Misplaced Pages

#549450

70-505: Eliezer S. Yudkowsky ( / ˌ ɛ l i ˈ ɛ z ər j ʌ d ˈ k aʊ s k i / EL -ee- EZ -ər yud- KOW -skee ; born September 11, 1979) is an American artificial intelligence researcher and writer on decision theory and ethics , best known for popularizing ideas related to friendly artificial intelligence . He is the founder of and a research fellow at the Machine Intelligence Research Institute (MIRI),

140-520: A "rationalist rewrite", as popularized by Harry Potter and the Methods of Rationality . Stories designed to be light-hearted and romantic. Another term for this genre is WAFF, which is short for "warm and fuzzy feelings." Stories in which a character is put through a traumatic experience in order to be comforted. The climax of these stories is usually when one character witnesses another character's suffering and alleviates it. Another type of hurt/comfort

210-521: A New Theory on the Measurement of Risk , in which he uses the St. Petersburg paradox to show that expected value theory must be normatively wrong. He gives an example in which a Dutch merchant is trying to decide whether to insure a cargo being sent from Amsterdam to St. Petersburg in winter. In his solution, he defines a utility function and computes expected utility rather than expected financial value. In

280-821: A book and movie deal with renamed characters in 2014. A movie adaptation, After , was released on April 12, 2019. On May 22, 2013, online retailer Amazon launched a new publishing service, Kindle Worlds , which allowed fan fiction of certain licensed media properties to be sold in the Kindle Store , with terms including 35% of net sales for works of 10,000 words or more and 20% for short fiction ranging from 5,000 to 10,000 words. However, this arrangement included restrictions on content, copyright violations, poor document formatting, and use of misleading titles. Amazon shut down Kindle Worlds in August 2018. A similar trend began in Japan in

350-402: A common and erroneous thought process that arises through heuristic thinking is the gambler's fallacy — believing that an isolated random event is affected by previous isolated random events. For example, if flips of a fair coin give repeated tails, the coin still has the same probability (i.e., 0.5) of tails in future turns, though intuitively it might seems that heads becomes more likely. In

420-460: A common plot was a minor member of the USS Enterprise ' s crew saving the life of Kirk or Spock, often being rewarded with a sexual relationship as a result. The term "Mary Sue", which originated in a parody of stories in the wish fulfillment genre, often refers to an idealized or overpowered character who lacks flaws and is often seen as a representation of the author. An abbreviation of

490-453: A darkfic. "Dead Dove Do Not Eat", sometimes abbreviated as DDDNE, is a sub-category of darkfic. It began as an AO3 tag in 2015, intended to warn people that the story contained dark themes without explicitly condemning them; because the dark themes were tagged, it served to reinforce readers' attention to them. Since 2015, it has evolved into its own tag, meaning that sometimes other dark themes are not tagged and are assumed to be present in

560-683: A different setting. The term originated in the Xena: Warrior Princess fandom and was inspired by the episode "The Xena Scrolls", which featured 1940s-era descendants of the characters Xena, Gabrielle, and Joxer, who are played by their respective actors, on an archaeological dig in an Indiana Jones pastiche . As the concept of the uberfic can be adapted into original fiction, many uberfic authors, such as Melissa Good, Radclyffe , and Lori L. Lake , have legally published their Xena uberfic as original lesbian literature . Also abbreviated as A/N, author's notes are typically found directly before

630-466: A fandom or topic. These archives were followed by non-commercial automated databases. In 1998, the non-profit site FanFiction.Net was launched, which allowed anyone to upload content in any fandom. The ability to self-publish fan fiction in an easily accessible archive that did not require insider knowledge to join, as well as the ability to review stories directly on the site, led the site to quickly gain popularity. A popular example of modern fan fiction

