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62-693: The town of Yusufeli sits in a valley where the Çoruh River is joined by the Barhal. To its north are the Kaçkar Mountains running east to west, with villages in other valleys between the mountains. The micro climate allows the cultivation of olives, grapes, and citrus fruits, the driving forces of the economy in addition to tourism. The town can be reached by air via Erzurum Airport , 135 km (84 mi) away from Yusufeli or by road from Artvin, Erzurum and Trabzon (via İspir in Erzurum Province ). There

124-508: A national park in 1994. Recreational activities in the park include hiking , camping , mountaineering , and, increasingly, heliskiing . The Kackar range boasts a wide variety of plants and wildlife such as wolves, bears, boars, feral goats, deer, jackals and wild chickens. The name Kaçkar derives from the Armenian term khachkar ( Խաչքար ), which literally means "cross stone". The name may be used in various senses. It may describe

186-601: A tourist activity. There are different activities associated with the sport. Mountaineering lacks formal rules – though appropriately empowered bodies make many pertaining to specific use of mountains and practices on them. In theory, any person may climb a mountain and call themself a mountaineer. In practice, the sport is defined by the safe and necessary use of technical skills in mountainous terrain: in particular, roped climbing and snow travel abilities. A variety of techniques have been developed to help people climb mountains that are widely applied among practitioners of

248-409: A "base camp," which is an area used for staging attempts at nearby summits. Base camps are positioned to be relatively safe from harsh terrain and weather. Where the summit cannot be reached from base camp in a single day, a mountain will have additional camps above base camp. For popular mountains, base camps may be at a fixed location and become famous. The Everest base camps and Camp Muir are among

310-407: A climber who ascends the rock. The first climber, called the leader , will reach a point on the rock and then build an anchor , which will secure subsequent climbers. Anchors could be created by using slings around a tree or boulder, or by using protection devices like cams and nuts . Once anchored, the leader will then belay the climber coming up from below. Once the follower reaches the leader,

372-426: A few different forms of shelter depending on the situation and conditions; alpine shelters or arctic shelters. Shelter is a very important aspect of safety for the climber as weather in the mountains may be very unpredictable. Tall mountains may require many days of camping. Short trips lasting less than a day generally do not require shelter, although for safety, most mountaineers will carry an emergency shelter, such

434-543: A large body of professional guides, equipment, and methodologies. In the early years of the " golden age ", scientific pursuits were intermixed with the sport, such as by the physicist John Tyndall . In the later years, it shifted to a more competitive orientation as pure sportsmen came to dominate the London-based Alpine Club and alpine mountaineering overall. The first president of the Alpine Club, John Ball ,

496-401: A light bivouac sack . Typical shelters used for camping include tents and bivouac sacks . The ability of these shelters to provide protection from the elements is dependent on their design. Mountaineers who climb in areas with cold weather or snow and ice will use more heavy-duty shelters than those who climb in more forgiving environments. In remote locations, mountaineers will set up

558-696: A means of payment. In the UK the term "hut" is used for any cottage or cabin used as a base for walkers or climbers. These are mostly owned by mountaineering clubs for use by members or visiting clubs and generally do not have wardens or permanent staff, but have cooking and washing facilities and heating. In the Scottish Highlands small simple unstaffed shelters without cooking facilities known as "bothies" are maintained to break up cross country long routes and act as base camps to certain mountains. Where conditions permit, snow caves are another way to shelter high on

620-413: A rope team. For example, when traveling over glaciers , crevasses pose a grave danger to a climber who is not roped in. These giant cracks in the ice are not always visible as snow can be blown and freeze over the top to make a snowbridge . At times snowbridges can be as thin as a few inches and may collapse from people walking over them. Should a climber fall, being protected by a rope greatly reduces

682-405: A roped team may choose not to use anchors; instead, all members of the team will prepare to use their ice axes to self-arrest in the event should a team member fall. It is not always wise for climbers to form a rope team, since one falling climber may pull the entire team off the mountain. However, the risks of individual, unprotected travel are often so great that groups have no choice but to form

