124-573: Yokahú Tower is an observation tower within El Yunque National Forest on the island of Puerto Rico . Constructed in 1963, the tower was built by Forest Supervisor and Director of IITF, Frank H. Wadsworth . The tower is one of the two observation towers located in the park and sits at an elevation of 1,575 feet (480 m). The tower is 69 feet (21 meters) tall, and overlooks the El Yunque National Forest. The other tower in
248-641: A chieftain , known as cacique , or cacica if the ruler was a woman. Many women whom the Spaniards called cacicas were not always rulers in their own right, but were mistakenly acknowledged as such because they were the wives of caciques . Chiefs were chosen from the nitaínos and generally obtained power from their maternal line. A male ruler was more likely to be succeeded by his sister's children than his own unless their mother's lineage allowed them to succeed in their own right. The chiefs had both temporal and spiritual functions. They were expected to ensure
372-676: A National Forest in 1906 and renamed the Caribbean National Forest on June 4, 1935. The forest was still used for timber during the First and Second World Wars , and several military installations such as radars and communications infrastructure were installed in the forest, particularly on the highest peaks, such as the early-warning radar site installed in Pico El Yunque to observe and protect against possible incursions by German aircraft and submarines. The Caribbean National Forest
496-505: A bird, a frog , or a reptile, depending on the interpretation of the myth . Zemí was also the name the people gave to physical representations of Zemis, which could be objects or drawings. They took many forms and were made of many materials and were found in a variety of settings. The majority of zemís were crafted from wood, but stone, bone , shell , pottery , and cotton were used as well. Zemí petroglyphs were carved on rocks in streams, ball courts, and stalagmites in caves, such as
620-461: A chief was succeeded by a son of a sister. Las Casas was not specific as to which son of a sister would succeed, but d'Anghiera stated that the order of succession was the oldest son of the oldest sister, then the oldest son of the next oldest sister. Post-marital residence was avunculocal , meaning a newly married couple lived in the household of the maternal uncle. He was more important in the lives of his niece's children than their biological father;
744-621: A dialect of the Arawakan language group. They lived in agricultural societies ruled by caciques with fixed settlements and a matrilineal system of kinship and inheritance. Taíno religion centered on the worship of zemis . Some anthropologists and historians have argued that the Taíno were no longer extant centuries ago, or that they gradually merged into a common identity with African and Hispanic cultures. However, many people today identify as Taíno or have Taíno descent, most notably in subsections of
868-428: A host to live. Therefore, a substantial number of epiphytic plants have cemented their existence in the flora of El Yunque forest, specifically in the dwarf forest due to the moisture, precipitation and protection from the sun. The national forest is home to numerous species of animals, many of which are endemic to Puerto Rico. In addition to the critically endangered Puerto Rican parrot, other endangered species found in
992-582: A leash at all times. The Angelito Trail is an easy short 0.7-mile-long trail that crosses the tabonuco forest zone leads to the Las Damas Pool, also known as Charco Angelito, a series of natural pools along the Mameyes River . Although the trail is easy visitors must be cautious of the weather since the area is prone to flash flooding . The trail and area were heavily damaged during Hurricane Maria in 2017 but it has recently reopened. Dogs are allowed on
1116-519: A picnic area. The trail is closed as of 2021 due to the damage caused by Hurricane Maria in 2017. This trail is one of the few to be located in the municipality of Naguabo , in the southern portion of the national forest. The trailhead is located on the southern section of PR-191 and it hosts bathrooms and a picnic area. The trail was originally built by the Civilian Conservation Corps in the 1930s and remained close for many decades but it
1240-399: A receptacle for hallucinogenic snuff called cohoba , prepared from the beans of a species of Piptadenia tree. These trays have been found with ornately carved snuff tubes. Before certain ceremonies, Taínos would purify themselves, either by inducing vomiting (with a swallowing stick) or by fasting . After communal bread was served, first to the zemí, then to the cacique, and then to
1364-458: A sacred mountain on present-day Hispaniola. In Puerto Rico, 21st-century studies have shown that a high proportion of people have Amerindian mtDNA . Of the two major haplotypes found, one does not exist in the Taíno ancestral group, so other Native people are also among the genetic ancestors. DNA studies changed some of the traditional beliefs about pre-Columbian Indigenous history. According to National Geographic , "studies confirm that
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#17328700383861488-426: A solid rubber ball. Normally, the teams were composed of men, but occasionally women played the game as well. The Classic Taíno played in the village's center plaza or on especially designed rectangular ball courts called batey . Games on the batey are believed to have been used for conflict resolution between communities. The most elaborate ball courts are found at chiefdom boundaries. Often, chiefs made wagers on
1612-459: A study published October 2018, by Bradford C. Lister and Andres Garcia, arthropod biomass in the Luquillo rainforest data taken during the 1970s compared to 30 years later has fallen 10 to 60 times. The study revealed synchronous declines in the lizards, frogs, and birds that eat arthropods. The study indicated that climate warming is the driving force behind the collapse of the forest's food web. Over
1736-498: A typical village was a central plaza, used for various social activities, such as games, festivals, religious rituals , and public ceremonies. These plazas had many shapes, including oval, rectangular, narrow, and elongated. Ceremonies where the deeds of the ancestors were celebrated, called areitos , were performed here. Often, the general population lived in large circular buildings ( bohios ), constructed with wooden poles, woven straw, and palm leaves. These houses, built surrounding
1860-520: A watershed garden and Baño Grande is now a popular scenic spot. Opened in 1996, the El Portal Rainforest Center was designed by Segundo Cardona , FAIA of Sierra Cardona Ferrer Architects to give visitors an introduction to what the rainforest looks like. Built on a 28,434-acre tropical forest, the Portal was built as a model headquarters for ecotourism and economic development and training,