700-407: A few sentences to novel-length and can be based on fictional and non-fictional media, including novels , movies , comics , television shows , musical groups , cartoons , anime and manga , and video games . Fan fiction is rarely commissioned or authorized by the original work's creator or publisher or professionally published. It may infringe on the original author's copyright , depending on

770-594: A fixed universe of possibilities is that it considers the "known unknowns", not the " unknown unknowns ": it focuses on expected variations, not on unforeseen events, which some argue have outsized impact and must be considered – significant events may be "outside model". This line of argument, called the ludic fallacy , is that there are inevitable imperfections in modeling the real world by particular models, and that unquestioning reliance on models blinds one to their limits. Fan fiction Fan fiction or fanfiction , also known as fan fic , fanfic , fic or FF ,

SECTION 10

#1732909890550

840-825: A part of a story or the entire story. Historically, the terms "lemon", or explicit pornography, and "lime", sexually suggestive works, were euphemisms used to refer to explicit material. These terms were once common in the 2000s, but fell out of use before becoming popular again in December 2018 due to the censorship of adult content on Tumblr , as it allowed writers to circumvent "explicit terminologies" that could get their work flagged by platforms like Tumblr while still being able to tag their work as explicit. Trigger warnings are used to warn people of content in fan fiction that could be harmful or "triggering" for those who have dealt with traumatic situations, allowing them to prepare for or avoid certain content. Sometimes, content warning (CW)

910-587: A pension scheme, giving them an income at some time in the future. What is the optimal thing to do? The answer depends partly on factors such as the expected rates of interest and inflation , the person's life expectancy , and their confidence in the pensions industry. However even with all those factors taken into account, human behavior again deviates greatly from the predictions of prescriptive decision theory, leading to alternative models in which, for example, objective interest rates are replaced by subjective discount rates . Some decisions are difficult because of

980-430: A person having their soulmate's name written on their skin at birth or a specific change that occurs when two soulmates see or touch each other for the first time. The most common trope in this genre is a character being convinced that they do not have, want, or deserve a soulmate, only to be proven wrong as they fall in love. Stories in which a character is sent back in time to get a second chance while having knowledge of

1050-416: A person is excited about a fandom. A portmanteau of fan and canon. It is an "unofficial canon" idea that is widely accepted to be true among fans, but is neither confirmed nor officially endorsed by the original author or source creator, preventing it from being considered canon. Fanon can refer to an interpretation of the original work or details within it. A fan's personal interpretation of canon, such as

1120-549: A private research nonprofit based in Berkeley, California . His work on the prospect of a runaway intelligence explosion influenced philosopher Nick Bostrom 's 2014 book Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies . Yudkowsky's views on the safety challenges future generations of AI systems pose are discussed in Stuart Russell 's and Peter Norvig 's undergraduate textbook Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach . Noting

1190-445: A re-evaluation of what useful decision-making requires. The area of choice under uncertainty represents the heart of decision theory. Known from the 17th century ( Blaise Pascal invoked it in his famous wager , which is contained in his Pensées , published in 1670), the idea of expected value is that, when faced with a number of actions, each of which could give rise to more than one possible outcome with different probabilities,

1260-476: A total halt on the development of AI, or even "destroy[ing] a rogue datacenter by airstrike". The article helped introduce the debate about AI alignment to the mainstream, leading a reporter to ask President Joe Biden a question about AI safety at a press briefing. Between 2006 and 2009, Yudkowsky and Robin Hanson were the principal contributors to Overcoming Bias , a cognitive and social science blog sponsored by

1330-448: Is E. L. James 's Fifty Shades of Grey , which was originally written as fan fiction for the Twilight series and featured Bella and Edward. To avoid copyright infringement, James changed the characters' names to Ana and Christian for the purposes of her novels, a practice known as 'pulling-to-publish'. Anna Todd 's 2013 fan fiction After , about the boy band One Direction , secured

