Pages Continue
5922-606: The Universal Juwel (Jewel), a glass plate camera originally designed by ICA in 1909. This was a favorite of both Ansel Adams and Dorothea Lange . Other models produced by Zeiss Ikon prior to World War II included the Baldur , named for Baldur von Schirach ; the Contaflex , a twin-lens reflex ; and the Tengor , a box camera derived from an earlier Goerz design. Despite German production,
6063-605: The Voigtländer brand in 1956, putting it in the curious position of offering competing cameras in the same market segments, including professional rangefinders ( Prominent (135) , in competition with the Contax), amateur SLRs ( Bessamatic /Ultramatic, competing with the Contaflex), and numerous compact and folding cameras through at least 1967, when the Icarex, a Voigtländer design released under
6204-641: The Zeiss Gruppe in and around Dresden have branched into new technologies: screens and products for the automotive industry , for example. As of 2023 there are arguably three companies with primarily "Zeiss Ikon" heritage: Zeiss Germany , the Finnish/Swedish Ikon (which bought the West German Zeiss Ikon AG ), and the independent eastern Zeiss Ikon . A division called "Carl Zeiss Vision" produces lenses for eyeglasses. In 2005,
6345-449: The emission theory , the idea that visual perception is accomplished by rays emitted by the eyes. He also commented on the parity reversal of mirrors in Timaeus . Some hundred years later, Euclid (4th–3rd century BC) wrote a treatise entitled Optics where he linked vision to geometry , creating geometrical optics . He based his work on Plato's emission theory wherein he described
6486-468: The intromission theory and the emission theory . The intromission approach saw vision as coming from objects casting off copies of themselves (called eidola) that were captured by the eye. With many propagators including Democritus , Epicurus , Aristotle and their followers, this theory seems to have some contact with modern theories of what vision really is, but it remained only speculation lacking any experimental foundation. Plato first articulated
6627-448: The superposition principle , which is a wave-like property not predicted by Newton's corpuscle theory. This work led to a theory of diffraction for light and opened an entire area of study in physical optics. Wave optics was successfully unified with electromagnetic theory by James Clerk Maxwell in the 1860s. The next development in optical theory came in 1899 when Max Planck correctly modelled blackbody radiation by assuming that
6768-463: The surface normal , a line perpendicular to the surface at the point where the ray hits. The incident and reflected rays and the normal lie in a single plane, and the angle between the reflected ray and the surface normal is the same as that between the incident ray and the normal. This is known as the Law of Reflection . For flat mirrors , the law of reflection implies that images of objects are upright and
6909-483: The "Hensoldt" and "Zeiss" brand-names. The Hensoldt System Technology division (resulting from a merger of the military-optics operations of Leica and Hensoldt) was continued by Zeiss under the "Hensoldt" name until 2006. As part of Nazi Germany 's Zwangsarbeiter program, Zeiss used forced labour , including Jews and other minorities during World War II . The destruction of the war caused many companies to divide into smaller subcompanies and others to merge. There
7050-426: The 35 mm single-lens reflex Contaflex and other types of cameras. Since the beginning of Zeiss as a photographic lens manufacturer, it has had a licensing programme, allowing other manufacturers to produce its lenses. Over the years its licensees included Voigtländer , Bausch & Lomb , Ross, Koristka, Krauss, Kodak . etc. In the 1970s, the western operation of Zeiss-Ikon collaborated with Yashica to produce
7191-554: The African . Bacon was able to use parts of glass spheres as magnifying glasses to demonstrate that light reflects from objects rather than being released from them. The first wearable eyeglasses were invented in Italy around 1286. This was the start of the optical industry of grinding and polishing lenses for these "spectacles", first in Venice and Florence in the thirteenth century, and later in
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#17330853773837332-578: The Contax was the match in every respect for the Leica for at least two decades. Other lenses for the Contax included the Biotar, Biogon, Orthometar, and various Tessars and Triotars. The last important Zeiss innovation before World War II was the technique of applying an anti-reflective coating to lens surfaces invented by Olexander Smakula in 1935. A lens so treated was marked with a red "T", short for "Transparent". The technique of applying multiple layers of coatings
7473-514: The Hasselblad 1600F and 1000F, and even current Hasselblad V-system models. The Salyut, like Hasselblad 1600F, was a medium format SLR with a modular design - it offered interchangeable lenses, viewfinders and film backs. Because of it being so similar to the original Hasselblad , it is sometimes jokingly called Hasselbladski . The shutter was horizontal running focal plane shutter, offering speeds from 1/2s to 1/500s + B. A rare version included
7614-548: The Huygens–Fresnel principle states that every point of a wavefront is associated with the production of a new disturbance, it is possible for a wavefront to interfere with itself constructively or destructively at different locations producing bright and dark fringes in regular and predictable patterns. Interferometry is the science of measuring these patterns, usually as a means of making precise determinations of distances or angular resolutions . The Michelson interferometer