1984-466: A wave of pottery-making farmers—known as Ceramic Age people—set out in canoes from the north-eastern coast of South America starting some 2,500 years ago and island-hopped across the Caribbean. They were not, however, the first colonizers. On many islands, they encountered foraging people who arrived some 6,000 or 7,000 years ago...The ceramicists, who are related to today's Arawak-speaking peoples, supplanted
2108-399: A year) creates a jungle-like setting—lush foliage, crags, waterfalls, and rivers are a frequent sight. The forest has a number of trails from which the jungle-like territory's flora and fauna can be appreciated. El Yunque forest is also renowned for its unique Taíno petroglyphs . It is said that indigenous people believed that El Yunque was the throne of their chief god Yúcahu , so that it
2232-534: Is a moderate to difficult 0.7-mile-long mile that starts on PR-191 close to the Palo Colorado Information Center. This is another popular hiking trail as it leads to La Mina Falls , one of the most picturesque waterfalls of the national forest. The trail also follows the course of La Mina River , also included in the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System , and offers opportunities for swimming in
2356-494: Is a term referring to a historic Indigenous people of the Caribbean , whose culture has been continued today by their descendants and Taíno revivalist communities. Indigenous people in the Greater Antilles did not refer to themselves as Taínos , as the term was coined by the anthropologist Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1836. The Indigenous peoples of the Greater Antilles are sometimes referred to as Island Arawaks . At
2480-432: Is a tree dweller in moist environments. Another significant difference is that it does not have a definite larval stage and the eggs laid by the female are terrestrial instead of aquatic. This means that a miniature frog-let, rather than a tadpole, arises from the incubation period. Other species of coqui found in the forest are the grass coqui ( Eleutherodactylus brittoni ), Eneida's coqui ( Eleutherodactylus eneidae ),
2604-596: Is also known as the elfin woodlands. Although very short, the trail difficulty is classified as moderate to difficult. This is a short and easy 0.4-mile trail that begins close to the Sierra Palm Visitor Center on PR-191. The trail crosses a rainy forest primarily inhabited by tree ferns ( Cyathea arborea and Alsophila dryopteroides ) and Sierra palm trees. The trail leads to the Caimitillo picnic area. Dogs are also allowed on this trail but must be kept on
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#17328700383862728-528: Is an 1,840-acre Research Natural Area and National Natural Landmark located within El Yunque National Forest. The Research Natural Area was established by the United States Department of Agriculture 's Forest Service in 1949 with the goal of preserving a forest area situated between 800 ft. and 3,365 ft. in elevation encompassing two life zones, a rare Pterocarpus swamp, and four major forest types that are free of human disturbance for
2852-511: Is characterized by the variation of vegetation that is only found in Puerto Rico. The vegetation shows stunted growth in which the diameter of the trunk is widened and the number of leaves on the branches is lower than expected. Other specific factors that affect the growth of this sub-region are the high level of acidity and poor water runoff from the soil. Although many species have adapted to these harsh environments, five species are frequent in
2976-507: Is considered to have belonged to the Arawak language family , the languages of which were historically present throughout the Caribbean, and much of Central and South America. In 1871, early ethnohistorian Daniel Garrison Brinton referred to the Taíno people as the Island Arawak , expressing their connection to the continental peoples. Since then, numerous scholars and writers have referred to
3100-592: Is the Caribbean equivalent to Mount Olympus in Greek mythology . El Yunque is the name of the mountain peak, Pico El Yunque , the name of the forest and, colloquially on some occasions, the name for the entire Sierra de Luquillo range. El Yunque most likely comes from or relates to the Spanish word yunque , meaning anvil . This name references the relatively high and flat shape of the Sierra de Luquillo range when observed from
3224-439: Is the main hiking trail (or at least the most popular) of the forest and it extends for about 5.4 miles that lead to the summit of El Yunque , the second highest point of the Sierra de Luquillo. Although considered moderate in difficulty, some of its side trails are considered to be more challenging; the trail itself has an elevation gain of 1,748 feet. The trailhead is located close to the end of PR-191 and La Mina Falls, next to
3348-669: Is the only tropical rainforest in the United States National Forest System and the United States Forest Service . El Yunque National Forest is located on the slopes of the Sierra de Luquillo mountains, encompassing more than 28,000 acres (43.753 mi or 113.32 km ) of land, making it the largest block of public land in Puerto Rico . The forest contains and is named after named Pico El Yunque ,
3472-491: Is very diverse in trees, having over 170 species such as bulletwood ( Manilkara bidentata ), West Indian giant fern ( Cyathea arborea ), yarumo ( Cecropia peltata ), macho yarumo ( Didymopanax morototoni ), granadillo ( Buchenavia capitata ) and guaraguao tree ( Guarea guidona ). The dwarf forest ecosystem is located at around 3,000 feet (910 m) and composes the smallest sub-region in El Yunque forest. The forest
3596-556: The Palo Colorado Information Center, in an area of the national forest often referred to as the La Mina Recreational Area. The trail crosses all four biomes of the national forest. It is open year-round and dogs are also allowed on this trail but must be kept on a leash at all times. Mt. Britton Tower Trail is a small 1.6-mile trail that starts off at El Yunque Trail and crosses a Sierra palm forest on
3720-522: The Puerto Rican , Cuban , and Dominican nationalities. Many Puerto Ricans, Cubans, and Dominicans have Caribbean-Indigenous mitochondrial DNA , suggesting Taíno descent through the direct female line. While some communities describe an unbroken cultural heritage passed down from the old Taíno peoples, often in secret, others are revivalist communities who seek to incorporate Taíno culture into their lives. Scholars have faced difficulties researching