1400-399: Is fiction written in an amateur capacity by fans as a form of fan labor , unauthorized by, but based on, an existing work of fiction . The author uses copyrighted characters , settings, or other intellectual properties from the original creator(s) as a basis for their writing and can retain the original characters and settings, add their own, or both. Fan fiction ranges in length from

1470-431: Is "fusion fic", in which the two universes are merged into one. Stories that are darker or more depressing than the original, often done in contrast to them. This is sometimes done with media that is intended to be light-hearted or for children. Darkfic can also refer to content that is "intentionally disturbing", such as physical or emotional violence or abuse. However, not all stories tagged as "dark" are considered to be

SECTION 20

#1732909890550

1540-513: Is a combination of "song" and "fiction"; as such, it is also referred to as "songfiction". Since many song lyrics are under copyright , whether songfics are a violation of copyright law is a subject of debate. Some fan fiction sites, such as FanFiction.Net, have prevented authors from posting songfics with lyrics from songs that are not in the public domain . In an essay in Music, Sound, and Silence in Buffy

1610-457: Is a piece of writing that is exactly 100 words long, although it is commonly used to refer to any short fan fiction. A fandom is a group of fans of a work of fiction who dedicate their time and energy to their interest. Fan labor , such as fan fiction, is written by fans as a way to express their creativity and love for the original work. A person who is an enthusiastic member of one or more fandoms. The term fangirling/fanboying refers to when

1680-440: Is a variant of romance that focuses on exploring a relationship between two or more characters from the original fandom(s). It has several fandom-specific subgenres, including slash, which focuses on homosexual pairings, and femslash , which is similar but instead focuses on lesbian pairings. The term "shipping" can also refer to a fan who is heavily invested in a relationship between two characters. Writers of fan fiction often use

1750-538: Is called decision analysis and is aimed at finding tools, methodologies, and software ( decision support systems ) to help people make better decisions. In contrast, descriptive decision theory is concerned with describing observed behaviors often under the assumption that those making decisions are behaving under some consistent rules. These rules may, for instance, have a procedural framework (e.g. Amos Tversky 's elimination by aspects model) or an axiomatic framework (e.g. stochastic transitivity axioms), reconciling

1820-423: Is known as the distinction bias . Heuristics are procedures for making a decision without working out the consequences of every option. Heuristics decrease the amount of evaluative thinking required for decisions, focusing on some aspects of the decision while ignoring others. While quicker than step-by-step processing, heuristic thinking is also more likely to involve fallacies or inaccuracies. One example of

1890-420: Is only one of many alternatives and point to many examples where non-standard alternatives have been implemented with apparent success. Notably, probabilistic decision theory can sometimes be sensitive to assumptions about the probabilities of various events, whereas non-probabilistic rules, such as minimax , are robust in that they do not make such assumptions. A general criticism of decision theory based on

1960-505: Is severely biased by anchoring . Intertemporal choice is concerned with the kind of choice where different actions lead to outcomes that are realized at different stages over time. It is also described as cost-benefit decision making since it involves the choices between rewards that vary according to magnitude and time of arrival. If someone received a windfall of several thousand dollars, they could spend it on an expensive holiday, giving them immediate pleasure, or they could invest it in

2030-453: Is whump, which focuses on the character's suffering, sometimes to the exclusion of comfort; excessive whump may also be considered darkfic. Stories in which a version of the author is transported to the fictional world that the fan fiction is based on, which are often written in the first person . Self-insert fanfiction is often compared to Mary Sue characters. Some researchers argue that self-insert characters can be found in literature from

2100-685: The Future of Humanity Institute of Oxford University. In February 2009, Yudkowsky founded LessWrong , a "community blog devoted to refining the art of human rationality". Overcoming Bias has since functioned as Hanson's personal blog. Over 300 blog posts by Yudkowsky on philosophy and science (originally written on LessWrong and Overcoming Bias ) were released as an ebook, Rationality: From AI to Zombies , by MIRI in 2015. MIRI has also published Inadequate Equilibria , Yudkowsky's 2017 ebook on societal inefficiencies. Yudkowsky has also written several works of fiction. His fanfiction novel Harry Potter and