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744-495: A variety of hazards . When climbing mountains, there are two types of hazards, objective (mountain-based) and subjective (human-based) . Objective hazards relate to the environment, and may include inclement weather conditions, dangerous terrain, duration of exposure , and other environmental conditions. Subjective hazards relate to a climber's poor judgement, poor planning, lack of skills, faulty analysis and conclusions, or inadequate conditioning. In terms of objective hazards,

806-521: A village off the road to İspir ( Map ). There are many medieval forts and Georgian churches in the valleys of Yusufeli. Some of them: Ka%C3%A7kar Mountains The Kaçkar Mountains ( Turkish : Kaçkar Dağları ; Armenian : Քաջքար , Kajkar ), formerly known as the Lazistan Mountains or the Mountains of Khaghtik ( Armenian : Խաղտեաց լեռներ ), are a mountain range that rises above

868-531: A voluntary basis by members of alpine clubs. The manager of the hut, termed a guardian or warden in Europe, will usually also sell refreshments and meals, both to those visiting only for the day and to those staying overnight. The offering is surprisingly wide, given that most supplies, often including fresh water, must be flown in by helicopter, and may include glucose-based snacks (such as candy bars) on which climbers and walkers wish to stock up, cakes and pastries made at

930-527: A wide group of mountain sports . Unlike most sports, mountaineering lacks widely applied formal rules, regulations, and governance; mountaineers adhere to a large variety of techniques and philosophies (including grading and guidebooks ) when climbing mountains. Numerous local alpine clubs support mountaineers by hosting resources and social activities. A federation of alpine clubs, the International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation (UIAA),

992-460: A young generation of Norwegian mountaineers such as George Paus , Eilert Sundt and Kristian Tandberg appeared, and later founded Norsk Tindeklub , the third oldest mountaineering association in the world. By the turn of the 20th century, mountaineering had acquired a more international flavour. In 1897 Mount Saint Elias (18,008 ft (5,489 m)) on the Alaska - Yukon border was summitted by

1054-605: Is a widely criticised plan to dam the Çoruh at Yusufeli , which would submerge 15,000 homes. Yusufeli has an oceanic climate ( Köppen : Cfb ). The history of Yusufeli, formerly Perterek or Pertarek, is traced to 3000 BC, the Bronze Age. The area has since been inhabited by Hurri , Urartu , Persians , Armenians , Ancient Romans , Byzantines and Georgians . In the Turkish era the area has been settled by Seljuks , Saltuks , Ilkhanids , Tamerlan , Akkoyunlu , Safevids and

1116-435: Is also a prerequisite of success in all aspects of mountaineering. Alpine rock climbing involves technical skills including the ability to place anchors into the rock to safely ascend a mountain. In some cases, climbers may have to climb multiple pitches of rock to reach the top. Typically, for any one pitch, there is a belayer who is stationary and creates tension on the rope to catch a climber should he or she fall, and

1178-441: Is at least four feet of snow. The addition of a good quality bivouac bag and closed cell foam sleeping mat will also increase the warmth of the snow cave. Another shelter that works well is a quinzee , which is excavated from a pile of snow that has been work hardened or sintered (typically by stomping). Igloos are used by some climbers, but are deceptively difficult to build and require specific snow conditions. Mountaineers face

1240-476: Is between June and September. Mountaineering Mountaineering , mountain climbing , or alpinism is a set of outdoor activities that involves ascending mountains . Mountaineering-related activities include traditional outdoor climbing , skiing , and traversing via ferratas that have become sports in their own right. Indoor climbing , sport climbing , and bouldering are also considered variants of mountaineering by some, but are part of

1302-501: Is considered to be the discoverer of the Dolomites , which for decades were the focus of climbers like Paul Grohmann and Angelo Dibona . At that time, the edelweiss also established itself as a symbol of alpinists and mountaineers. In the 19th century, the focus of mountaineering turned towards mountains beyond the Alps. One of the earliest mountain areas to be explored beyond the Alps in