3844-494: The University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras ) with the goal of supporting scientific research of tropical ecosystems due to the occurrence of five out of six of Holdridge's life zones and forest types. The forest was heavily damaged by Hurricane Hugo in 1989 and Hurricane Georges in 1998, and it is estimated that only 23 individual parrots remained in the wild afterwards. Between 2000 and 2002, 35 captive parrots were released into
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3968-557: The Virgin Islands to Montserrat . Modern groups with Caribbean-Indigenous heritage have reclaimed the exonym Taíno as a self-descriptor, although terms such as Neo-Taino or Indio are also used. Two schools of thought have emerged regarding the origin of the Indigenous Caribbean people. Taíno culture as documented is believed to have developed in the Caribbean. The Taíno creation story says they emerged from caves in
4092-422: The adiabatic process of air particles rushing up through the mountainside has affected the morphology of El Yunque, but the most effect has been on the bosque enano or dwarf forest . The forest is home to over 200 species of trees and plants, 16 of which are endemic to the forest. The critically endangered Puerto Rican amazon ( Amazona vittata ), with an estimated wild population of 58–80 individuals in
4216-448: The cacique , social organization was composed of two tiers: The nitaínos at the top and the naborias at the bottom. The nitaínos were considered the nobles of the tribes. They were made up of warriors and the family of the cacique. Advisors who assisted in operational matters such as assigning and supervising communal work, planting and harvesting crops, and keeping peace among the village's inhabitants, were selected from among
4340-603: The coqui and the Puerto Rican parrot , El Yunque is considered a symbol of Puerto Rico and Puerto Ricans . Along with the former two, it was chosen to be Puerto Rico's entry in the America the Beautiful Quarters program. Puerto Rico's only National Park Service site, San Juan National Historic Site had already been featured on the District of Columbia and United States Territories Quarters in 2009. Ta%C3%ADno Taíno
4464-402: The nitaínos . The naborias were the more numerous working peasants of the lower class. The bohíques were priests who represented religious beliefs. Bohíques dealt with negotiating with angry or indifferent gods as the accepted lords of the spiritual world. The bohíques were expected to communicate with the gods , soothe them when they were angry, and intercede on the tribe's behalf. It
4588-423: The tribe began to occupy the hierarchical position that would give way to the cacicazgo . The Taíno founded settlements around villages and organized their chiefdoms, or cacicazgos , into a confederation. The Taíno society, as described by the Spanish chroniclers, was composed of four social classes: the cacique , the nitaínos , the bohíques , and the naborias . According to archeological evidence,
4712-544: The "good men", as opposed to the Caribs. According to Peter Hulme, most translators appear to agree that the word taíno was used by Columbus's sailors, not by the islanders who greeted them, although there is room for interpretation. The sailors may have been saying the only word they knew in a native Caribbean tongue, or perhaps they were indicating to the "commoners" on the shore that they were taíno , i.e., important people, from elsewhere and thus entitled to deference. If taíno
4836-750: The 1930s and 1960s. These manmade pools were built by the Civilian Conservation Corps during the New Deal era by damming creeks belonging to the La Mina River watershed. They were closed due to a series of drownings and other safety issues. Although swimming is no longer possible at these pools, they are preserved as historic sites and have been listed in the National Register of Historic Places due to their historic and architectural value since 2017 and 2020, respectively. Baño de Oro now serves as
4960-508: The Americas for centuries before 1492. Christopher Columbus in his journal described how Indigenous people used tobacco by lighting dried herbs wrapped in a leaf and inhaling the smoke. Tobacco, derived from the Taino word "tabaco", was used in medicine and in religious rituals. The Taino people utilized dried tobacco leaves, which they smoked using pipes and cigars. Alternatively, they finely crushed
5084-574: The Caribbean, they captured and ate small animals such as hutias , other mammals, earthworms , lizards , turtles , and birds . Manatees were speared and fish were caught in nets, speared, trapped in weirs , or caught with hook and line. Wild parrots were decoyed with domesticated birds, and iguanas were taken from trees and other vegetation . The Taíno stored live animals until they were ready to be consumed: fish and turtles were stored in weirs, hutias and dogs were stored in corrals. The Taíno people became very skilled fishermen . One method used
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5208-492: The El Yunque National Forest has been notable since the pre-Columbian era. The forest today is home to several archaeological sites related to the indigenous Taínos , such as the Río Blanco petroglyphs , although no evidence of permanent settlement has been found in the area, which suggests that it was possibly avoided and most likely considered sacred . The Spanish began the conquest the island of Borinquen in 1493, and gold
5332-582: The El Yunque is the Mount Britton Tower . It is located at a higher elevation and usually has cloud cover that interferes with the views. Yokahu is widely considered the better of the two with regard to the view offered. When it comes to convenience, Yokahú Tower again has an advantage over the Mount Britton Tower. Yokahú Tower has a parking lot nearby whereas the Mount Britton is in the middle of
5456-519: The Greater Antilles as Taíno (except the western tip of Cuba and small pockets of Hispaniola), as well as those of the Lucayan Archipelago and the northern Lesser Antilles . He subdivides the Taíno into three main groups: Classic Taíno , from most of Hispaniola and all of Puerto Rico; Western Taíno , or sub-Taíno , from Jamaica, most of Cuba, and the Lucayan archipelago; and Eastern Taíno , from
5580-584: The Greater Antilles. The word tayno or taíno , with the meaning "good" or "prudent", was mentioned twice in an account of Columbus's second voyage by his physician, Diego Álvarez Chanca , while in Guadeloupe . José R. Oliver writes that the Natives of Borinquén, who had been captured by the Caribs of Guadeloupe and who wanted to escape on Spanish ships to return home to Puerto Rico, used the term to indicate that they were
5704-522: The Indigenous group as Arawaks or Island Arawaks . However, contemporary scholars (such as Irving Rouse and Basil Reid) concluded that the Taíno developed a distinct language and culture from the Arawak of South America. Taíno and Arawak have been used with numerous and contradictory meanings by writers, travelers, historians, linguists, and anthropologists. Often they were used interchangeably: Taíno