2170-1295: The United Kingdom , 5.6% in Canada , and 4% in Australia . A 2020 study of Archive Of Our Own users found that of the surveyed profiles that stated a nationality, 59.7% were located in North America, 16.1% in Great Britain and an additional 10% in Mainland Europe, 6.3% in Oceania, 2.8% in Scandinavia, 2.2% in Asia, 1.8% in South America and the Caribbean, and 0.2% in the Middle East. The study did not include profiles written in Chinese, Greek, Indonesian, Japanese, Korean, Polish, Russian, or Turkish. A 2020 study of Harry Potter fan fiction writers on Archive of Our Own found that of

Eliezer Yudkowsky - Misplaced Pages Continue

2240-613: The Von Neumann-Morgenstern axioms with behavioral violations of the expected utility hypothesis, or they may explicitly give a functional form for time-inconsistent utility functions (e.g. Laibson's quasi-hyperbolic discounting ). Prescriptive decision theory is concerned with predictions about behavior that positive decision theory produces to allow for further tests of the kind of decision-making that occurs in practice. In recent decades, there has also been increasing interest in "behavioral decision theory", contributing to

2310-415: The intelligence explosion scenario hypothesized by I. J. Good , recursively self-improving AI systems quickly transition from subhuman general intelligence to superintelligent . Nick Bostrom 's 2014 book Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies sketches out Good's argument in detail, while citing Yudkowsky on the risk that anthropomorphizing advanced AI systems will cause people to misunderstand

2380-421: The "regular" list of genres , there are some genres particularly associated with fan fiction. These genres can overlap and include: Stories with an angst -ridden mood that focus on a character or characters who are brooding, sorrowful, or in anguish. Stories that feature characters set in a universe other than their canonical one. There are several types of alternative universe: it may make dramatic changes to

2450-498: The 1960s and 1970s, as dōjinshi , independently published manga and novels, were published by dōjin circles, with many being based on existing manga , anime , and video game franchises. Manga artists such as Shotaro Ishinomori and Fujiko Fujio formed dōjin groups, such as Fujio's New Manga Party ( 新漫画党 , Shin Manga-tō ) . At the time, artists used dōjin groups to make their debut as professional artists. This changed in

2520-515: The 1960s. The first Star Trek fanzine, Spockanalia (1967), contained some fan fiction; many others followed its example. These fanzines were produced using offset printing and mimeography and mailed to other fans or sold at science fiction conventions for a small fee to cover the cost of production. Unlike other aspects of fandom, women were the primary authors of fan fiction; 83% of Star Trek fan fiction authors were female by 1970, and 90% by 1973. One scholar states that fan fiction "fill[s]

2590-413: The 19th century and earlier. There are several types of self-inserts, including: "y/n" (short for [insert] your name"), "xReader," and "imagines." Several of these subgenres are unique to specific platforms. Stories based on an existing fan work. On Archive of Our Own, this type of recursive fan fiction is called a "remix". Stories which are interspersed with the lyrics of a relevant song. The term

2660-539: The 20th century, interest was reignited by Abraham Wald's 1939 paper pointing out that the two central procedures of sampling-distribution-based statistical-theory, namely hypothesis testing and parameter estimation , are special cases of the general decision problem. Wald's paper renewed and synthesized many concepts of statistical theory, including loss functions , risk functions , admissible decision rules , antecedent distributions , Bayesian procedures , and minimax procedures. The phrase "decision theory" itself

2730-455: The Methods of Rationality uses plot elements from J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter series to illustrate topics in science and rationality. The New Yorker described Harry Potter and the Methods of Rationality as a retelling of Rowling's original "in an attempt to explain Harry's wizardry through the scientific method". Yudkowsky is an autodidact and did not attend high school or college. He