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1364-442: Is deemed obligatory, and in many cases is essential as some popular huts, even with more than 100 bed spaces, may be full during good weather and at weekends. Once made, the cancellation of a reservation is advised as a matter of courtesy – and, indeed, potentially of safety, as many huts keep a record of where climbers and walkers state they plan to walk to next. Most huts may be contacted by telephone and most take credit cards as

1426-751: Is the International Olympic Committee -recognized world organization for mountaineering and climbing. The consequences of mountaineering on the natural environment can be seen in terms of individual components of the environment (land relief, soil, vegetation, fauna, and landscape) and the location/zone of mountaineering activity (hiking, trekking, or climbing zone). Mountaineering impacts communities on economic, political, social and cultural levels, often leading to changes in people's worldviews influenced by globalization, specifically foreign cultures and lifestyles. Humans have been present in mountains since prehistory. The remains of Ötzi , who lived in

1488-502: Is the 1100 AD ascent of the Untersberg . The famous poet Petrarch describes his 26 April 1336 ascent of Mount Ventoux (1,912 m (6,273 ft)) in one of his epistolae familiares , claiming to be inspired by Philip V of Macedon 's ascent of Mount Haemo . For most of antiquity, climbing mountains was a practical or symbolic activity, usually undertaken for economic, political, or religious purposes. A commonly cited example

1550-456: Is the 1492 ascent of Mont Aiguille (2,085 m (6,841 ft)) by Antoine de Ville, a French military officer and lord of Domjulien and Beaupré. Because ropes, ladders and iron hooks were used, and because it was the first climb of any technical difficulty to be officially verified, this ascent is widely recognized as being the birth of mountaineering. Conrad Gessner , A mid-16th Century physician, botanist and naturalist from Switzerland,

1612-402: Is used to describe terrain in which no technical equipment is needed. To traverse this terrain, mountaineers hike long distances to a base camp or the beginning of rough terrain, either following trails or using navigation techniques to travel cross-country. Hiking may be a strenuous activity, and adequate physical fitness and familiarity with the wilderness is necessary to complete a hike; it

1674-637: Is widely recognized as being the first person to hike and climb for sheer pleasure. In the Andes , around the late 1400s and early 1500s many ascents were made of extremely high peaks by the Incas and their subjects. The highest they are known for certain to have climbed is 6739 m at the summit of Volcan Llullaillaco . The Age of Enlightenment and the Romantic era marked a change of attitudes towards high mountains. In 1757 Swiss scientist Horace-Bénédict de Saussure made

1736-470: The 4th millennium BC , were found in a glacier in the Ötztal Alps . However, the highest mountains were rarely visited early on, and were often associated with supernatural or religious concepts. Nonetheless, there are many documented examples of people climbing mountains prior to the formal development of the sport in the 19th century, although many of these stories are sometimes considered fictional or legendary. A rare medieval example of mountaineering

1798-519: The Black Sea coast in northeastern Turkey. With the highest peak, Kaçkar Dağı , at an elevation of 3,937 metres (12,917 ft), and mountain plateaus at about 3,000 m (9,800 ft) in elevation, the range is the highest part of the Pontic Mountains . The Kaçkars are glaciated mountains that are alpine in character, with steep rocky peaks and numerous mountain lakes. The area was declared

1860-750: The Duke of the Abruzzi and party. In 1879–1880 the exploration of the highest Andes in South America began when English mountaineer Edward Whymper climbed Chimborazo (20,549 ft (6,263 m)) and explored the mountains of Ecuador. It took until the late 19th century for European explorers to penetrate Africa. Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa was climbed in 1889 by Austrian mountaineer Ludwig Purtscheller and German geologist Hans Meyer , Mount Kenya in 1899 by Halford Mackinder . The greatest mountain range to be conquered