5828-632: The Management Team of Ecosystems (Equipo de Manejos de Ecosistemas), which is led by Pedro Rios. Due to its location in the northeastern part of Puerto Rico, the incoming trade winds from the Atlantic Ocean bash into the mountains, leading to an excess of rainfall registered at about 240 inches (6.1 m) per year. This process is called orographic lift and accounts for the intense rainfall and constant cloud presence in this mountainous region. This constant cloud cover and persistent winds produced by
5952-503: The Puerto Rican parrot population once again. As of 2020 the population has begun to recover and the captive population's reproduction rates has also doubled under the supervision of the Fish and Wildlife Service . The Portal Rainforest Visitor Center reopened at the end of 2021, after being reconstructed following Hurricane Maria. El Yunque National Forest today extends over 28,000 acres through
6076-721: The Río Sabana and the Tradewinds trails. When including the unpaved section (also known as the Tradewinds Trail), the trail extends for almost 5 miles and it leads to El Toro , which at 3,526 feet (1,075 m) is the highest point in both the national forest and eastern Puerto Rico. The trail crosses all four forest biomes through the municipalities of Canóvanas , Río Grande , Las Piedras (at El Toro's summit) and Naguabo , fully within El Toro National Wilderness. This part of
6200-488: The Sierra palm tree ( Prestoea montana ). The tabonuco tree ( Dacryodes excelsa ) from which this forest area got its name occurs from 660 to 2800 feet (200 to 900 meters) in the mountains of Puerto Rico as well as other islands that make up the Antilles . The laurel magnolia ( Magnolia splendens ), an endangered magnolia tree that is endemic to eastern Puerto Rico, can be found in this forest area as well. This forest
6324-446: The Taíno islands were able to support a high number of people for approximately 1,500 years. Every individual living in the Taíno society had a task to do. The Taíno believed that everyone living on their islands should eat properly. They followed a very efficient nature harvesting and agricultural production system. Either people were hunting, searching for food, or doing other productive tasks. Tribal groups settled in villages under
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#17328700383866448-429: The Taíno permission to engage in important tasks. The Taíno had a matrilineal system of kinship , descent, and inheritance. Spanish accounts of the rules of succession for a chief are not consistent, and the rules of succession may have changed as a result of the disruptions to Taíno society that followed the Spanish intrusion. Two early chroniclers, Bartolomé de las Casas and Peter Martyr d'Anghiera , reported that
6572-535: The Taínos as a physically tall, well-proportioned people, with noble and kind personalities. In his diary , Columbus wrote: They traded with us and gave us everything they had, with good will ... they took great delight in pleasing us ... They are very gentle and without knowledge of what is evil; nor do they murder or steal...Your highness may believe that in all the world there can be no better people ... They love their neighbors as themselves, and they have
6696-406: The area would not be settled again until the 17th century. The area where El Portal Rainforest Visitor Center is located used to be the site of a coffee plantation named Hacienda Catalina . Coffee was introduced and cultivated in the slopes of El Yunque in the 1730s but the area remained relatively untouched until the 19th century when the lowland forests were exploited for timber and cut down for
6820-456: The back, and they occasionally wore gold jewelry, paint, and/or shells. Taíno men and unmarried women usually went naked. After marriage, women wore a small cotton apron, called a nagua . The Taíno lived in settlements called yucayeques , which varied in size depending on the location. Those in Puerto Rico and Hispaniola were the largest and those in the Bahamas were the smallest. In the center of
6944-951: The base of waterfalls, such as that of La Mina Falls and the Juan Diego area off PR-191. Some areas available for swimming are the Quebrada Grande Recreation Area and the Espíritu Santo Observation Point off PR-186, the Sabana Recreation Area off the southern section of PR-191 in Naguabo, and the Angelito and Puente Roto Recreation Areas off PR-988 in Luquillo. Most of these areas are prone to flash flooding and as such they are often closed according to weather conditions. Baño Grande and Baño de Oro are two former swimming pools and recreational areas popular between
7068-441: The bocú shrimp ( Macrobrachium crenulatum ) are found in the rivers and creeks that originate and flow from El Yunque. The Puerto Rican parrot or Puerto Rican Amazon is a little parrot that measures 11.0–11.8 in (28–30 cm). The bird is a predominantly green parrot with a red forehead and white rings around the eyes. The species is the only remaining native parrot in Puerto Rico. The total estimated population as of 2012
7192-485: The center was built to educate those concerned about the wellbeing of the Caribbean National Forest and preserve the unique tropical forest heritage and environment. It is located within the national forest in the municipality of Río Grande . A walkway set at 60 feet (18 m) above the ground allows for a view of the tops of trees, and another walkway winds along tree bases. Exhibits at the center focus on
7316-470: The central plaza, could hold 10–15 families each. The cacique and their family lived in rectangular buildings ( caney ) of similar construction, with wooden porches. Taíno home furnishings included cotton hammocks ( hamaca ), sleeping and sitting mats made of palms, wooden chairs (dujo or duho) with woven seats and platforms, and cradles for children. The Taíno played a ceremonial ball game called batey . Opposing teams had 10 to 30 players per team and used
7440-524: The common people, the people would sing the village epic to the accompaniment of maraca and other instruments. One Taíno oral tradition explains that the Sun and Moon came out of caves. Another story tells of the first people, who once lived in caves and only came out at night because it was believed that the Sun would transform them; a sentry became a giant stone at the mouth of the cave, and others became birds or trees. The Taíno believed they were descended from
7564-469: The cricket coqui ( Eleutherodactylus gryllus ), Hedrick's coqui ( Eleutherodactylus hedricki ), the web-footed coqui ( Eleutherodactylus karlschmidti ), the locust coqui ( Eleutherodactylus locustus ), the upland or forest coqui ( Eleutherodactylus portoricensis ), the bronze or Richmond's coqui ( Eleutherodactylus richmondi ), the dwarf coqui ( Eleutherodactylus unicolor ) and the melodious or wrinkled coqui ( Eleutherodactylus wightmanae ). Per
