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120-737: The Yupiit are the most numerous of the various Alaska Native groups and speak the Central Alaskan Yupʼik language , a member of the Eskimo–Aleut family of languages. As of the 2010 U.S. Census, the Yupiit population in the United States numbered over 34,000 people, of whom over 22,000 lived in Alaska. The vast majority of these live in the seventy or so communities in the traditional Yupʼik territory of western and southwestern Alaska. About 10,000 speak

240-647: A Holikachuk phrase that means big river . Then, two years later, the Gwich'ins told the Hudson's Bay Company that their name for the river was Yukon and that the name meant white water river . White water river in fact corresponds to Gwich'in words that can be shortened to form Yukon . Because the Holikachuks had been trading regularly with both the Gwich’ins and the Yup'iks ,

360-662: A Pathway to Ecology and Spirit (2001), which focuses on the intersection of Western and Yupʼik values. Yuuyaraq or Way of life ( yuuyaraq sg yuuyarat pl in Yupʼik, cuuyaraq in Cupʼik, cuuyarar in Cupig) is the term for the Yupʼik way of life as a human being. The expression encompasses interactions with others, subsistence or traditional knowledge , environmental or traditional ecological knowledge , and understanding , indigenous psychology , and spiritual balance. Yuuyaraq defined

480-632: A ban on segregating signs, with discriminatory actions punishable by a $ 250 fine and up to 30 days in jail. Alaska became part of the United States in 1959 upon President Dwight D. Eisenhower recognizing Alaska as the 49th state. In 1971, with the support of Alaska Native leaders such as Emil Notti , Willie Hensley , and Byron Mallott , the U.S. Congress passed the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA), which settled land and financial claims for lands and resources which

600-406: A child returned to his or her own native village, or located elsewhere, after completing education in a Federal Indian boarding school. Specifically this meant that Alaskan Native children could no longer speak their native language, wear traditional native clothing, be amongst other natives, eat native foods, practice any native religion, ultimately resulting in the intergenerational trauma caused by

720-401: A cooperative effort of 70 First Nations and tribes in Alaska and Canada, has the goal of making the river and its tributaries safe to drink from again by supplementing and scrutinizing government data. The name Yukon , or ųųg han , is a contraction of the words in the Gwich'in phrase chųų gąįį han , which means white water river and refers to "the pale colour" of glacial runoff in

840-670: A form of taxation imposed by the Russians, was a tribute in the form of otter pelts. It was a taxation method the Russians had previously found useful in their early encounter with Indigenous communities of Siberia during the Siberian fur trade . Beaver pelts were also customary to be given to fur traders upon first contact with various communities. The Russian-American Company used military force on Indigenous families, taking them hostage until male community members produced furs for them. Otter furs on Kodiak Island and Aleutian Islands enticed

960-496: A great deal of political power in the 1920s. They protested the segregation of Alaska Natives in public areas and institutions, and also staged boycotts. Alberta Schenck (Inupiaq) staged a well-publicized protest against segregation in a movie theater in 1944. With the help of Elizabeth Peratrovich (Tlingit), the Alaska Equal Rights Act of 1945 was passed, ending segregation in Alaska. In 1942, during World War II,

1080-475: A lesson or reminder by which the younger generation learns from the experience of the elders. Tegganeq is derived from the Yupʼik word tegge- meaning "to be hard; to be tough". Yupʼik discipline is different from Western discipline. The discipline and authority within Yupʼik child-rearing practices have at their core respect for the children. More recently, elders have been invited to attend and present at national conferences and workshops. Elders-in-residence

1200-598: A school with American children if the family has abandoned their culture. At the same time, a system was put in place to disrupt Alaskan Native families. Federal records indicate that the United States viewed official disruption to the native family unit as part of Federal Indian policy to assimilate Indian children. The Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative, for example, was directly responsible for intergenerational trauma by disrupting family ties in Alaskan native villages. An important outcome of deliberate Federal disruption to

1320-507: A tool of colonial exploitation of the indigenous people. When the Aleut revolted and won some victories, the Russians retaliated, killing many. They also destroyed the peoples' boats and hunting gear, leaving them no means of survival. The greatest mortality was caused by the Aleuts' encounters with new diseases: during the first two generations (1741/1759-1781/1799 AD) of Russian contact, 80 percent of

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1440-401: Is a respected elder . The elder is defined as an individual who has lived an extended life, maintains a healthy lifestyle, and has a wealth of cultural information and knowledge. The elder has expertise based upon know-how and provides consultation to the community and family when needed. Traditionally, knowledge was passed down from the elders to the youth through storytelling . A naucaqun is

1560-516: Is a program that involves elders in teaching and curriculum development in a formal educational setting (oftentimes a university), and is intended to influence the content of courses and the way the material is taught. The Yupʼik kinship is based on what is formally classified in academia as an Eskimo kinship or lineal kinship. This kinship system is bilateral and a basic social unit consisting of from two to four generations, including parents, offspring, and parents' parents. Kinship terminologies in

1680-503: Is accessible from the Yukon at Pitkas Point), and Mountain Village . After Mountain Village, the main Yukon channel frays into many channels, sprawling across the delta. There are a number of communities after the "head of passes," as the channel division is called locally: Nunum Iqua , Alakanuk , Emmonak , and Kotlik . Of those delta communities, Emmonak is the largest with roughly 760 people in

1800-521: Is also performed along the river in summer by barge , enabling heavy goods, oil, and vehicles to be transported to communities along the Yukon, Tanana, Innoko, and Koyukuk rivers. This service is performed by Ruby Marine and reaches Tanana on the Yukon River and Nenana on the Tanana River. Some of the upper slopes of this watershed (e.g. Nulato Hills ) are forested by Black Spruce . This locale near