2800-538: The Vampire Slayer , University of Sydney professor Catherine Driscoll commented that the genre was "one of the least distinguished modes of fan production" and that "within fan fiction excessive attachment to or foregrounding of popular music is itself dismissed as immature and derivative". Uberfic is a form of alternative universe in which characters physically resemble and share personality traits with their canon counterparts, but have new names and backgrounds in

2870-631: The Worlds and The Time Machine by H. G. Wells ; A New Alice in the Old Wonderland , based on Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll ; and Wide Sargasso Sea , based on Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte . The modern phenomenon of fan fiction as an expression of fandom and fan interaction was popularized and defined by the Star Trek fandom and its fanzines , which were published in

Eliezer Yudkowsky - Misplaced Pages Continue

2940-414: The backstory of a character or the nature of relationships between characters. It can be drawn from subtext present in the canon, but cannot directly contradict it. If other fans share this interpretation, it can become fanon. A Mary Sue , also known as MS, is a term which editors and writers credit as originating in Star Trek fan fiction and later becoming part of the mainstream. In early fan fiction,

3010-502: The beginning or after the end of a fan fiction or its chapters, but can be written at any point in the story and are used to convey direct messages from the author to the reader regarding it. Also known as a beta. Someone who edits or proofreads someone else's fan fiction. The original story. This refers to anything related to the original source, including the plot, setting, and characters. Disclaimers are author's notes which typically inform readers about who deserves credit for

3080-416: The complexity of the organization that has to make them. Individuals making decisions are limited in resources (i.e. time and intelligence) and are therefore boundedly rational ; the issue is thus, more than the deviation between real and optimal behavior, the difficulty of determining the optimal behavior in the first place. Decisions are also affected by whether options are framed together or separately; this

3150-434: The copyright holder and those that were not. Fan fiction is defined by being related to its subject's canonical fictional universe , either staying within those boundaries but not being part of the canon, or being set in an alternative universe . Thus, what is considered "fanon" is separate from canon. Fan fiction is often written and published among fans, and as such does not usually cater to readers without knowledge of

3220-466: The difficulty of formally specifying general-purpose goals by hand, Russell and Norvig cite Yudkowsky's proposal that autonomous and adaptive systems be designed to learn correct behavior over time: Yudkowsky (2008) goes into more detail about how to design a Friendly AI . He asserts that friendliness (a desire not to harm humans) should be designed in from the start, but that the designers should recognize both that their own designs may be flawed, and that

3290-438: The empirical study of economic behavior with less emphasis on rationality presuppositions. It describes a way by which people make decisions when all of the outcomes carry a risk. Kahneman and Tversky found three regularities – in actual human decision-making, "losses loom larger than gains"; people focus more on changes in their utility-states than they focus on absolute utilities; and the estimation of subjective probabilities

3360-575: The following decades, as dōjinshi became more popular and dōjin groups formed in groups such as school clubs. This culminated in 1975 with the Comiket , a convention in Tokyo that helped to establish the fandom. A 2010 study found that 75.2% of account holders on FanFiction.Net allowed the website to disclose their location and that 57% of accounts originated from the United States , followed by 9.2% created in

3430-420: The genre to explore homosexual pairings for popular characters who are not in, or not specified to be in, homosexual relationships in canon. A subcategory of shipping, "curtainfic", which depicts romantic couples in mundane domestic situations such as picking out curtains, was once used but has somewhat fallen out of use. Also known as porn or erotica . Sexually explicit or pornographic fan fiction, which can be

3500-486: The jurisdiction and on legal questions, such as whether or not it qualifies as " fair use " (see Legal issues with fan fiction ). The attitudes of authors and copyright owners of original works towards fan fiction have ranged from encouragement to indifference or disapproval, and have occasionally responded with legal action. The term came into use in the 20th century as copyright laws began to distinguish between stories using established characters that were authorized by