1922-786: The French Federation of Mountaineering and Climbing , remain independent. The premier award in mountaineering is the privately granted Piolet d'Or , which has expanded from a single recognition to multiple. While there are many competitions, particularly in toproped climbing wall disciplines, there are no "official" world championships or other similar competitions for mountaineering broadly. Mountaineering techniques vary greatly depending on location, season, terrain, and route. Both techniques and hazards vary by terrain, spanning trails, rock, snow, and ice. Mountaineers must possess adequate food, water, information, equipment, stamina, and skill to complete their tasks. The term "walk-up" or "trek"

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1984-561: The Golden Age of Alpinism , with the first mountaineering club – the Alpine Club – being founded in 1857. One of the most dramatic events was the spectacular first ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865 by a party led by English illustrator Edward Whymper , in which four of the party members fell to their deaths. By this point the sport of mountaineering had largely reached its modern form, with

2046-856: The Grossglockner in 1800, the Ortler in 1804, the Jungfrau in 1811, the Finsteraarhorn in 1812, and the Breithorn in 1813. In 1808, Marie Paradis became the first woman to climb Mont Blanc, followed in 1838 by Henriette d'Angeville . The beginning of mountaineering as a sport in the UK is generally dated to the ascent of the Wetterhorn in 1854 by English mountaineer Sir Alfred Wills , who made mountaineering fashionable in Britain. This inaugurated what became known as

2108-567: The Ottoman Empire . In the kingdom of Armenia in antiquity it was part of Tayk province, known as the Canton of Arsiats por . In 1879 the area was the district of Kiksim in the county of Çıldır. Then following the war between the Ottoman Empire and Russia it became a county of Erzurum. Most of the population is descended from Armenians or Georgians who converted to Islam in the 1700s. Because of

2170-516: The vasodilator padutin , and a stimulant tea made from coca leaves. K2 (8,611m), the second-highest peak in the world, was first scaled in 1954 by Lino Lacedelli and Achille Compagnoni . In 1964, the final eight-thousander to be climbed was Shishapangma (8,013m), the lowest of all the 8,000-metre peaks. Reinhold Messner from the Dolomites mountain range (Italy) was then the first to climb all eight-thousanders up to 1986, in addition to being

2232-520: The Çoruh river valley; on the north, by the Black Sea coast. Kaçkar Mountains are one of the best trekking sites in Turkey. Kaçkars have two ideal trekking routes. The first is from the Black Sea side; the path is clear and it is easy to trek, while the Çoruh side is more difficult and hazardous. Kaçkar Mountains are cold and have glaciers, hence ice axes and crampons are required. The best time for trekking

2294-512: The 19th century were the mountains of Norway —particularly Jotunheimen —where British mountaineers such as William Cecil Slingsby , Harold Raeburn and Howard Priestman were early pioneers. Slingsby's book Norway, the Northern Playground contributed greatly to the popularization of mountaineering in Norway among the international mountaineering community. Around the turn of the century,

2356-464: The bottom of a mountaineer's boots and provide additional traction on hard snow and ice. For loose snow, crampons are less suitable, and snowshoes or skis may be preferred. Using various techniques from alpine skiing to ascend/descend a mountain is a form of the sport by itself, called ski mountaineering . Ascending and descending a steep snow slope safely requires the use of an ice axe and different footwork techniques that have been developed over

2418-486: The county name became Yusuf İli, i.e. "province of Yusuf" so the name Kiskim should not be confused with the name Keskin which was a county of Ankara at that time. The folk music and culture is typical of the Black Sea region featuring the clarinet type zurna , a drum and bagpipes. There are a number of historical Georgian churches in the valleys of Yusufeli, including the ruins of the Four Churches (Dört Kilise) in

2480-549: The dangers mountaineers face include loose or falling rocks, falling ice, snow- avalanches , the climber falling, falls from ice slopes, falls down snow slopes, falls into crevasses, and the dangers from altitude and weather. From 1947 to 2018 in the United States "2,799 people were reported to be involved in mountaineering accidents and 43% of these accidents resulted in death." Climbers themselves are responsible for nearly all climbing accidents. When planning and preparing for