1920-531: Is more than 25% larger than Texas or Alberta . The longest river in Alaska and Yukon, it was one of the principal means of transportation during the 1896–1903 Klondike Gold Rush . A portion of the river in Yukon—"The Thirty Mile" section, from Lake Laberge to the Teslin River —is a national heritage river and a unit of Klondike Gold Rush International Historical Park . Paddle-wheel riverboats continued to ply

2040-459: Is the Dfc climate type subarctic tundra ecosystem. The land is generally flat tundra and wetlands . The area covers about 100,000 square miles which are roughly about 1/3 of Alaska. Their lands are located in five of the 32 ecoregions of Alaska: Before European contact, the Yupʼik, like other neighboring Indigenous groups, were semi-nomadic hunter-fisher-gatherers who moved seasonally throughout

2160-821: The Aleutian Islands , the Pribilof Islands , Kodiak Island , and scattered coastal locations on the mainland. Russian Orthodox missionaries went to these islands, where in 1800 priests conducted services in the local language on Kodiak Island, and by 1824 in the Aleutian Islands. An Orthodox priest translated the Holy Scripture and the liturgy into Tlingit language , which was used by other major people of Alaska Natives. The Russian period, lasting roughly 120 years, can be divided into three 40-year periods: 1745 to 1785, 1785 to 1825, and 1825 to 1865. The first phase of

2280-611: The Chilkoot Trail . Either way, Atlin Lake flows into Tagish Lake (via the Atlin River), as eventually does Lake Lindeman after flowing into Bennett Lake . Tagish Lake then flows into Marsh Lake (via the Tagish River). The Yukon River proper starts at the northern end of Marsh Lake, just south of Whitehorse . Some argue that the source of the Yukon River should really be Teslin Lake and

2400-479: The Environmental Protection Agency does not list the Yukon River among its impaired watersheds, and water-quality data from the U.S. Geological Survey shows relatively good levels of turbidity, metals, and dissolved oxygen. The Yukon and Mackenzie rivers have much higher suspended sediment concentrations than the great Siberian Arctic rivers. The Yukon River Inter-Tribal Watershed Council ,

2520-545: The Indigenous peoples of Alaska and include Russian Creoles , Iñupiat , Yupik , Aleut , Eyak , Tlingit , Haida , Tsimshian , and a number of Northern Athabaskan cultures. They are often defined by their language groups. Many Alaska Natives are enrolled in federally recognized Alaska Native tribal entities , who in turn belong to 13 Alaska Native Regional Corporations , who administer land and financial claims. Ancestors of Native Alaskans or Alaska Natives migrated into

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2640-827: The Pacific Northwest . The United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire on March 30, 1867. Originally organized as the Department of Alaska (1867–1884), the area was renamed as the District of Alaska (1884–1912) and the Territory of Alaska (1912–1959) before it was admitted to the Union as the State of Alaska (1959–present). During the Early American Period (1867–1939),

2760-535: The Seward Peninsula represents the near westernmost limit of the Black Spruce, Picea mariana , one of the most widespread conifers in northern North America. The river flows into several parklands and refuges including: Yukon at Pilot Station (121 miles upstream of mouth) minimum, average and maximum discharge: for statistical calculation The Yukon River is home to one of the longest salmon runs in

2880-609: The Shelikhov-Golikov Company and later the Russian-American Company was organized and continued in the exploration of the lucrative north Pacific Ocean sea otter trade . During this time, they exchanged massacres for virtual enslavement and exploitation. The major portion of Alaska remained little known, and the Yupʼik of the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta were not strongly affected. The Russo-American Treaty of 1824

3000-676: The Sugpiaq ~ Alutiiq (Pacific Yupik) of south-central Alaska, the Siberian Yupik of St. Lawrence Island and Russian Far East, and the Naukan of Russian Far East. The Yupʼik combine a contemporary and a traditional subsistence lifestyle in a blend unique to the Southwest Alaska . Today, the Yupʼik generally work and live in western style but still hunt and fish in traditional subsistence ways and gather traditional foods. Most Yupʼik people still speak

3120-651: The Takhini River ) and Kluane Lake (into the Kluane and then White River). The river passes through the communities of Whitehorse , Carmacks , (just before the Five Finger Rapids ) and Dawson City in Yukon , and crossing Alaska into Eagle , Circle , Fort Yukon , Stevens Village , Rampart , Tanana , Ruby , Galena , Nulato , Grayling , Holy Cross , Russian Mission , Marshall , Pilot Station , St. Marys (which

3240-487: The Teslin River , which has a larger flow when it reaches the Yukon at Hootalinqua. The upper end of the Yukon River was originally known as the Lewes River until it was established that it actually was the Yukon. North of Whitehorse, the Yukon River widens into Lake Laberge , made famous by Robert W. Service 's " The Cremation of Sam McGee ". Other large lakes that are part of the Yukon River system include Kusawa Lake (into

3360-756: The United States Supreme Court decision in Alaska v. Native Village of Venetie Tribal Government (1998). Except for the Tsimshian, Alaska Natives no longer hold reservations but do control some lands. Under the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 , Alaska Natives are reserved the right to harvest whales and other marine mammals . Four indigenous tribes in Alaska, the Shishmaref , Kivalina , Shaktoolik and Newtok tribes, are being considered

3480-625: The Yukon and Kuskokwim —around 1400 C.E., eventually reaching as far upriver as Paimiut on the Yukon and Crow Village ( Tulukarugmiut ) on the Kuskokwim. For centuries, the Yup'ik had fought amongst each other in the Bow and Arrow Wars. According to oral traditions, they may have begun a thousand or 300 years ago, with various different theories as to how the wars begun. Yup'ik tribes constantly raided each other and destroyed villages, These wars ultimately ended in