7755-482: The Kiev 4M and the Kiev 4AM, which is the same camera, but without the light meter. The shutter speeds are marked from 1/2s to 1/1000s + B. The camera inherited a lot of its cosmetic changes from the Kiev 5, like the self-timer level and rewind knob. It also introduced the hot shoe for flash sync. It also added a fixed takeup spool. With the Kiev-4M, the standard lens was changed from Jupiter-8 to Helios-103. The Helios-103
7896-652: The US Army relocated some parts of Zeiss Jena to the Contessa manufacturing facility in Stuttgart , West Germany, while the remainder of Zeiss Jena was reestablished by the (eastern) German Democratic Republic as Kombinat VEB Zeiss Jena . The Soviet Army relocated most of the existing Zeiss factories and tooling to the Soviet Union, establishing the Kiev camera-works. In
8037-524: The Vivo Zeiss Imaging Lab, a joint R&D program to innovate mobile imaging technology for Vivo’s flagship smartphones. Zeiss Ikon was an independent camera company related to Carl Zeiss, formed by the merger of four camera makers (Contessa-Nettel, Ernemann [ de ] , Goerz and ICA) in Dresden on September 15, 1926. Much of the capital came from Zeiss which also provided components for
8178-682: The West, business activity restarted in Oberkochen in present-day Baden-Württemberg (southwestern Germany) as Opton Optische Werke Oberkochen GmbH in 1946, which became Zeiss-Opton Optische Werke Oberkochen GmbH in 1947, but was soon renamed to "Carl Zeiss". West-German Zeiss products were labelled "Opton" for sale in the Eastern bloc, while East German Zeiss products were labelled " Zeiss Jena " or simply " Jena " for sale in Western countries. In 1973,
8319-655: The Western Carl Zeiss AG entered into a licensing agreement with the Japanese camera-company Yashica to produce a series of high-quality 35 mm film-cameras and lenses bearing the Contax and Zeiss brand names. This collaboration continued under Yashica's successor, Kyocera , until the latter ceased all camera production in 2005. Zeiss later produced lenses for the space industry and, more recently, has again produced high-quality 35 mm camera-lenses. The eastern Zeiss Jena
8460-578: The Zeiss Ikon brand, was released to consolidate the competing SLR lines. After Zeiss Ikon stopped producing cameras, the Voigtländer brand and Icarex designs were acquired by Rollei , which released variations of the Icarex under both Voigtländer and Rollei as the Rolleiflex SL35 ;M . Since 1972, some 35mm cameras have been marketed under the "Contax" and "Zeiss Ikon" brands. The "Contax" brand
8601-454: The advent of the Contax by Zeiss-Ikon, the first professional 35mm system camera became available. At this stage the Leica was no more than a convenient and portable snapshot camera. However Leitz could see the potential offered by the Contax and rapidly developed a coupled rangefinder and started to introduce additional lenses. As a system camera there was a need for a range of lenses for the Contax. Bertele's Sonnar series of lenses designed for
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#17330853773838742-484: The amplitude of the wave, which for light is associated with a brightening of the waveform in that location. Alternatively, if the two waves of the same wavelength and frequency are out of phase, then the wave crests will align with wave troughs and vice versa. This results in destructive interference and a decrease in the amplitude of the wave, which for light is associated with a dimming of the waveform at that location. See below for an illustration of this effect. Since
8883-542: The angle of incidence. Plutarch (1st–2nd century AD) described multiple reflections on spherical mirrors and discussed the creation of magnified and reduced images, both real and imaginary, including the case of chirality of the images. During the Middle Ages , Greek ideas about optics were resurrected and extended by writers in the Muslim world . One of the earliest of these was Al-Kindi ( c. 801 –873) who wrote on
9024-435: The angles between the normal (to the interface) and the incident and refracted waves, respectively. The index of refraction of a medium is related to the speed, v , of light in that medium by n = c / v , {\displaystyle n=c/v,} where c is the speed of light in vacuum . Snell's Law can be used to predict the deflection of light rays as they pass through linear media as long as
9165-806: The bayonet is actually the helix. Adapters for such lenses tend to be more expensive than simple external bayonet adapters. The number of Kiev rangefinders vastly exceeded that of the pre-war Dresden and post-war Jena and Stuttgart Contaxes. After the Second World War had ended, the Soviet Union demanded new sets of Contax tools from the original toolmaker in Dresden and then ordered a fair number of trial cameras to be made with Zeiss trademarks and coated lenses from these 1946 in post-war East Germany . With this successful, everything together with German instructors were transferred to Kyiv. Missing specialists were in
9306-420: The cameras, including lenses and shutters through its subsidiaries such as Deckel . One of the four merged companies, Internationale Camera Actiengesellschaft [ de ] (ICA AG), had been founded in 1909 shortly after Carl Zeiss Palmos, which had been co-founded by Zeiss lens designer Paul Rudolph and Curt Bentzin from Görlitz in 1899, went out of business. Another founding company, Contessa-Nettel,