2542-467: The first of several unsuccessful attempts on Mont Blanc in France. He then offered a reward to anyone who could climb the mountain, which was claimed in 1786 by Jacques Balmat and Michel-Gabriel Paccard . The climb is usually considered an epochal event in the history of mountaineering, a symbolic mark of the birth of the sport. By the early 19th century, many of the alpine peaks were reached, including

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2604-600: The first professional female mountaineers) made ascents in the Himalayas, including one of the Nun Kun peaks (23,300 ft (7,100 m)). A number of Gurkha sepoys were trained as expert mountaineers by Charles Granville Bruce , and a good deal of exploration was accomplished by them. In 1902 the Eckenstein–Crowley Expedition, led by English mountaineer Oscar Eckenstein and English occultist Aleister Crowley

2666-429: The first without supplemental oxygen. In 1978 he climbed Mount Everest with Peter Habeler without supplemental oxygen, the first men to do so. Long the domain of the wealthy elite and their agents, the emergence of the middle-class in the 19th and 20th centuries resulted in mass interest in mountaineering. It became a popular pastime and hobby of many people. Some have come to criticize the sport as becoming too much of

2728-534: The high mountains themselves – in extremely remote areas, more rudimentary shelters may exist. The mountain huts are of varying size and quality, but each is typically centred on a communal dining room and have dormitories equipped with mattresses, blankets or duvets, and pillows; guests are expected to bring and use their own sleeping bag liners . The facilities are usually rudimentary, but, given their locations, huts offer vital shelter, make routes more widely accessible (by allowing journeys to be broken and reducing

2790-418: The hut, a variety of hot and cold drinks (including beer and wine), and high carbohydrate dinners in the evenings. Not all huts offer a catered service, though, and visitors may need to provide for themselves. Some huts offer facilities for both, enabling visitors wishing to keep costs down to bring their own food and cooking equipment and to cater using the facilities provided. Booking for overnight stays at huts

2852-401: The ice, as well as traditional rock climbing equipment for anchoring in mixed terrain. Often, mountaineers climbing steep snow or mixed snowy rock terrain will not use a fixed belay. Instead, each climber on the team will climb at the same time while attached to anchors, in groups of two. This allows for safety should the entire team be taken off their feet which also allows for greater speed than

2914-404: The leader will often transfer all necessary protection devices (known as a rack) to the follower. The follower then becomes the leader and will ascend the next pitch. This process will continue until the climbers either reach the top, or run into different terrain. For extremely vertical rocks, or to overcome certain logistical challenges, climbers may use aid climbing techniques. This involves

2976-448: The most famous base camps. Camping is not always an option, or may not be suitable if a mountain is close to civilization. Some regions may legally prohibit primitive camping due to concern for the environment, or due to issues with crowds. In lieu of camping, mountaineers may choose to stay in mountain huts . The European alpine regions, in particular, have a large network of huts. Such huts exist at many different heights, including in

3038-424: The mountain. Some climbers do not use tents at high altitudes unless the snow conditions do not allow for snow caving, since snow caves are silent and much warmer than tents. They can be built relatively easily, given sufficient time, using a snow shovel. The temperature of a correctly made snow cave will hover around freezing, which relative to outside temperatures can be very warm. They can be dug anywhere where there

3100-538: The past century, such as the French technique and German technique . Teams of climbers may choose to attach everyone together with a rope, to form a rope team. The team may then secure themselves by attaching the rope to anchors. These anchors are sometimes unreliable and include snow stakes or pickets, deadman devices called flukes , or buried equipment or rocks. Bollards , which are simply carved out of consolidated snow or ice, also sometimes serve as anchors. Alternatively,

3162-403: The risk of injury or death. The other members of the rope team may proceed with a crevasse rescue to pull the fallen climber from the crevasse. For extremely slippery or steep snow, ice, and mixed rock and ice terrain climbers must use more advanced techniques, called ice climbing or mixed climbing. Specialized tools such as ice screws and ice picks help climbers build anchors and move up

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3224-460: The rocky geography it was difficult for people from all villages to reach the city center, so a local district was established centred on Ögdem, but this was still inaccessible so Kılıçkaya (Ersis) became the center of county. Ersis means "a place where no boys live", so-called because so many sons of the district were lost in the Russo-Turkish War of 1878 and First World War . In the year 1912