3600-413: The nukalpiaq was not, however, comparable to that of the umialik (whaling captain) of northern and northwestern Alaska Iñupiaq . The captain had the power to collect the surplus of the village and much of the basic production of individual family members and later redistribute it. Traditionally, in the winter the Yupʼik lived in semi-permanent subterranean houses , with some for the men and others for

3720-588: The postbase -pik (or -piaq ), meaning 'real' or 'genuine'; thus, Yupʼik literally means 'real person'. The ethnographic literature sometimes refers to the Yupʼik people or their language as Yuk or Yuit . In the Hooper Bay-Chevak and Nunivak dialects of Yupʼik, both the language and the people are given the name Cupʼik . The use of an apostrophe in the name Yupʼik , compared to Siberian Yupik , exemplifies Central Yupʼik orthography: "The apostrophe represents gemination [or lengthening] of

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3840-612: The 'p' sound." The following are names given to them by their neighbors. The common ancestors of the Yupik and the Aleut (as well as various Paleo-Siberian groups) are believed by archaeologists to have their origin in eastern Siberia . Migrating east, they reached the Bering Sea area about 10,000 years ago. Research on blood types and linguistics suggests that the ancestors of American Indians reached North America in waves of migration before

3960-409: The 1830s and 1840s with the establishment of Russian colonialism . Before a Russian colonial presence emerged in the area, the Aleut and Yupik spent most of their time sea-hunting animals such as seals, walruses, and sea lions. They used mainly wood, stone, or bone weapons and had limited experience fishing. Families lived together in large groups during the winter and split up into smaller huts during

4080-433: The 1850s Russia lost much of its interest in Alaska. Alaska has many natural resources, which, including its gold, caught the attention of the United States. In 1867, the United States purchased Alaska from Russia. It did not consider the wishes of Native Alaskans or view them as citizens. The land that belonged to Alaska Natives was considered to be "open land", which could be claimed by white settlers without redress to

4200-416: The 2000 census. Emmonak's gravel airstrip is the regional hub for flights. Navigational obstacles on the Yukon River are the Five Finger Rapids and Rink Rapids downstream from Carmacks. Despite its length, there are only four vehicle-carrying bridges across the river, listed from upstream to downstream: A car ferry crosses the river at Dawson City in the summer; it is replaced by an ice bridge over

4320-551: The 21st century, the numerous congregations of Russian Orthodox Christians in Alaska reflect this early history, as they are generally composed mostly of Alaska Natives. Rather than hunting and harvesting marine life themselves, the Sibero-Russian promyshlenniki forced the Aleuts to do the work for them, enserfing the Aleuts. As word spread of the riches in furs to be had, competition among Russian companies increased. Catherine

4440-516: The Akulmiut, the residential pattern of separate houses for women and children and a single residence for men and boys persisted until about 1930. The women's house or Ena ( [e]na sg nek dual net pl in Yupʼik, ena sg enet pl in Cupʼik, ena in Cupʼig) was an individual or semi-communal smaller sod house. They looked similar in construction to the qasgiqs but were only about half

4560-508: The Alaska Department of Fish & Game's Division of Commercial Fisheries banned all fishing of Chinook and chum salmon, including for subsistence. Various organizations are involved to protect healthy salmon runs into the future. The Yukon River Drainage Fisheries Association was formed in 1990 by a consensus of fishers representing the entire drainage in response to recent disaster years. Its organizational goals include giving voice to

4680-563: The Alaska Natives had lost to European-Americans . It provided for the establishment of thirteen Alaska Native Regional Corporations to administer those claims. Similar to the separately defined status of the Canadian Inuit and First Nations in Canada, which are recognized as distinct peoples, in the United States, Alaska Natives or Native Alaskans are in some respects treated separately by

4800-696: The Alaska Natives living there. The only schools for Alaska Natives were those founded by religious missionaries . Most white settlers did not understand the sophisticated cultures the Alaska Natives had developed to live in challenging environment and considered them to be inferior to European Americans, correlating with white supremacist beliefs. The Klondike Gold Rush occurred in the 1896–1898, increasing white presence in Alaska as well as discriminatory practices. Americans imposed racial segregation and discriminatory laws (similar to Jim Crow laws ) that limited Alaska Native opportunities and participation in culture, treating them as second-class citizens . With

4920-533: The Alaskan Native family unit was the removal of children from their native villages to off-reservation Indian boarding schools alongside other Indian tribes children. The Federal Government accordingly devised artificial communities of Indian children throughout the Federal Indian boarding school system, resulting in the creation of other Indian or Alaskan Native families and extended families depending on whether

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5040-505: The Alaskan government recommended not building on permafrost or using extra layers of insulation that is used on foundation walls (EPA). Food insecurity has also created stress and health issues, families can not get enough food due to animals also relocating to get to a climate that is more suitable to them (Brubaker). Families also do not have a secure food system because their ways of storing food, underground ice cellar, are no longer frozen year long due to climate change, their cellars thaw in

5160-453: The Aleut population died from Eurasian infectious diseases . These had been endemic among the Europeans for centuries, but the Aleut had no immunity against the new diseases. The Russian Tsarist government expanded into Indigenous territory in present-day Alaska for its own geopolitical reasons. It consumed natural resources of the territory during the trading years, and Russian Orthodoxy

5280-523: The Great , who became Empress in 1763, proclaimed good will toward the Aleut and urged her subjects to treat them fairly. The growing competition between the trading companies, which merged into fewer, larger and more powerful corporations, created conflicts that aggravated the relations with the indigenous populations . Over the years, the situation became catastrophic for the Aleuts, as well as other Native Alaskan people who were impacted by Russian contact. As