9447-480: The collaboration varies, from co-branding optics designed by another firm (e.g., Sony) to complete optical design and manufacturing (e.g., Hasselblad). On 27 April 2005, the company announced a collaboration with Nokia in the camera phone market, with Zeiss providing camera optics. The first smartphone to be co-engineered with Zeiss optics was the Nokia N90 , Zeiss will again provide optics for Nokia products through
9588-414: The company's divisions for microscopy and other precision optics (effectively reuniting the pre-war Carl Zeiss enterprise) and moving its microscopy and planetarium divisions back to Jena. Jenoptik GmbH was split off as a specialty company in the areas of photonics , optoelectronics , and mechatronics . The Hensoldt AG was renamed "Carl Zeiss Sports Optics GmbH" on 1 October 2006. The companies of
9729-449: The distance (as if on the surface of a pool of water). Optical materials with varying indexes of refraction are called gradient-index (GRIN) materials. Such materials are used to make gradient-index optics . For light rays travelling from a material with a high index of refraction to a material with a low index of refraction, Snell's law predicts that there is no θ 2 when θ 1 is large. In this case, no transmission occurs; all
9870-421: The earliest models. The meter settings are located in the rewind knob crown. The Kiev 4 and 4A are the most common of Kiev rangefinders. They had some minor visual modifications to be visually closer to Contax III. The Kiev 4A was an updated model of the Kiev 2A. The camera bottom is now flat, missing the support foot. The rewind knob now includes the film speed reminder. There was also a new back/base plate. On
10011-426: The exchange of energy between light and matter only occurred in discrete amounts he called quanta . In 1905, Albert Einstein published the theory of the photoelectric effect that firmly established the quantization of light itself. In 1913, Niels Bohr showed that atoms could only emit discrete amounts of energy, thus explaining the discrete lines seen in emission and absorption spectra . The understanding of
10152-479: The external bayonet and was available as a kit lens on Kiev 5. Not a lot of information can be found online about this lens, but it seems that it cannot be mounted on older Kiev rangefinders – the focus scale of internal bayonet prevents that. Helios-103 is exclusively available in Contax/Kiev mount. It has the internal bayonet and was a kit lens on Kiev-4(A)M. The lens usually surpasses Jupiter-8 variants in reviews. It has greater resolution than Jupiter-8 lenses and it
10293-574: The eye, although he was unable to correctly explain how the eye captured the rays. Alhazen's work was largely ignored in the Arabic world but it was anonymously translated into Latin around 1200 A.D. and further summarised and expanded on by the Polish monk Witelo making it a standard text on optics in Europe for the next 400 years. In the 13th century in medieval Europe, English bishop Robert Grosseteste wrote on
10434-547: The eyeglass division merged with U.S. company SOLA, which included the former American Optical Company . On 28 June 2013, Carl Zeiss officially announced its plan to rename the brand from " Carl Zeiss " to simply " Zeiss ". All the products will be standardized under the "Zeiss" brand. In April 2019, Zeiss announced the acquisition of Brunswick -based GOM. The Zeiss company was responsible for many innovations in optical design and engineering in each of their major fields of business. Today this becomes exemplarily visible in
10575-535: The feud between the two lasted until Hooke's death. In 1704, Newton published Opticks and, at the time, partly because of his success in other areas of physics, he was generally considered to be the victor in the debate over the nature of light. Newtonian optics was generally accepted until the early 19th century when Thomas Young and Augustin-Jean Fresnel conducted experiments on the interference of light that firmly established light's wave nature. Young's famous double slit experiment showed that light followed
10716-474: The focus to be smeared out in space. In particular, spherical mirrors exhibit spherical aberration . Curved mirrors can form images with a magnification greater than or less than one, and the magnification can be negative, indicating that the image is inverted. An upright image formed by reflection in a mirror is always virtual, while an inverted image is real and can be projected onto a screen. Refraction occurs when light travels through an area of space that has
10857-453: The folding Super Ikonta was among the mainstays of British Army photographers during World War II. In 1932 Zeiss Ikon introduced the Contax line of 35mm rangefinder cameras , having recognised the potential for a system camera using 35mm film. The Contax I was introduced with a wide range of lenses and accessories for scientific and professional use. In 1936, an improved model, the Contax II,
10998-411: The gloss of surfaces such as mirrors, which reflect light in a simple, predictable way. This allows for the production of reflected images that can be associated with an actual ( real ) or extrapolated ( virtual ) location in space. Diffuse reflection describes non-glossy materials, such as paper or rock. The reflections from these surfaces can only be described statistically, with the exact distribution of
11139-416: The incident rays came. This is called retroreflection . Mirrors with curved surfaces can be modelled by ray tracing and using the law of reflection at each point on the surface. For mirrors with parabolic surfaces , parallel rays incident on the mirror produce reflected rays that converge at a common focus . Other curved surfaces may also focus light, but with aberrations due to the diverging shape causing