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#17328700383867688-633: The development of agriculture, which attracted the attention of the Spanish Crown . The forest during this time was part of the Crown lands of Puerto Rico and in 1853 the Spanish government sent foresters from the Inspección de Montes (the Spanish Forest Service) to survey the land. Due to the rapid population growth in the island and the poor farming practices of the impoverished European immigrants of
7812-410: The dwarf forest: Ocotea spathulata , Tabebuia rigida , Calyptranthes krugii , Eugenia borinquensis and Calycogonium squamulosum . The other abundant type of plants in the dwarf forest are epiphytes . The great amount of competition in the canopy does not allow lower-level plants to develop and prosper. The characteristic of having a widened tree trunk is ideal for epiphytes that require
7936-402: The earlier foraging inhabitants—presumably through disease or violence—as they settled new islands." Taíno society was divided into two classes: naborias (commoners) and nitaínos (nobles). They were governed by male and female chiefs known as caciques , who inherited their position through their mother's noble line. (This was a matrilineal kinship system, with social status passed through
8060-500: The female lines.) The nitaínos functioned as sub-caciques in villages, overseeing the work of naborias. Caciques were advised by priests/healers known as bohíques . Caciques enjoyed the privilege of wearing golden pendants called guanín , living in square bohíos, instead of the round ones of ordinary villagers, and sitting on wooden stools to be above the guests they received. Bohíques were extolled for their healing powers and ability to speak with deities. They were consulted and granted
8184-469: The first Taíno mythical cacique Anacacuya, whose name means "star of the center", or "central spirit". In addition to the guanín, the cacique used other artifacts and adornments to serve to identify his role. Some examples are tunics of cotton and rare feathers , crowns, and masks or "guaizas" of cotton with feathers; colored stones, shells, or gold; cotton woven belts; and necklaces of snail beads or stones, with small masks of gold or other material. Under
8308-565: The fish would be stunned and ready for collection. These practices did not render fish inedible. The Taíno also collected mussels and oysters in exposed mangrove roots found in shallow waters. Some young boys hunted waterfowl from flocks that "darkened the sun", according to Christopher Columbus. Taíno groups located on islands that had experienced relatively high development, such as Puerto Rico, Hispaniola, and Jamaica, relied more on agriculture (farming and other jobs) than did groups living elsewhere. Fields for important root crops , such as
8432-560: The forest are the Puerto Rican broad-winged hawk ( Buteo platypterus brunnescens ), the Puerto Rican sharp-shinned hawk ( Accipiter striatus venator ), the Elfin woods warbler ( Setophaga angelae ) and the Puerto Rican boa ( Epicratus inornatus ). The white-necked crow ( Corvus leucognaphalus ), which used to be found in the region, has been completely extirpated from the island and is now only found in Hispaniola . Other animals found within
8556-476: The forest boundaries are the Puerto Rican oriole ( Icterus portoricensis ), the peregrine falcon ( Falco peregrinus ), red fruit bat ( Stenoderma rufus ), the Puerto Rican giant anole ( Anolis cuvieri ) and the Puerto Rican twig anole ( Anolis occultus ). The endangered American eel ( Anguilla rostrata ), the fat sleeper fish ( Dormitator maculatus ), the bigmouth sleeper fish ( Gobiomorus dormitor ), big claw river shrimp ( Macrobrachium carcinus ) and
8680-484: The forest. This article about a Puerto Rican building or structure related topic is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . El Yunque National Forest El Yunque National Forest (Spanish: Bosque Nacional El Yunque ), formerly known as the Caribbean National Forest (or Bosque Nacional del Caribe ), is a forest located in northeastern Puerto Rico . While there are both temperate and tropical rainforests in other states and territories, it
8804-549: The gourd broke, an accident caused by Deminán Caracaracol, and all the water of the world came pouring out. Taínos believed that Jupias, the souls of the dead, would go to Coaybay, the underworld, and there they rest by day. At night they would assume the form of bats and eat the guava fruit. Columbus and the crew of his ship were the first Europeans to encounter the Taíno people, as they landed in The Bahamas on October 12, 1492. After their first interaction, Columbus described
8928-569: The island but they are native to the region. This forest area is a partial old growth forest and some of the palo colorado trees are estimated to be up to 1,000 years old. Due to the shallowness of its bark, the trunks of these trees are commonly used as nesting sites by endangered Puerto Rican parrots ( Amazona vittata ). Other trees found in the palo colorado forest area caimitillo ( Micropholis garcinifolia ), green caimitillo ( Micropholis garciniaefolia ), yarumo ( Cecropia peltata ), Caribbean azafran ( Hedyosmum arborencens ) and
9052-426: The leaves and inhaled them through a hollow tube. The natives employed uncomplicated yet efficient tools for planting and caring for their crops. Their primary tool was a planting stick, referred to as a "coa" among the Taino, which measured around five feet in length and featured a sharp point that had been hardened through fire. Contrary to mainland practices, corn was not ground into flour and baked into bread, but
9176-418: The lush Mameyes Wild & Scenic River area. This is one of the rainiest parts of the national forest which means the trail is often muddy and slippery so appropriate hiking shoes are necessary. Due to the dense forest in the area, most disappearances in the forest occur along this trail so it is important not to walk off the trail under any circumstance. The trailhead is located on PR-191 . La Mina Trail
9300-483: The men made wooden war clubs, which they called macanas . It was about one inch thick and was similar to the coco macaque. The Taínos decorated and applied war paint to their face to appear fierce toward their enemies. They ingested substances at religious ceremonies and invoked zemis. The Taíno were the most culturally advanced of the Arawak group to settle in what is now Puerto Rico . Individuals and kinship groups that previously had some prestige and rank in