5400-468: The Holikachuks were in a position to borrow the Gwich'in contraction and to conflate its meaning with the meaning of Kuig-pak [River-big], which is the Yup'ik name for the same river. For that reason, the documentary evidence suggests that the Holikachuks had borrowed the contraction Ųųg Han [White Water River] from Gwich'in, and erroneously assumed that this contraction had the same literal meaning as

5520-502: The Native Alaskan groups were spread throughout Alaska. Arriving from Siberia by ship in the mid-eighteenth century, Russians began to trade with Alaska Natives in what became known as the Aleutian Islands . They started new settlements around trading posts, and Russian Orthodox missionaries were part of these. The Russian missionaries were the first persons to translate Christian scripture into Native languages, such as Tlingit . In

5640-467: The Russian American Company an edge in competition with American and British fur traders. But the conscription separated men from their families and villages, thus altering and breaking down communities. With able-bodied men away on the hunt, villages were left with little protection as only women, children, and the elderly remained behind. In addition to changes that came with conscription,

5760-477: The Russian American Company provided them with an education. Many Orthodox missionaries, like Herman of Alaska , defended Natives from exploitation. Creole people were believed to have high levels of loyalty toward the Russian crown and Russian American Company. After completing their education, children were often sent to Russia, where they would study skills such as mapmaking, theology, and military intelligence. In

5880-530: The Russian period (1745 to 1785) affected only the Aleut (Unangan) and Alutiiq (Sugpiaq) profoundly. During this period, large sectors of the Bering Sea coast were mapped by the English explorer James Cook , rather than by the Russians. In 1778, Cook discovered and named Bristol Bay and then sailed northward around Cape Newenham into Kuskokwim Bay . During the second phase of the Russian period (1785 to 1825),

6000-434: The Russians to start these taxations. Robbery and maltreatment in the form of corporal punishment and the withholding of food was also present upon the arrival of fur traders. Catherine the Great dissolved the giving of tribute in 1799, but her government initiated mandatory conscription of Indigenous men between the ages of 18 and 50 to become seal hunters strictly for the Russian American Company. This mandatory labor gave

6120-546: The Russo-Japanese war cut off contact with Russia. The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) was signed into law on December 18, 1971. The ANCSA is central to both Alaska's history and current Alaska Native economies and political structures. Before European contact (until the 1800s), the history of the Yupʼik, like that of other Alaska Natives , was oral tradition . Each society or village had storytellers ( qulirarta ) who were known for their memories, and those were

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6240-447: The United States forced evacuation of around nine hundred Aleuts from the Aleutian Islands . The idea was to remove the Aleuts from a potential combat zone during World War II for their own protection, but European Americans living in the same area were not forced to leave. The removal was handled so poorly that many Aleuts died after they were evacuated; the elderly and children had the highest mortality rates. Survivors returned to

6360-485: The Yukon River. The contraction is Ųųg Han , if the /ųų/ remains nasalized , or Yuk Han , if there is no vowel nasalization. In the 1840s, different tribes had different opinions as to the literal meaning of Yukon . In 1843, the Holikachuks had told the Russian-American Company that their name for the river was Yukkhana and that this name meant big river . However, Yukkhana does not literally correspond to

6480-557: The Yukon include set gillnets , drift nets , dip nets , and fish wheels . The preference of certain gear is largely dependent on the river's varied characteristics in different areas. Some parts of the river do not have eddies to make set-nets successful, whereas in other places the tributaries are small enough to make drifting impractical. Over the last 20 years salmon recruitment, the number of returning adults, has taken several shocks. The late 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s have been marked by radically reduced runs for various salmon species. In

6600-686: The Yukon-Kuskokwim Indigenous people in the 1980s; she melded Yupʼik voices with traditional anthropology and history in an unprecedented fashion. The historiography of western Alaska has few Yupʼik scholars contributing writings. Harold Napoleon , an elder of Hooper Bay , presents an interesting premise in his book Yuuyaraq: The Way of the Human Being (1988). A more scholarly, yet similar, treatment of cultural change can be found in Angayuqaq Oscar Kawagley 's A Yupiaq Worldview:

6720-415: The Yupʼik societies exhibit a Yuman type of social organization with bilateral descent , and Iroquois cousin terminology. Bilateral descent provides each individual with his or her own unique set of relatives or kindred: some consanguineal members from the father's kin group and some from the mother's, with all four grandparents affiliated equally with the individual. Parallel cousins are referenced by

6840-546: The abundant fish and game of the Y-K Delta and Bering Sea coastal areas permitted for a more settled life than for many of the more northerly Iñupiaq people. Under normal conditions, there was little need for interregional travel, as each regional group had access to enough resources within its own territory to be completely self-sufficient. However, fluctuations in animal populations or weather conditions sometimes necessitated travel and trade between regions. The homeland of Yupʼik

6960-439: The amount of respiratory illnesses in many regions in Alaska, in 2005 pneumonia was the leading cause of hospitalizations (Brubaker). Many of the affected tribes are experiencing increased mental stress due to climate change and the problem of relocating but no policy or way to relocate (Brubaker). Stress has also increased on villages who face infrastructure damage due to melting permafrost, there are almost no regulations other than

7080-563: The ancestors of the Eskimo and Aleut; there were three major waves of migration from Siberia to the Americas by way of the Bering land bridge . This causeway became exposed between 20,000 and 8,000 years ago during periods of glaciation. By about 3,000 years ago the progenitors of the Yupiit had settled along the coastal areas of what would become western Alaska, with migrations up the coastal rivers—notably

7200-456: The animal populations declined, the Aleuts, already dependent on the new barter economy created by their fur trade with the Russians, were increasingly coerced into taking greater risks in the dangerous waters of the North Pacific to hunt for more otter. As the Shelikhov-Golikov Company and later Russian-American Company developed as a monopoly, it used skirmishes and systematic violence as