11280-418: The indexes of refraction and the geometry of the media are known. For example, the propagation of light through a prism results in the light ray being deflected depending on the shape and orientation of the prism. In most materials, the index of refraction varies with the frequency of the light, known as dispersion . Taking this into account, Snell's Law can be used to predict how a prism will disperse light into
11421-436: The interaction between light and matter that followed from these developments not only formed the basis of quantum optics but also was crucial for the development of quantum mechanics as a whole. The ultimate culmination, the theory of quantum electrodynamics , explains all optics and electromagnetic processes in general as the result of the exchange of real and virtual photons. Quantum optics gained practical importance with
11562-426: The interaction of light with the material. For instance, the behaviour of a light wave interacting with a metal surface is quite different from what happens when it interacts with a dielectric material. A vector model must also be used to model polarised light. Numerical modeling techniques such as the finite element method , the boundary element method and the transmission-line matrix method can be used to model
11703-438: The internal bayonet for 50mm lenses. The external bayonet stayed the same. The camera lost compatibility with all the usual 50mm lenses (Jupiter-8(M) and Jupiter-3, later introduced Helios-103 could not be mounted either) because of that. The camera first used Jupiter-8NB lens, but later came with Helios-94 out of the box. The camera improved upon the original Kiev models in many ways; however, it never gained popularity as it cost
11844-477: The invention of the compound optical microscope around 1595, and the refracting telescope in 1608, both of which appeared in the spectacle making centres in the Netherlands. In the early 17th century, Johannes Kepler expanded on geometric optics in his writings, covering lenses, reflection by flat and curved mirrors, the principles of pinhole cameras , inverse-square law governing the intensity of light, and
11985-491: The inventions of the maser in 1953 and of the laser in 1960. Following the work of Paul Dirac in quantum field theory , George Sudarshan , Roy J. Glauber , and Leonard Mandel applied quantum theory to the electromagnetic field in the 1950s and 1960s to gain a more detailed understanding of photodetection and the statistics of light. Classical optics is divided into two main branches: geometrical (or ray) optics and physical (or wave) optics. In geometrical optics, light
12126-579: The latest EUV lithography systems, the equipment needed to produce the latest generations of semiconductor components. It also includes early high-performance optical microscopes up to today's electron and ion microscopes, which reach a sub-nanometers resolution. It includes technology leadership in the first surgical microscopes and ophthalmic devices. It also includes high-performance contact metrology systems. For many years Zeiss showed innovations in fields as astronomical telescopes, photographic and cinematic lenses. Early on, Carl Zeiss realised that he needed
12267-504: The laws of reflection and refraction at interfaces between different media. These laws were discovered empirically as far back as 984 AD and have been used in the design of optical components and instruments from then until the present day. They can be summarised as follows: When a ray of light hits the boundary between two transparent materials, it is divided into a reflected and a refracted ray. The laws of reflection and refraction can be derived from Fermat's principle which states that
12408-447: The lens. During exposure, those cells move out of the way. The meter needle is visible on the camera top and also in the viewfinder window. There was also a Kiev 5 with a modernized upper part with integrated meter. Its design drifted far away from the Contax base other Kiev rangefinders were built on. It added a much larger viewfinder, with parallax corrected (only on some versions) frame lines. The viewfinder seems to show what 35mm lens
12549-449: The light is modelled as a collection of particles called " photons ". Quantum optics deals with the application of quantum mechanics to optical systems. Optical science is relevant to and studied in many related disciplines including astronomy , various engineering fields, photography , and medicine (particularly ophthalmology and optometry , in which it is called physiological optics). Practical applications of optics are found in
12690-422: The light is reflected. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection and allows for fibre optics technology. As light travels down an optical fibre, it undergoes total internal reflection allowing for essentially no light to be lost over the length of the cable. A device that produces converging or diverging light rays due to refraction is known as a lens . Lenses are characterized by their focal length :
12831-462: The light meter was moved from the top to the side. Apparently, this was due to shiny chrome lenses reflecting the sunlight, rendering the center-positioned light meter on Kiev 10 inaccurate. This camera had two names during its lifespan, but these models were identical. The main difference in this model it was added TTL (Through The Lens) metering. Those meters are accurate even nowadays. The Kiev F line, available since around 1980, constituted some of