9424-579: The municipalities of Río Grande , Luquillo , Naguabo , Ceiba , Fajardo , Canóvanas , Las Piedras and Juncos . Because Puerto Rico is located between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn , it has a tropical climate , more specifically a tropical rainforest climate , with higher elevations over 3,000 feet bordering on a subtropical highland climate . There is no distinct wet or dry season in El Yunque; it rains year-round. The temperature and length of daylight remain fairly constant throughout
9548-724: The national forest is the best ecologically preserved and it is home to numerous endemic and endangered species such as the Puerto Rican parrot , the Puerto Rican boa , the elfin woods warbler , the red fruit bat , and at least five species of coquis . The trailhead is located on PR-186 in a section of the road known as the El Toro Scenic Byway, in Cubuy, Canóvanas . Both the El Toro and Tradewinds trails are listed as National Recreation Trails . El Yunque National Forest offers many opportunities for swimming in natural pools often found at
9672-461: The native inhabitants of the Caribbean islands to which Columbus voyaged in 1492, since European accounts cannot be read as objective evidence of a native Caribbean social reality . The people who inhabited most of the Greater Antilles when Europeans arrived have been called Taínos , a term coined by Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1836. Taíno is not a universally accepted denomination—it
9796-429: The north (El Yunque Peak) or the south ( El Toro ). It is also said that the Spanish name might have been influenced by the native names for the mountain: Yukén or Yuke possibly meaning "white land", and Luquillo or Yukiyu , another name for the spirit or deity Yokahu and also the name of a legendary cacique, Loquillo . It is not known whether the mountain gives its name to the range or vice versa. The area of
9920-683: The only rainforest in the United States National Forest Service, but it is actually the only tropical rainforest. There are others that are temperate rainforests including some in Alaska and the Pacific Northwest . In 2002, the U.S. Congress designated areas bounded by the Río Mameyes , Río de la Mina , and Río Icacos in the Caribbean National Forest as components of the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System . Contrary to
10044-423: The past 30 years, forest temperatures have risen 2.0 °C. In addition to being an important ecological forest reserve, El Yunque National Forest is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Puerto Rico, both for locals and visitors, and it offers numerous recreational opportunities such as picnicking, birdwatching, and biking in designated areas. Camping is allowed in designated areas (depending on
10168-409: The people depended on. The men also fished and hunted, making fishing nets and ropes from cotton and palm . Their dugout canoes ( kanoa ) were of various sizes and could hold from 2 to 150 people; an average-sized canoe would hold 15–20. They used bows and arrows for hunting and developed the use of poisons on their arrowheads. Taíno women commonly wore their hair with bangs in front and longer in
10292-518: The plants and animals of the rainforest, the importance of rainforests around the world, and threats to rainforests and efforts to conserve them. The entry experience begins atop an elevated walkway that unites the facility with the surrounding forest and provides views to the mountain peaks, ocean and reforested terrain. The Center contains 9,000 square feet of exhibits, an enclosed theater, conference center classrooms and laboratories, as well as administrative offices. To preserve natural conditions, care
10416-492: The pool located by La Mina Falls. The trail is closed as of 2021 due to the damage caused by Hurricane Maria in 2017. This is a paved mile-long self-guided interpretative trail that offers hikers the opportunity to come close to some of the largest trees in the national forest, the tabonuco tree (Dacryodes excelsa). Although paved the trail is considered moderate as it is steep in some sections. It ends in La Mina Falls close to
10540-496: The popular assumption, El Yunque Peak is not the highest mountain in either the Sierra de Luquillo or Puerto Rico. The highest mountain of the Sierra de Luquillo is El Toro , also located in the national forest, while the highest mountain in Puerto Rico is Cerro de Punta in the Cordillera Central on the border between Jayuya and Ponce . El Yunque is also the object of Puerto Rican folklore and pop culture . Along with
10664-536: The possible outcome of a game. Taíno spoke an Arawakan language and used an early form of proto-writing in the form of petroglyph , as found in Taíno archeological sites in the West Indies . Some words they used, such as barbacoa ("barbecue"), hamaca ("hammock"), kanoa ("canoe"), tabaco ("tobacco"), sabana (savanna), and juracán ("hurricane"), have been incorporated into other languages. For warfare,
10788-455: The purpose of scientific study, education and future conservation efforts. Baño de Oro is listed as a National Natural Landmark since 1980. El Yunque is composed of four different forest vegetation areas: Tabonuco Forest, Palo Colorado Forest, Sierra Palm Forest, and the Dwarf forest . El Yunque forest supports a vast array of animal and plant life that varies depending on the altitude range in
10912-567: The rainforest. This forest area is located at 1,970 feet (600 m) above sea level and is dominated by the Sierra palm tree ( Prestoea montana ). This palm tree can be found throughout the national forest but the shallowness of the soil makes it the dominant tree at this height of the forest. This forest area is found above 2,500 feet (600–900 m) above sea level and is dominated by the palo colorado ( Cyrilla racemiflora ). The most distinctive features of this tree are its red crooked bark which gives it its Spanish name. These trees are not endemic to
11036-542: The recently discovered yet endangered elfin woods warbler . Most of the recreational infrastructure was developed in the 1980s and the field offices were moved to their current location in 1981. The National Science Foundation established El Verde Field Station in 1988 under an agreement with the US Forest Service as a primary site for the Luquillo Long-Term ecological Research (Luquillo-LTER, now managed by
11160-453: The sea and the mountains". He was considered the spirit of cassava, the zemi of cassava – the Taínos' main crop – and the sea. Guabancex was the non-nurturing aspect of the zemi Atabey who was believed to have control over natural disasters. She is identified as the goddess of hurricanes or as the zemi of storms. Guabancex had twin sons: Guataubá, a messenger who created hurricane winds, and Coatrisquie, who created floodwaters . Iguanaboína