7320-411: The area thousands of years ago, in at least two different waves. Some are descendants of the third wave of migration, in which people settled across the northern part of North America. They never migrated to southern areas. Genetic studies show they are not closely related to native peoples in South America. Alaska Natives came from Asia. Anthropologists have stated that their journey from Asia to Alaska

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7440-577: The border. The agreement is implemented through the Yukon River Panel, an international body of 12 members, equal-parts American and Canadian, that advises managers of Yukon River fisheries concerning restoration, conservation, and coordinated management. Tribal organizations such as the Association of Village Council Presidents (AVCP), Council of Athabascan Tribal Governments (CATG), and Tanana Chiefs Conference (TCC) work to sustain Yukon River salmon to promote healthy people, cultures, and communities. The main river and tributaries are (sorted in order from

7560-445: The contiguous United States, Alaska Natives or Native Alaskans do not have treaties with the United States that protect their subsistence rights, except for the right to harvest whales and other marine mammals. The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act explicitly extinguished aboriginal hunting and fishing rights in the state of Alaska. Census 2010. According to the 2010 census this was the ethnic breakdown of Alaska Natives by region,

7680-500: The correct way of handling all fish and game caught by the hunter in order to honor and appease the spirits and maintain a harmonious relationship with the fish and game. Although unwritten, this way can be compared to Mosaic law because it governed all aspects of a human being's life. An Alaska Native elder ( tegganeq sg tegganrek dual tegganret pl in Yupʼik, teggneq sg teggnerek ~ teggenrek dual teggneret ~ teggenret pl in Cupʼik, taqnelug in Cupʼig)

7800-405: The correct way of thinking and speaking about all living things, especially the great sea and land mammals on which the Yupʼik relied for food, clothing , shelter, tools, kayaks, and other essentials. These great creatures were sensitive; they were believed able to understand human conversations, and they demanded and received respect. Yuuyaraq prescribed the correct method of hunting and fishing and

7920-412: The corresponding Yup'ik name Kuig-pak [River-big]. The Lewes River is the former name of the upper course of the Yukon, from Marsh Lake to the confluence of the Pelly River at Fort Selkirk . The generally accepted source of the Yukon River is the Llewellyn Glacier at the southern end of Atlin Lake in British Columbia . Others suggest that the source is Lake Lindeman at the northern end of

8040-455: The current, with an estimated 35–50% bound for Canada. As a result, Chinook salmon are noted for their especially rich and fatty meat and are the priciest of all Pacific salmon species. The villages along the Yukon have historically relied on and continue to rely on salmon for their cultural, subsistence, and commercial needs. Salmon are traditionally dried, smoked, and frozen for both human and sled dog consumption. Common methods of fishing on

8160-527: The earliest scholars to undertake significant archaeological research in the Yupʼik region. VanStone demonstrates the ethnographic approach to cultural history in Eskimos of the Nushagak River: An Ethnographic History (1967). Wendell Oswalt published a comprehensive ethnographic history of the Yukon–Kuskokwim delta region, the longest and most detailed work on Yupʼik history to date in Bashful No Longer: An Alaskan Eskimo ethnohistory, 1778–1988 (1988). Ann Fienup-Riordan (born 1948) began writing extensively about

8280-448: The early American period, native languages were forbidden in mission schools, where only English was permitted. The economy of the islands also took a hit under American ownership. Hutchinson, Cool & Co., an American trading company, took advantage of its position as the only trader in the area and charged the natives as much as possible for its goods. The combination of high costs and low hunting and fishing productivity persisted until

8400-425: The effects of climate change on ocean food-supply & disease prevalence in returning adults, the methods of fishing used on the river, and the effects of the Bering Sea Pollock trawl fleet on food supply and salmon bycatch. In 2010, the Alaska Department of Fish & Game's Board of Fisheries issued the first-ever restriction for net mesh size on the Yukon, reducing it to 7.5 inches (190 mm). In 2021,

8520-470: The eighteenth century. British and American traders, coming mostly from eastern settlements in North America, generally did not reach the area until the nineteenth century. In some cases, Christian missionaries were not active in Alaska until the twentieth century. Vitus Bering spotted Alaska during an expedition. Native Alaskans first came into contact with Russians in the 18th century. Time of contact with Russians varied throughout each native group since

8640-641: The family separation and cultural eradication. In 1912, the Alaska Native Brotherhood (ANB) was formed to help fight for citizenship rights. The Alaska Native Sisterhood (ANS) was created in 1915. Also in 1915, the Alaska Territorial legislature passed a law allowing Alaskan Natives the right to vote – but on the condition that they give up their cultural customs and traditions. The Indian Citizenship Act , passed in 1924, gave all Native Americans United States citizenship. ANB began to hold

8760-489: The federal government generally neglected the territory, other than using positions in territorial government for political patronage. There was an effort to exploit the natural resources in the years following the purchase of Alaska. Moravian Protestant (1885) and Jesuit Catholic (1888) missions and schools were established along the Kuskokwim and lower Yukon rivers, respectively. The Qasgiq , ceremonial buildings for Yup'ik men, disappeared due to missionary coercion. During

8880-477: The field of other subject areas. American anthropologist Margaret Lantis (1906–2006) published The Social Culture of the Nunivak Eskimo in 1946; it was the first complete description of any Alaskan indigenous group. She began Alaskan Eskimo Ceremonialism (1947) as a broad study of Alaskan Indigenous people. James W. VanStone (1925–2001), an American cultural anthropologist , and Wendell H. Oswalt were among