3570-472: The long run, heads and tails should occur equally often; people commit the gambler's fallacy when they use this heuristic to predict that a result of heads is "due" after a run of tails. Another example is that decision-makers may be biased towards preferring moderate alternatives to extreme ones. The compromise effect operates under a mindset that the most moderate option carries the most benefit. In an incomplete information scenario, as in most daily decisions,

SECTION 50

#1732909890550

3640-499: The moderate option will look more appealing than either extreme, independent of the context, based only on the fact that it has characteristics that can be found at either extreme. A highly controversial issue is whether one can replace the use of probability in decision theory with something else. Advocates for the use of probability theory point to: The proponents of fuzzy logic , possibility theory , Dempster–Shafer theory , and info-gap decision theory maintain that probability

3710-474: The most popular works for unauthorized adaptations, with a notable example of Jane Austen fan fiction being Old Friends and New Fancies . Many unauthorized stories of Sherlock Holmes by Arthur Conan Doyle have been created, including The Adventure of the Two Collaborators by J. M. Barrie . Other notable works include The Space Machine and Morlock Night , respectively based on The War of

3780-403: The nature of an intelligence explosion. "AI might make an apparently sharp jump in intelligence purely as the result of anthropomorphism, the human tendency to think of 'village idiot' and 'Einstein' as the extreme ends of the intelligence scale, instead of nearly indistinguishable points on the scale of minds-in-general." In Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach , Russell and Norvig raise

3850-717: The need of a mostly female audience for fictional narratives that expand the boundary of the official source products offered on the television and movie screen." Fan fiction has become more popular and widespread since the advent of the World Wide Web. According to one estimate, fan fiction comprises one-third of all book-related content on the internet. In addition to traditional fanzines and conventions, Usenet newsgroups and electronic mailing lists were established for fan fiction and fan discussion. Online, searchable archives of fan fiction were also created, with these archives initially being non-commercial hand-tended and specific to

3920-568: The need to take into account how other people in the situation will respond to the decision that is taken. The analysis of such social decisions is often treated under decision theory, though it involves mathematical methods. In the emerging field of socio-cognitive engineering, the research is especially focused on the different types of distributed decision-making in human organizations, in normal and abnormal/emergency/crisis situations. Other areas of decision theory are concerned with decisions that are difficult simply because of their complexity, or

3990-401: The objection that there are known limits to intelligent problem-solving from computational complexity theory ; if there are strong limits on how efficiently algorithms can solve various tasks, an intelligence explosion may not be possible. In a 2023 op-ed for Time magazine , Yudkowsky discussed the risk of artificial intelligence and proposed action that could be taken to limit it, including

4060-466: The original media. The term fan fiction has been used in print as early as 1938; in the earliest known citations, it refers to amateur-written science fiction , as opposed to "pro fiction". The term also appears in the 1944 Fancyclopedia , an encyclopaedia of fandom jargon , in which it is defined as "fiction about fans, or sometimes about pros, and occasionally bringing in some famous characters from [science fiction] stories". It also mentions that

4130-412: The original plot. It is also called "Peggy Sue" after the movie Peggy Sue Got Married , in which this scenario happens to the titular character. "Groundhog Day", named after the film , is a variation of this trope in which time travel happens repeatedly, usually until the time traveler "gets it right". Stories that feature characters, items, or locations from multiple fandoms. Another type of crossover

4200-434: The original source material, and often containing pseudo-legal language disavowing any intent of copyright infringement or alluding to fair use . Such "disclaimers" are legally ineffective and are based on misunderstandings of copyright law , particularly confusion between illegal copyright infringement and unethical plagiarism . Disclaimers have fallen out of use since Archive of Our Own's rise in popularity. A drabble

4270-444: The rational procedure is to identify all possible outcomes, determine their values (positive or negative) and the probabilities that will result from each course of action, and multiply the two to give an "expected value", or the average expectation for an outcome; the action to be chosen should be the one that gives rise to the highest total expected value. In 1738, Daniel Bernoulli published an influential paper entitled Exposition of