12972-443: The mathematical rules of perspective and described the effects of refraction qualitatively, although he questioned that a beam of light from the eye could instantaneously light up the stars every time someone blinked. Euclid stated the principle of shortest trajectory of light, and considered multiple reflections on flat and spherical mirrors. Ptolemy , in his treatise Optics , held an extramission-intromission theory of vision:
13113-489: The merits of Aristotelian and Euclidean ideas of optics, favouring the emission theory since it could better quantify optical phenomena. In 984, the Persian mathematician Ibn Sahl wrote the treatise "On burning mirrors and lenses", correctly describing a law of refraction equivalent to Snell's law. He used this law to compute optimum shapes for lenses and curved mirrors . In the early 11th century, Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham) wrote
13254-641: The mid-1950s, Zeiss Ikon shifted its focus to market single-lens reflex cameras in three distinct lines: the Contaflex line (1953) for amateurs with leaf shutters , the high-end Contarex line (1959) with film magazine backs and superb optics, and the mid-range Icarex line (1967) with focal plane shutters and either the popular M42 lens mount or a proprietary bayonet mount. While these designs were initially competitive with SLRs produced by Japanese brands including Canon, Yashica, Minolta, and Nikon, Zeiss Ikon failed to keep pace by adding features and Zeiss Ikon camera production ceased in 1971. Zeiss also acquired
13395-449: The most westernized 35mm SLRs available in the days of the Soviet Union. To satisfy the large internal demand, there was no discernible export at the time they would have found a ready market in the West. Instead, the Zenit with an external selenium meter was sold in large numbers. It was Soviet policy to export domestic surplus rather than the more desirable items of their manufacture. Kiev 17
13536-621: The new Contax cameras, and many of the Zeiss lenses for this camera, among others, were produced by Yashica's optical arm, Tomioka. As Yashica's owner Kyocera ended camera production in 2006, and Yashica lenses were then made by Cosina , who also manufactured most of the new Zeiss designs for the new Zeiss Ikon coupled rangefinder camera. Another licensee active today is Sony who uses the Zeiss name on lenses on its video and digital still cameras. Zeiss has licensed its name or technology to various other companies including Hasselblad , Rollei , Yashica , Sony , Logitech and Alpa . The nature of
13677-405: The object and image distances are positive if the object and image are on opposite sides of the lens. Incoming parallel rays are focused by a converging lens onto a spot one focal length from the lens, on the far side of the lens. This is called the rear focal point of the lens. Rays from an object at a finite distance are focused further from the lens than the focal distance; the closer the object
13818-401: The optical explanations of astronomical phenomena such as lunar and solar eclipses and astronomical parallax . He was also able to correctly deduce the role of the retina as the actual organ that recorded images, finally being able to scientifically quantify the effects of different types of lenses that spectacle makers had been observing over the previous 300 years. After the invention of
13959-622: The optical instruments they were producing. After Carl Zeiss's death in 1888, the business was incorporated as the Carl-Zeiss-Stiftung in 1889. By World War I , Zeiss was the world's largest camera-production company. Zeiss Ikon represented a significant part of the production, along with dozens of other brands and factories, including a major works at Dresden . In 1928 the Zeiss company acquired Hensoldt AG, which has produced Zeiss binoculars and rifle-scopes since 1964 - this has occasionally resulted in twin products being offered under both
14100-422: The original Kiev. The most noticeable change was a new logo. There were also some minor cosmetic changes, like design of the balance foot. Production was increased to 15,000 cameras annually, requiring five digit serial numbers. There were two types of Kiev 2 camera, one of them being the Kiev 2, and the other being the Kiev 2A, which was essentially the same camera, but with the flash sync. The flash sync connector
14241-430: The original Salyut with extended shutter speed range - now it offered speeds from 1/2s to 1/1000s + B. It also introduced the fully automatic diaphragm. It was equipped with a new lens, Vega-12. It can be found under multiple names as well. It can be found under names Soyuz , Zenith 80 (just like the original Salyut) and Kiev 80 . The only difference between the latter and Salyut S is that some Kiev 80s came equipped with
14382-464: The original designs. But by the time the IIa and IIIa hit the market, they faced strong competition from many European and Asian brands, notably the visually similar Nikon produced by Nippon Kogaku, which was a high quality camera sharing the same lens-mount and most of the features. Zeiss Ikon prevented some European distribution under the theory that "Nikon" was an infringement on their brand name. Starting in
14523-411: The other hand, the Kiev 4 replaced the Kiev 3A. It included all the modifications made to the Kiev 4A, but also added a new, smaller and more sensitive light meter. The Kiev 4M was a modernized version of the Kiev 4. The Kiev4M is usually considered less desirable than the Kiev 4 because of their poor quality control, but are still considered to be better quality than older models. There are two versions:
14664-676: The path taken between two points by a ray of light is the path that can be traversed in the least time. Geometric optics is often simplified by making the paraxial approximation , or "small angle approximation". The mathematical behaviour then becomes linear, allowing optical components and systems to be described by simple matrices. This leads to the techniques of Gaussian optics and paraxial ray tracing , which are used to find basic properties of optical systems, such as approximate image and object positions and magnifications . Reflections can be divided into two types: specular reflection and diffuse reflection . Specular reflection describes
14805-514: The possibility of increased performance of photographic lenses. The first use of Jena glass in a photographic lens was by Voigtländer , but as the lens was an old design its performance was not greatly improved. Subsequently, the new glasses would demonstrate their value in correcting astigmatism , and in the production of apochromatic lenses. Abbe started the design of a photographic lens of symmetrical design with five elements, but went no further. Zeiss' domination of photographic lens innovation
14946-475: The pre-war Contax II and III camera designs were produced under the Kiev brand . The first Kiev cameras were identical except for logos. The United States also relocated Zeiss from Jena to Heidenheim (Oberkochen) in 1945, but Zeiss Ikon were without designs or facilities for making the Contax and set about producing an improved replacement. These were named the Contax IIa and IIIa, and were smaller and lighter than
15087-511: The primary makers of such lenses today. Optics Most optical phenomena can be accounted for by using the classical electromagnetic description of light, however complete electromagnetic descriptions of light are often difficult to apply in practice. Practical optics is usually done using simplified models. The most common of these, geometric optics , treats light as a collection of rays that travel in straight lines and bend when they pass through or reflect from surfaces. Physical optics
15228-511: The propagation of light in systems which cannot be solved analytically. Such models are computationally demanding and are normally only used to solve small-scale problems that require accuracy beyond that which can be achieved with analytical solutions. All of the results from geometrical optics can be recovered using the techniques of Fourier optics which apply many of the same mathematical and analytical techniques used in acoustic engineering and signal processing . Gaussian beam propagation
15369-497: The range of optical glasses available was insufficient. After some calculations, he realised that performance of optical instruments would dramatically improve if optical glasses of appropriate properties were available. His challenge to glass manufacturers was finally answered by Dr. Otto Schott , who established the famous glassworks at Jena from which new types of optical glass began to appear from 1888 to be employed by Zeiss and other makers. The new Jena optical glass also opened up
15510-416: The rays (or flux) from the eye formed a cone, the vertex being within the eye, and the base defining the visual field. The rays were sensitive, and conveyed information back to the observer's intellect about the distance and orientation of surfaces. He summarized much of Euclid and went on to describe a way to measure the angle of refraction , though he failed to notice the empirical relationship between it and
15651-622: The real difference was only what accessories were present in the box when you bought the camera, but the cameras were the same. The camera is perhaps the biggest upgrade since Salyut, because it replaced the original screw-type lens mount with the Pentacon Six lens mount , expanding the options for lenses. This camera is extremely rare (around 2000 units made ). It shoots 6x4.5 negatives, in contrast to previous Kievs using 6x6 formats. It offers aperture-priority automatic, semi-automatic and manual modes of shooting. It offers interchangeable lenses, focusing screens, viewfinders and film magazines. It uses
15792-423: The reflected light depending on the microscopic structure of the material. Many diffuse reflectors are described or can be approximated by Lambert's cosine law , which describes surfaces that have equal luminance when viewed from any angle. Glossy surfaces can give both specular and diffuse reflection. In specular reflection, the direction of the reflected ray is determined by the angle the incident ray makes with
15933-415: The same distance behind the mirror as the objects are in front of the mirror. The image size is the same as the object size. The law also implies that mirror images are parity inverted, which we perceive as a left-right inversion. Images formed from reflection in two (or any even number of) mirrors are not parity inverted. Corner reflectors produce reflected rays that travel back in the direction from which
16074-560: The same lens barrel to form a compound lens of even greater performance and a larger aperture, between f/6.3 and f/7.7. In this configuration, it was called the Double Protar Series VIIa. An immense range of focal lengths can thus be obtained by the various combination of Protarlinse units. Rudolph also investigated the Double-Gauss concept of a symmetrical design with thin positive menisci enclosing negative elements. The result
16215-407: The same side of the lens as the object. The closer the object is to the lens, the closer the virtual image is to the lens. As with mirrors, upright images produced by a single lens are virtual, while inverted images are real. Lenses suffer from aberrations that distort images. Monochromatic aberrations occur because the geometry of the lens does not perfectly direct rays from each object point to