9000-597: The first climate refugees for America, due to sea ice melting and increased wildfires in the regions (Bronen and Brubaker). The effects of climate change on the people of Alaska are extensive and include issues such as increased vulnerability to disease, mental health issues, injury, food insecurity, and water insecurity (Brubaker). According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the loss of sea ice will increase erosion area and further displace more native communities. The melting sea ice will also affect

9120-432: The form Yupiaq was used in the southern area (Kuskokwim, Canineq [around Kwigillingok , Kipnuk , Kongiganak , and Chefornak ], Bristol Bay). Certain places (Chevak, Nunivak, Egegik ) have other forms: Cupʼik , Cupʼig , and Tarupiaq . The form Yupʼik is now used as a common term (though not replacing Cupʼik and Cupʼig ). Yupʼik comes from the Yupʼik word yuk , meaning 'person', plus

9240-618: The frozen river during the winter. Plans to build a permanent bridge were announced in March 2004, although they are currently on hold because bids came in much higher than budgeted. There are also two pedestrian-only bridges in Whitehorse, as well as a dam across the river and a hydroelectric generating station. The construction of the dam flooded the White Horse Rapids , which gave the city its name, and created Schwatka Lake . Transportation

9360-578: The fur traders were Russians , such as promyshlenniki from various European parts of the Russian Empire or from Siberia. After the Bering expedition in 1741, Russians raced to explore the Aleutian Islands and gain control of its resources. The Indigenous peoples were forced to pay taxes in the form of beaver and seal fur and opted to do so rather than fight the ever-growing stream of Russian hunters. Grigory Shelikhov led attacks on Kodiak Island against

9480-442: The government from other Native Americans in the United States . This is in part related to their interactions with the U.S. government which occurred in a different historical period than its interactions during the period of westward expansion during the 19th century. Europeans and Americans did not have sustained encounters with the Alaska Natives until the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries when many were attracted to

9600-409: The imposition of discriminatory laws, segregation amongst Alaskan Natives and Americans occurred; for example, " whites only " signs excluded natives from entering buildings. There were also segregated schools. An 1880 court case describes a child not allowed to attend a school with Americans because his stepfather was native. A child that was part native and part American would only be allowed to attend

9720-467: The indigenous Alutiiq (Sugpiaqs) in 1784, known as the Awa'uq Massacre . According to some estimates, Russian employees of the trading company killed more than 2,000 Alutiiq. The company then took over control of the island. By the late 1790s, its trading posts had become the centers of permanent settlements of Russian America (1799–1867). Until about 1819, Russian settlement and activity were largely confined to

9840-455: The individuals of the group. Villages ranged in size from just two to more than a dozen sod houses ( ena ) for women and girls, one (or more in large villages) qasgiq for men and boys, and warehouses . Formerly, social status was attained by successful hunters who could provide food and skins. Successful hunters were recognized as leaders by members of the social group. Although there were no formally recognized leaders, informal leadership

9960-481: The islands to find their homes and possessions destroyed or looted. Civil rights activists such as Alberta Schenck Adams and Elizabeth Peratrovich protested discriminatory laws against Native Alaskans with what were effectively sit-ins and lobbying. The Alaska Equal Rights Act of 1945 , the first anti-discrimination state law in the U.S., occurred as a result of these protests. It entitled all Alaskans to "full and equal enjoyment" of public areas and businesses,

10080-466: The language. The Yupʼik had the greatest number of people who identified with one tribal grouping and no other race (29,000). In that census, nearly half of American Indians and Alaska Natives identified as being of mixed race. Yupʼik, Cupʼik, and Cupʼig speakers can converse without difficulty, and the regional population is often described using the larger term of Yupʼik . They are one of the four Yupik peoples of Alaska and Siberia , closely related to

10200-466: The majority of Alaska Natives live in small villages or remote regional hubs such as Nome , Dillingham , and Bethel , the percentage who live in urban areas has been increasing. In 2010, 44% lived in urban areas, compared to 38% in the 2000 census. As of 2018, natives constitute 15.4% of the overall Alaskan population. The modern history of Alaska Natives begins with the first contact between Alaskan First Nations and Russians sailing from Siberia in

10320-445: The males in the qasgiq by young women and girls. The qasgiq served as a school and workshop for young boys, where they could learn the art and craft of mask making, tool making, and kayak construction. It was also a place for learning hunting and fishing skills. At times, the men created a firebath , where hot fires and rocks produced heat to aid in body cleansing. Thus, the qasgiq was a residence, bathhouse, and workshop for all but

10440-498: The mid-19th century, the time of Russian exploration and presence in the area, the Yupiit were organized into at least twelve, and perhaps as many as twenty, territorially distinct regional or socio-territorial groups (their native names will generally be found ending in -miut postbase which signifies "inhabitants of ..." tied together by kinship—hence the Yupʼik word tungelquqellriit , meaning "those who share ancestors (are related)". These groups included: While Yupiit were nomadic,

10560-416: The migration of some animals that the tribes rely on and with the ice melting there will be no place to store the food that they do obtain (EPA). Due to the permafrost melting, the infrastructure that has been around in the past will become unstable and native villages will collapse (EPA). The Shishmaref, Kivalina, Shaktoolik and Newtok tribes are located on the west coast of Alaska and due to sea-level rise

10680-487: The native language and bilingual education has been in force since the 1970s. The neighbours of the Yupʼik are the Iñupiaq to the north, Aleutized Alutiiq ~ Sugpiaq to the south, and Alaskan Athabaskans , such as Yupikized Holikachuk and Deg Hitʼan , non-Yupikized Koyukon and Denaʼina , to the east. Originally, the singular form Yupʼik was used in the northern area (Norton Sound, Yukon , some Nelson Island) while