11284-414: The second highest mountain in the Sierra de Luquillo . Other peaks within the national forest are Pico del Este , Pico del Oeste, El Cacique and the highest peak, El Toro , which is the highest point in the national forest and in eastern Puerto Rico rising 3,494 feet (1,065 m) above sea level. Ample rainfall (over 20 feet a year in some areas, or an average of 120 inches of water up to 240 inches of water
11408-492: The size of the group) and there are also cabins available for rent. Additionally, the forest is known for its vista points and observation towers: Yokahu Tower and Mount Britton Tower. Hiking is probably the most popular activity in El Yunque National Forest. The forest offers several trails with varying difficulties. The 35.9-mile (57.8 km) long Puerto Rican Northeast Trail also connects to and traverses through El Yunque. Pico El Yunque Trail (or just El Yunque Trail)
11532-443: The staple crop yuca , were prepared by heaping up mounds of soil, called conucos . This improved soil drainage and fertility as well as delayed erosion while allowing for the longer storage of crops in the ground. Less important crops such as corn were cultivated in clearings made using the slash-and-burn technique. Typically, conucos were three feet high, nine feet in circumference, and were arranged in rows. The primary root crop
11656-445: The sun sets and ends in early dawn. This has made it an animal of great endearment to Puerto Ricans and in contemporary times the coqui has become a symbol of Puerto Ricans . Although the coquí is an amphibian, it possesses some features that are unusual in frogs. These differences are seen mainly in its morphology, reproduction, and developmental stages. In terms of morphology, the coquí does not have webbing between its toes because it
11780-537: The term Taíno should refer to all the Taíno/Arawak nations except the Caribs , who are not seen as belonging to the same people. Linguists continue to debate whether the Carib language was an Arawakan dialect or a Creole language . They also speculate that it was an independent language isolate, with an Arawakan pidgin used for communication purposes with other peoples, as in trading. Rouse classifies all inhabitants of
11904-539: The time of European contact in the late 15th century, they were the principal inhabitants of most of what is now Cuba , the Dominican Republic , Jamaica , Haiti , Puerto Rico , the Bahamas , and the northern Lesser Antilles . The Lucayan branch of the Taíno were the first New World peoples encountered by Christopher Columbus , in the Bahama Archipelago on October 12, 1492. The Taíno historically spoke
12028-593: The time, most of the original forests in Puerto Rico had been either cut or burned down, and the highlands of the Sierra de Luquillo contained the last remaining tracts of untouched forest in the island. President Theodore Roosevelt set aside the previous Crown Lands of El Yunque area, and the Luquillo Forest Reserve was established on January 17, 1903, by the United States General Land Office with 65,950 acres (266.9 km ). It became
12152-524: The time, the forest region was formally set aside in 1876 by King Alfonso XII of Spain with the purpose of preserving the soil and water resources and regulating the timber industry in the region. This makes El Yunque one of the oldest reserves in the Western Hemisphere , only four years younger than Yellowstone National Park . The Spanish Crown ceded Puerto Rico to the United States in 1898 . At
12276-466: The top, where a stone masonry platform offers a 360 panoramic view of the surrounding mountains and the eastern coast of Puerto Rico. The vegetation along this trail belongs to that of the rare dwarf forest ecosystem which features "dwarf trees" such as the miniature tree Clusia clusioides , and equally small species of animals such as the dwarf anole ( Anolis occultus ) and the endangered elfin woods warbler ( Setophaga angelae ). This ecological zone
12400-434: The trail but must be kept on a leash. The trailhead is located on PR-988. This trail is the only one in the forest to be located in the municipality of Luquillo . This trail is a 1.8 miles one-way trail that is considered to be very challenging, not necessarily for its steepness but for the denseness of the forest foliage it crosses. The trail crosses numerous small steams, waterfalls and a tabonuco tree forest and leads to
12524-485: The uncle introduced the boys to men's societies in his sister and his family's clan. Some Taíno practiced polygamy . Men might have multiple wives. Ramón Pané, a Catholic friar who traveled with Columbus on his second voyage and was tasked with learning the Indigenous people's language and customs, wrote in the 16th century that caciques tended to have two or three spouses and the principal ones had as many as 10, 15, or 20. The Taíno women were skilled in agriculture, which
12648-413: The union of the cultural hero Deminán Caracaracol and a female turtle (who was born of the former's back after being afflicted with a blister). The origin of the oceans is described in the story of a huge flood that occurred when the great spirit Yaya murdered his son Yayael (who was about to murder his father). The father put his son's bones into a gourd or calabash . When the bones turned into fish,
12772-534: The unity of the Indigenous communities in a territory; they would band together as a defensive strategy to face external threats, such as the attacks by the Caribs on communities in Puerto Rico. The practice of polygamy enabled the cacique to have women and create family alliances in different localities, thus extending his power. As a symbol of his status , the cacique carried a guanín of South American origin, made of an alloy of gold and copper. This symbolized
12896-563: The way to the top of Mount Britton, the 8th tallest peak in the forest. The summit is part of the cloud forest and it hosts a small lookout tower built by the Civilian Conservation Corps in 1937 that on clear days offers views of both the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea . The trail has an elevation gain of approximately 650 feet and although it is rated as moderate to difficult. The very short but steep trail starts off Pico El Yunque Trail and it extends for little more than 0.2 miles to
13020-409: The welfare of the tribe and to protect it from harm from both natural and supernatural forces. They were also expected to direct and manage the food production process. The cacique's power came from the number of villages he controlled and was based on a network of alliances related to family , matrimonial, and ceremonial ties. According to an early 20th-century Smithsonian study, these alliances showed
13144-460: The wild as part of a program to save the critically endangered bird. An executive order signed by President George W. Bush on April 2, 2007, changed the name of the Caribbean National Forest to El Yunque National Forest , better reflecting the cultural and historical feelings of the Puerto Rican people . Hurricanes Irma and Maria caused deforestation, landslides and heavy damage to the forest and its infrastructure in 2017, drastically reducing