3286-532: The sport. Despite its lack of defined rules and non-competitive nature, certain aspects of mountaineering have much of the trappings of an organized sport, with recognition of specific climbing activities – including climbing wall -based competition – by the International Olympic Committee ; on a club level, the prominent international sport federation the UIAA counts numerous national alpine clubs as its members, while others, such as The Mountaineers and

3348-418: The traditional technique of belaying one climber at a time. This technique is known as simul-climbing or a running belay and is sometimes also used on ice, however, the risk of dropping frequently displaced ice on the lower team member(s) limits its usefulness on ice. Traditional belays are also used; in this case, this is sometimes necessary due to ice fall hazard, steepness, or other factors. Climbers use

3410-503: The use of equipment, such as ladders, fixed lines , and ascenders to help the climber push themself up the rock. In alpine climbing, it is common for climbers to see routes of mixed terrain. This means climbers may need to move efficiently from climbing glacier, to rock, to ice, back and forth in a number of variations. Compacted snow conditions allow mountaineers to progress on foot. Frequently crampons are required to travel efficiently and safely over snow and ice. Crampons attach to

3472-439: The weight of equipment needing to be carried), and offer good value. In Europe, all huts are staffed during the summer (mid-June to mid-September) and some are staffed in the spring (mid-March to mid-May). Elsewhere, huts may also be open in the fall. Huts also may have a part that is always open, but unstaffed, a so-called winter hut. When open and staffed, the huts are generally run by full-time employees, but some are staffed on

3534-523: The whole mountain range, including the many mountain groups, or it may just describe the Kaçkar-Kavron group with its highest peak, or just the highest peak itself. The local name of the highest peak or its mountain group Kaçkar Dağı translates to Kaçkar Mountain , and the name of the range Kaçkar Dağları translates to Kaçkar Mountains . On the south and east, the Kaçkar Mountains are bordered by

3596-463: Was also a pioneer in developing new equipment and climbing methods. He started using shorter ice axes that could be used single-handedly, designed the modern crampons , and improved on the nail patterns used for the climbing boots. By the 1950s, all the eight-thousanders but two had been climbed starting with Annapurna in 1950 by Maurice Herzog and Louis Lachenal on the 1950 French Annapurna expedition . The highest of these peaks Mount Everest

3658-476: Was climbed in 1953 after the British had made several attempts in the 1920s; the 1922 expedition reached 8,320 metres (27,300 ft) before being aborted on the third summit attempt after an avalanche killed seven porters. The 1924 expedition saw another height record achieved but still failed to reach the summit with confirmation when George Mallory and Andrew Irvine disappeared on the final attempt. The summit

3720-473: Was finally reached on 29 May 1953 by Sir Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay from the south side in Nepal . Just a few months later, Hermann Buhl made the first ascent of Nanga Parbat (8,125 m), on the 1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition , completing the last 1,300 meters walking alone, self-medicating with pervitin (based on the stimulant methamphetamine used by soldiers during World War II),

3782-762: Was the Himalayas in South Asia. They had initially been surveyed by the British Empire for military and strategic reasons. In 1892 Sir William Martin Conway explored the Karakoram Himalayas, and climbed a peak of 23,000 ft (7,000 m). In 1895 Albert F. Mummery died while attempting Nanga Parbat , while in 1899 Douglas Freshfield took an expedition to the snowy regions of Sikkim . In 1899, 1903, 1906, and 1908 American mountaineer Fanny Bullock Workman (one of

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3844-413: Was the first to attempt to scale K2 . They reached 22,000 feet (6,700 m) before turning back due to weather and other mishaps. Undaunted, in 1905 Crowley led the first expedition to Kangchenjunga , the third highest mountain in the world, in an attempt which Isserman, Angas Weaver and Molenaar describe as "misguided" and "lamentable" due to Crowley's many failings as an expedition leader. Eckenstein

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