10800-656: The northern and northwestern Alaskan Iñupiaq built snow houses for temporary shelter during their winter hunting trips. The word iglu means "house" in Iñupiaq. This word is the Iñupiaq cognate of the Yupʼik word ngel'u (" beaver lodge , beaver house"), which it resembled in shape. Among the Yupʼik of southwestern Alaska, societies (regional or socio-territorial groups), like those of the Iñupiat of northwestern Alaska, were differentiated by territory, speech patterns, clothing details, annual cycles, and ceremonial life. Prior to and during

10920-493: The old literature; qasgi ~ qasgiq sg qasgik dual qasgit pl in Yupʼik, qaygiq sg qaygit pl in Cupʼik, kiiyar in Cupʼig; qasgimi "in the qasgi") is a communal larger sod house. The qasgiq was used and occupied from November through March. The qasgiq housed all adult males in the community and male youth about seven years and older. The women prepared meals in their houses, known as ena. These were taken to

11040-425: The past as in the present, to discuss hunting was to begin to define a man. In Yupʼik, the word anqun (man) comes from the root angu- (to catch after chasing; to catch something for food) and means, literally, a device for chasing. Alaska Natives Alaska Natives (also known as Alaskan Indians , Alaskan Natives , Native Alaskans , Indigenous Alaskans , Aboriginal Alaskans or First Alaskans ) are

11160-414: The people who told the young about the group's history. Their stories (traditional legends qulirat and historical narratives qanemcit ) express crucial parts of Alaska's earliest history. The historiography of the Yupʼik ethnohistory , as a part of Eskimology , is slowly emerging. The first academic studies of the Yupʼik tended to generalize all "Eskimo" cultures as homogeneous and changeless. While

11280-432: The permanent Russian trading posts . A third influence was the early Russian Orthodox missionaries, who sought to convert the peoples to their form of Christianity. The missionaries learned native languages, and conducted services in those languages from the early decades of the 19th century. The Treaty of Saint Petersburg of 1825 defined the boundaries between Russian America and British Empire claims and possessions in

11400-497: The personal experiences of non-natives who visited the Indigenous people of what is now called Alaska formed the basis of early research, by the mid-20th century archaeological excavations in southwestern Alaska allowed scholars to study the effects of foreign trade goods on 19th-century Eskimo material culture. Also, translations of pertinent journals and documents from Russian explorers and the Russian-American Company added breadth to

11520-562: The population of Alaska. Below is a full list of the different Alaska Native or Native Alaskan peoples, who are largely defined by their historical languages (within each culture are different tribes): The Alaska Natives Commission estimated there were about 86,000 Alaska Natives living in Alaska in 1990, with another 17,000 who lived outside Alaska. A 2013 study by the Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development documented more than 120,000 Alaska Native people in Alaska. While

11640-592: The primary source base. The first ethnographic information about the Yupʼik of the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta was recorded by the Russian explorer Lieutenant Lavrenty Zagoskin , during his explorations for the Russian-American Company in 1842–1844. The first academic cultural studies of southwestern Alaskan Indigenous people were developed only in the late 1940s. This was due in part to a dearth of English-language documentation, as well as competition in

11760-582: The region in gold rushes. The Alaska Natives were not allotted individual title in severalty to land under the Dawes Act of 1887 but were instead treated under the Alaska Native Allotment Act of 1906. The Allotment Act was repealed in 1971, following ANSCA, at which time reservations were ended. Another characteristic difference is that Alaska Native tribal governments do not have the power to collect taxes for business transacted on tribal land, per

11880-457: The risk of injury, usually there are thick layers of ice all year long but due to increasing temperatures in the atmosphere and the sea the ice is becoming thinner and is increasing the number of people who fall through the ice, if a person survives falling through the ice they are faced with other health concerns (Brubaker). Increased water insecurity and failing infrastructure caused by climate change has created sanitation issues which has increased

12000-545: The river until the 1950s, when the Klondike Highway was completed. After the purchase of Alaska by the United States in 1867, the Alaska Commercial Company acquired the assets of the Russian-American Company and constructed several posts at various locations on the Yukon River. The Yukon River has a recent history of pollution from military installations, dumps, wastewater, and other sources. However,

12120-516: The river). The lower half of the river continues westward through the U.S. state of Alaska . The river is 3,190 kilometres (1,980 mi) long and empties into the Bering Sea at the Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta . The average flow is 6,400–7,000 m /s (230,000–250,000 cu ft/s). The total drainage area is 854,700 km (330,000 sq mi), of which 323,800 km (125,000 sq mi) lies in Canada. The total area

12240-507: The same terms as siblings, and cross cousins are differentiated. Marriages were arranged by parents. Yupʼik societies (regional or socio-territorial groups) were shown to have a band organization characterized by extensive bilaterally structured kinship with multifamily groups aggregating annually. The Yupʼik created larger settlements in winter to take advantage of group subsistence activities. Villages were organized in certain ways. Cultural rules of kinship served to define relationships among

12360-579: The size. Women and children lived in houses that served as residences for two to five women and their children. Raising children was the women's responsibility until young boys left the home to join other males in the qasgiq to learn discipline and how to make a living. The ena also served as a school and workshop for young girls, where they could learn the art and craft of skin sewing , food preparation, and other important survival skills. Men's house or Qasgiq (is pronounced as "kaz-geek" and often referred to as kashigi, kasgee, kashim, kazhim , or casine in

12480-427: The socio-territorial and neighboring groups) took place in the qasgiq. During the early 20th century, Christian church services were held in the qasgiq before churches were constructed. Virtually all official business, within the group, between groups and villages, and between villagers and non-Yupʼik (such as early missionaries) was conducted in the qasgiq. The Yupʼik Eskimo did not live in igloos or snow houses. But,