SECTION 60

#1732909890550

4340-619: The robot will learn and evolve over time. Thus the challenge is one of mechanism design—to design a mechanism for evolving AI under a system of checks and balances, and to give the systems utility functions that will remain friendly in the face of such changes. In response to the instrumental convergence concern, that autonomous decision-making systems with poorly designed goals would have default incentives to mistreat humans, Yudkowsky and other MIRI researchers have recommended that work be done to specify software agents that converge on safe default behaviors even when their goals are misspecified. In

4410-438: The setting, such as a "fantasy AU" that places characters from a non-fantasy canon in a world of magic; change characterization, which is often referred to as someone being "out of character" (OOC) rather than a proper AU; or change major plot events to suit the author's purposes, such as in a fix-it fic . Stories that feature characters in a world, often very similar to canon, where soulmates are real. Common mechanics include

4480-512: The story. Stories that rewrite canonical events that the author disliked or otherwise wanted to "fix", such as major plot holes or a tragic event or ending; for instance, an alternate universe where "everyone lives". Fix-it fics that focus on correcting flaws in the original work are also known as a "rebuild fic", named after the Rebuild of Evangelion series. If it focuses heavily on critical thinking skills and deductive reasoning, it can be considered

4550-463: The term "one true pairing", referring to a person's favorite ship. OT3, OT4, and so on is the term used for a polyamorous OTP. A standalone piece of writing, as opposed to a multichapter work. Stories about real people, usually celebrities, rather than fictional characters. The book After by Anna Todd , later adapted into a film of the same name , was originally a real person fan fiction about One Direction member Harry Styles . Shipping

4620-448: The term is "sometimes improperly used to mean fan science fiction; that is, ordinary fantasy published in a fan magazine ". Before the adoption of copyright in the modern sense, it was common for authors to copy characters or plots from other works. For instance, Shakespeare 's plays Romeo and Juliet , Much Ado About Nothing , Othello , As You Like It and The Winter's Tale were based on recent works by other authors of

4690-413: The time. In 1614, Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda wrote a sequel to Cervantes' Don Quixote before he had finished and published his own second volume. Among 19th-century literature that has been subject to depictions not authorized by the original author include Bram Stoker 's Dracula ' s depiction in the translated adaptation Powers of Darkness . The works of Jane Austen remain among

4760-571: The users who disclosed their gender in their profiles, 50.4% were female or femme -leaning and 13.4% were masculine or masc-leaning. 11% of users were transgender , 21% identified as nonbinary , genderfluid , and/or genderqueer , and an additional 3.9% stated that they identified as agender or genderless. The study also found that fan fiction writers tend to be in their early to mid-20s. Of these writers, 56.7% were university students and young adults, 21.3% were 30 years or older, 19.8% were teenagers, and 0.2% were of retirement age. In addition to

4830-447: Was raised as a Modern Orthodox Jew , but does not identify religiously as a Jew. Decision theory Normative decision theory is concerned with identification of optimal decisions where optimality is often determined by considering an ideal decision maker who is able to calculate with perfect accuracy and is in some sense fully rational . The practical application of this prescriptive approach (how people ought to make decisions)

4900-723: Was used in 1950 by E. L. Lehmann . The revival of subjective probability theory, from the work of Frank Ramsey , Bruno de Finetti , Leonard Savage and others, extended the scope of expected utility theory to situations where subjective probabilities can be used. At the time, von Neumann and Morgenstern's theory of expected utility proved that expected utility maximization followed from basic postulates about rational behavior. The work of Maurice Allais and Daniel Ellsberg showed that human behavior has systematic and sometimes important departures from expected-utility maximization ( Allais paradox and Ellsberg paradox ). The prospect theory of Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky renewed

#549450