16356-400: The self-timer to Kiev 19 design. It also reads the 1/1000s top shutter speed. The body type is changed to molded polycarbonate, making it only Kiev SLR not made from metal. Despite its model number, it succeeds the Kiev 20. It has the same 1/500s top shutter speed as the 19, though. This is by far the most produced version of Kiev F SLRs. This model was produced long after Soviet Union fell and
16497-405: The simple equation 1 S 1 + 1 S 2 = 1 f , {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{S_{1}}}+{\frac {1}{S_{2}}}={\frac {1}{f}},} where S 1 is the distance from the object to the lens, θ 2 is the distance from the lens to the image, and f is the focal length of the lens. In the sign convention used here,
16638-464: The spectacle making centres in both the Netherlands and Germany. Spectacle makers created improved types of lenses for the correction of vision based more on empirical knowledge gained from observing the effects of the lenses rather than using the rudimentary optical theory of the day (theory which for the most part could not even adequately explain how spectacles worked). This practical development, mastery, and experimentation with lenses led directly to
16779-444: The superposition principle can be used to predict the shape of interacting waveforms through the simple addition of the disturbances. This interaction of waves to produce a resulting pattern is generally termed "interference" and can result in a variety of outcomes. If two waves of the same wavelength and frequency are in phase , both the wave crests and wave troughs align. This results in constructive interference and an increase in
16920-467: The telescope, Kepler set out the theoretical basis on how they worked and described an improved version, known as the Keplerian telescope , using two convex lenses to produce higher magnification. Optical theory progressed in the mid-17th century with treatises written by philosopher René Descartes , which explained a variety of optical phenomena including reflection and refraction by assuming that light
17061-440: The term "light" is also often applied to infrared (0.7–300 μm) and ultraviolet radiation (10–400 nm). The wave model can be used to make predictions about how an optical system will behave without requiring an explanation of what is "waving" in what medium. Until the middle of the 19th century, most physicists believed in an "ethereal" medium in which the light disturbance propagated. The existence of electromagnetic waves
17202-417: The time. The so-called 'Contax/Kiev bayonet' actually consists of two bayonets – the inner bayonet, which is used exclusively for 50mm lenses, and the outer bayonet, which is used for all the other lenses. This makes adapting Kiev lenses which use internal bayonet to modern mirrorless cameras complicated compared to those that use the external bayonet. The internal bayonet lenses do not have a focus ring, because
17343-466: The trademark "Protar", which was first used in 1900. At the time, single combination lenses, which occupy one side of the diaphragm only, were still popular. Rudolph designed one with three cemented elements in 1893, with the option of fitting two of them together in a lens barrel as a compound lens, but it was found to be the same as the Dagor by C.P. Goerz, designed by Emil von Hoegh. Rudolph then came up with
17484-400: Was a famous instrument which used interference effects to accurately measure the speed of light. The appearance of thin films and coatings is directly affected by interference effects. Antireflective coatings use destructive interference to reduce the reflectivity of the surfaces they coat, and can be used to minimise glare and unwanted reflections. The simplest case is a single layer with
17625-472: Was also exported to other countries. Kiev produced some 35mm compact cameras as well. Kiev 35 was the prototype camera of the series. It was presented at Photokina in 1984 with the Industar-99 lens. Kiev 35A is an actual production version of Kiev 35. It is a compact 35mm camera, with a front cover that folds down to reveal the lens. It is an exact copy of Minox 35 , the only difference being that Kiev 35
17766-482: Was also well known for producing high-quality products. Following the German reunification of 1989–1991, VEB Zeiss Jena — reckoned as one of the few East-German firms that was even potentially able to compete on a global basis — became Zeiss Jena GmbH , which became Jenoptik Carl Zeiss Jena GmbH in 1990. In 1991, Jenoptik Carl Zeiss Jena was split in two, with Carl Zeiss AG (Oberkochen) taking over
17907-634: Was announced during Photokina 2018 with the slogan 'Shoot – Edit – Share'. The camera incorporates Adobe Lightroom Mobile editing capacities, and an internal 512GB SSD affording 6,800 DNG-format RAW images or 50,000 JPEG-format compressed images. The ZX1, which was one of only a few cameras to use the Android operating system , was discontinued in 2023. Carl Zeiss AG has long been renowned for its motion picture lenses. Zeiss manufactures prime and zoom lenses for 35mm, 16mm, and 65mm film production. They also make lenses for digital cinema and high definition video. Zeiss
18048-434: Was announced that the Arsenal factory would be closing after 245 years of operation. Arsenal produced several 35mm film rangefinders , which were clones of the pre- WWII Contax II and Contax III cameras. Kiev rangefinders retained the same lens mount as the pre-WWII Contax rangefinders, making the lenses interchangeable between both brands. The lens mount of both cameras was sophisticated compared with other cameras of