12600-630: The spread of disease also altered the populations of Indigenous communities. Although records kept in the period were scarce, it has been said that 80% of the pre-contact population of the Aleut people were gone by 1800. Relationships between Indigenous women and fur traders increased as Indigenous men were away from villages. This resulted in marriages and children that would come to be known as Creole peoples , children who were Indigenous and Russian. To reduce hostilities with Aleutian communities, it became policy for fur traders to enter into marriage with Indigenous women. The Creole population increased in

12720-446: The summer of 2023, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service counted 58,500 Chinook salmon, the second lowest season on record. The United States Department of Commerce issued a Federal Disaster Declaration for the 2008 and 2009 Commercial Chinook Yukon River fisheries, calling for the complete closure of commercial fishing along with restrictions on subsistence fishing. The root cause of these poor returns remains debated, with questions about

12840-434: The summer. The Russian colonization of the Americas lasted from 1732 to 1867. The Russian Empire supported ships traveling from Siberia to America for whaling and fishing expeditions. Gradually the crews established hunting and trading posts of the Shelikhov-Golikov Company in the Aleutian Islands and northern Alaska indigenous settlements. (These were the basis for the Russian-American Company ). Approximately half of

12960-491: The summers leaving their food supply inedible. Gathering of subsistence food continues to be an important economic and cultural activity for many Alaska Natives. In Utqiaġvik, Alaska , in 2005, more than 91 percent of the Iñupiat households which were interviewed still participated in the local subsistence economy, compared with the approximately 33 percent of non-Iñupiat households who used wild resources obtained from hunting, fishing, or gathering. But, unlike many tribes in

13080-580: The territory controlled by the Russian American Company. The growth of the Russian Orthodox Church was another important tactic in the colonization and conversion of Indigenous populations. Ioann Veniaminov, who later became Saint Innocent of Alaska , was an important missionary who carried out the Orthodox Church's agenda to Christianize Indigenous populations. The church encouraged Creole children to follow Russian Orthodox Christianity, while

13200-459: The total is 100% for each region: [REDACTED] Africa [REDACTED] Eurasia [REDACTED] North America [REDACTED] Oceania [REDACTED] South America Yukon River The Yukon River is a major watercourse of northwestern North America. From its source in British Columbia , it flows through Canada's territory of Yukon (itself named after

13320-525: The village fishers that have traditionally managed these resources, enabling communication between fishers and fishery managers, and helping to preserve the ecological integrity of salmon runs and local cultures' Traditional Ecological Knowledge In March 2001, the U.S. & Canadian governments passed the Yukon River Salmon Agreement to better manage an internationally shared resource and ensure that more Canadian-originated salmon return across

13440-428: The villages are experiencing more severe storm surges that are eroding their coastlines (Bronen). There is no land for these tribes to move to that are already in the area they live in which forces these communities to migrate and change their whole way of living (Bronen). It is predicted that a climate event will submerge the tribes completely in less than fifteen years (Bronen). Extreme weather conditions has increased

13560-411: The women (with their children). The Yupʼik men lived together in a larger communal house ( qasgiq ), while women and children lived in smaller, different sod houses ( ena ). Although the men and women lived separately, they had many interactions. Depending on the village, qasgiq and ena were connected by a tunnel. Both qasgiq and ena also served as schools and workshops for young boys and girls. Among

13680-493: The world. Each year Chinook , coho , and chum salmon return to their terminal streams in Alaska, the Yukon Territory , and British Columbia. As salmon do not eat during their spawning migration, Yukon River salmon must have great reserves of fat and energy to fuel their thousands-mile-long journey. The Chinook, which arrive at the mouth of the Yukon River in early June, have the longest journey – as many as 2,000 miles against

13800-404: The year within a reasonably well-defined territory to harvest sea and land mammals, fish, bird, berry and other renewable resources. The economy of Yupʼik is a mixed cash-subsistence system, like other modern foraging economies in Alaska. The primary use of wild resources is domestic. Commercial fishing in Alaska and trapping patterns are controlled primarily by external factors. On the coast, in

13920-444: The youngest male community members who still lived with their mothers. Although there were no formally recognized leaders or offices to be held, men and boys were assigned specific places within the qasgiq that distinguished the rank of males by age and residence. The qasgiq was a ceremonial and spiritual center for the community. In primary villages, all ceremonies (and Yupʼik dancing ) and gatherings (within and between villages among

14040-419: Was evangelized. Their movement into these populated areas of Indigenous communities altered the demographic and natural landscape. Historians have suggested that the Russian-American Company exploited Indigenous peoples as a source of inexpensive labor. The Russian-American Company not only used Indigenous populations for labor during the fur trade, but also held some as hostages to acquire iasak . Iasak,

14160-571: Was made possible through the Bering land bridge or by traveling across the sea. Throughout the Arctic and the circumpolar north, the ancestors of Alaska Natives established varying indigenous , complex cultures that have succeeded each other over time. They developed sophisticated ways to deal with the challenging climate and environment. Historical groups have been defined by their languages, which belong to several major language families. Today, Alaska Natives or Native Alaskans constitute more than 20% of

14280-540: Was practiced by or in the men who held the title Nukalpiaq ("man in his prime; successful hunter and good provider"). The nukalpiaq , or good provider, was a man of considerable importance in village life. This man was consulted in any affair of importance affecting the village in general, particularly in determining participation in the Kevgiq and Itruka'ar ceremonies. He was said to be a major contributor to those ceremonies and provider to orphans and widows. The position of

14400-483: Was signed in St. Petersburg between representatives of the Russian Empire and the United States on April 17, 1824, and went into effect on January 12, 1825. During the last phase of the Russian period (1825 to 1865), the Alaska Natives began to suffer the effects of introduced infectious diseases, to which they had no acquired immunity. In addition, their societies were disrupted by increasing reliance on European trade goods from

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