18189-459: Was developed from this basis after the war, and known as "T✻" (T-star). After the partitioning of Germany, a new Carl Zeiss optical company was established in Oberkochen, while the original Zeiss firm in Jena continued to operate. At first, both firms produced very similar lines of products, and extensively cooperated in product-sharing, but they drifted apart as time progressed. Jena's new direction
18330-474: Was due to Dr Paul Rudolph . In 1890, Rudolph designed an asymmetrical lens with a cemented group at each side of the diaphragm, appropriately named "Anastigmat". This lens was made in three series: Series III, IV and V, with maximum apertures of f/7.2, f/12.5, and f/18 respectively. In 1891, Series I, II and IIIa appeared with respective maximum apertures of f/4.5, f/6.3, and f/9 and in 1893 came Series IIa of f/8 maximum aperture. These lenses are now better known by
18471-540: Was emitted by objects which produced it. This differed substantively from the ancient Greek emission theory. In the late 1660s and early 1670s, Isaac Newton expanded Descartes's ideas into a corpuscle theory of light , famously determining that white light was a mix of colours that can be separated into its component parts with a prism . In 1690, Christiaan Huygens proposed a wave theory for light based on suggestions that had been made by Robert Hooke in 1664. Hooke himself publicly criticised Newton's theories of light and
18612-585: Was great respect for the engineering innovation that came out of Dresden—before the war the world's first 35 mm single-lens reflex camera , the Kine Exakta , and the first miniature camera with good picture-quality were developed there. At the end of the war, Jena was initially occupied by the United States Army . When Jena and Dresden were incorporated into the Soviet occupation zone , later East Germany ,
18753-505: Was increased to f/4.7 in 1917 and reached f/2.7 in 1930. It is probable that every lens manufacturer has produced lenses of the Tessar configurations. Rudolph left Zeiss after World War I, but many other competent designers such as Merté, Wandersleb, etc. kept the firm at the leading edge of photographic lens innovations. One of the most significant designers was the ex-Ernemann man Dr Ludwig Bertele , famed for his Ernostar high-speed lens. With
18894-460: Was introduced and became the favorite of many renowned photographers and journalists, including Robert Capa and Margaret Bourke-White . A second 35mm camera, the Contax III, was mechanically identical with a light meter grafted to the top of the camera. After World War II, the Dresden factory was dismantled and the Soviet Union forcibly relocated the Contax factory to Kiev as war reparations, where
19035-501: Was licensed to Yashica in 1974, which later was acquired by Kyocera ; Contax marketed several lines of SLR, rangefinder, compact, and digital cameras with Zeiss lenses and Japanese-built bodies. The most recent "Zeiss Ikon" rangefinder camera was an M mount camera with automatic exposure, introduced by Zeiss in 2004 and manufactured in Japan by Cosina; it was discontinued in 2012. The Zeiss ZX1 full-frame 35mm F/2 large-sensor compact camera
19176-401: Was one of the most innovative cameras produced in the Soviet Union . It was one of the first cameras that offered automatic exposure. It also featured its own lens mount, shared with its successors. The camera had a light meter, but it was a selenium one. Its accuracy declines with age. A development of Kiev 10. Only small quantities of this camera were produced. The main difference was that
19317-552: Was operated by August Nagel , who left the company in 1928 to form the Nagel Works; in 1932, his company was bought by Kodak, which continued to produce cameras in Germany under the Retina brand. The earliest Zeiss Ikon cameras were a range of medium and large format folding cameras badged as Nettar , Ikonta , and Super Ikonta , for film and glass plate photography. The most expensive was
19458-467: Was predicted in 1865 by Maxwell's equations . These waves propagate at the speed of light and have varying electric and magnetic fields which are orthogonal to one another, and also to the direction of propagation of the waves. Light waves are now generally treated as electromagnetic waves except when quantum mechanical effects have to be considered. Many simplified approximations are available for analysing and designing optical systems. Most of these use
19599-535: Was the Planar Series Ia of 1896, with maximum apertures up to f/3.5, one of the fastest lenses of its time. Whilst it was very sharp, it suffered from coma which limited its popularity. However, further developments of this configuration made it the design of choice for high-speed lenses of standard coverage. Probably inspired by the Stigmatic lenses designed by Hugh Aldis for Dallmeyer of London, Rudolph designed
19740-416: Was the first in the F line of Kiev SLRs. It was a fully manual camera. It did not even have a light meter. It is said to be a really unreliable camera. A rare prototype camera. There's very little known about it. A much better rated successor to Kiev 17. It offers stop-down TTL metering with helper LEDs in the viewfinder. It has a top shutter speed of 1/500s. This camera model adds the aperture coupling and
19881-480: Was to concentrate on developing lenses for 35 mm single-lens reflex cameras, and many achievements were made, especially in ultra-wide angle designs. In addition to that, Oberkochen also worked on designing lenses for the 35 mm single-lens reflex camera Contarex , for the medium format camera Hasselblad , for large format cameras like the Linhof Technika , interchangeable front element lenses such as for
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