13268-587: The wild, occurred exclusively in this forest until November 19, 2006, when another wild population was released by the Department of Natural Resources in the municipality of Utuado 's Río Abajo State Forest . El Yunque National Forest contains one designated wilderness area, El Toro Wilderness , which is the only tropical rainforest in the United States National Wilderness Preservation System . The Baño de Oro Natural Area
13392-430: The wild. Taíno spirituality centered on the worship of zemis (spirits or ancestors). Major Taíno zemis included Atabey and her son, Yúcahu . Atabey was thought to be the zemi of the moon , fresh waters, and fertility. Other names for her included Atabei, Atabeyra, Atabex, and Guimazoa. The Taínos of Kiskeya (Hispaniola) called her son, "Yúcahu|Yucahú Bagua Maorocotí", which meant "White Yuca, great and powerful as
13516-406: The year. The average temperature in the summer is 80 °F (26 °C) high and 68 °F (20 °C) low and in the winter 72 °F (22 °C) high and 58 °F (15 °C) low, Temperatures can drop below 50 °F (10 °C) on clear nights during the winter, but never below freezing. All of these factors provide a year-round growing season. Its ecosystem is specifically surveyed by
13640-664: The zemi carved into a stalagmite in a cave in La Patana, Cuba. Cemí pictographs were found on secular objects such as pottery, and tattoos . Yucahú, the zemi of cassava, was represented with a three-pointed zemí, which could be found in conucos to increase the yield of cassava. Wood and stone zemís have been found in caves in Hispaniola and Jamaica. Cemís are sometimes represented by toads , turtles, fish, snakes , and various abstract and human-like faces. Some zemís were accompanied by small tables or trays, which are believed to be
13764-437: Was 58–80 individuals in the wild and over 300 individuals in captivity. Approximately 16 species of common coqui, members of the diverse neotropical frog genus Eleutherodactylus , are known in Puerto Rico. Of these 16, 13 have been found in El Yunque National Forest. This small frog earned its Puerto Rican common name due to the call of the most common coquí species in Puerto Rico, Eleutherodactylus coqui , which begins as
13888-669: Was applied to the Greater Antillean natives only, but could include the Bahamian or the Leeward Islands natives, excluding the Puerto Rican and Leeward nations. Similarly, Island Taíno has been used to refer only to those living in the Windward Islands , or to the northern Caribbean inhabitants, as well as to the Indigenous population of all the Caribbean islands. Many modern historians, linguists, and anthropologists now hold that
14012-421: Was being used here to denote ethnicity, then it was used by the Spanish sailors to indicate that they were "not Carib", and gives no evidence of self-identification by the native people. According to José Barreiro , a direct translation of the word Taíno signified "men of the good". The Taíno people, or Taíno culture, have been classified by some authorities as belonging to the Arawak peoples. Their language
14136-451: Was cooked and eaten off the cob. Corn bread becomes moldy faster than cassava bread in the high humidity of the Caribbean. Corn also was used to make an alcoholic beverage known as chicha . The Taíno grew squash , beans , peppers , peanuts , and pineapples . Tobacco , calabashes (bottle gourds), and cotton were grown around the houses. Other fruits and vegetables, such as palm nuts , guavas , and Zamia roots, were collected from
14260-482: Was designated an Insular Wildlife Refuge by the US Department of Agriculture in 1946, and reforestation efforts were also established between 1934 and 1948 to revitalize the parts of the forest that had been formerly lost due to human activity. The Luquillo Experimental Forest was established in 1956 to promote scientific research and expand conservation efforts for the critically endangered Puerto Rican parrot and
14384-506: Was finally reopened in 2011 as part of the Sabana Recreation Area. This trail is considered difficult as it crosses dense forest and remote steep areas; it extends 2.2 miles and it connects to the El Toro and Tradewinds Trails in El Toro National Wilderness . El Toro Wilderness Trail is one of the most remote and challenging trails in El Yunque National Forest. It extends for 2.9 miles on its paved section where it connects to
14508-400: Was not the name this people called themselves originally, and there is still uncertainty about their attributes and the boundaries of the territory they occupied. The term nitaino or nitayno , from which Taíno derived, referred to an elite social class, not to an ethnic group. No 16th-century Spanish documents use this word to refer to the tribal affiliation or ethnicity of the natives of
14632-550: Was soon found in the Fajardo and Blanco Rivers in 1509, which sparked interest in gold mining in the area. By 1513 there were gold mines in both river areas and gold was soon found in other rivers of the mountain range such as the Sabana , Prieto , La Mina , Mameyes , Espíritu Santo and Canóvanas rivers. The period of gold mining in the area however ended in 1530 when miners and settlers started being attacked by rebelling Taínos, and
14756-547: Was taken to use existing openings for roads, parking areas and buildings while the arrival sequence and parking lots were designed with contours to save existing trees. The Portal has survived several major hurricanes including Hurricane Georges . On September 21, 2017, Hurricane Maria on caused major damages to the center and renovations are underway as of 2020. El Portal Rainforest Center reopened to visitors in January 2022. El Yunque National Forest has been incorrectly called
14880-482: Was the goddess of good weather. She also had twin sons: Boinayel, the messenger of rain, and Marohu, the spirit of clear skies. Minor Taíno zemis are related to the growing of cassava, the process of life, creation, and death. Baibrama was a minor zemi worshiped for his assistance in growing cassava and curing people of its poisonous juice. Boinayel and his twin brother Márohu were the zemis of rain and fair weather, respectively. Maquetaurie Guayaba or Maketaori Guayaba
15004-409: Was the zemi of Coaybay or Coabey, the land of the dead. Opiyelguabirán', a dog-shaped zemi, watched over the dead. Deminán Caracaracol, a male cultural hero from whom the Taíno believed themselves to be descended, was worshipped as a zemí. Macocael was a cultural hero worshipped as a zemi, who had failed to guard the mountain from which human beings arose. He was punished by being turned into stone, or
15128-420: Was their duty to cure the sick, heal the wounded, and interpret the will of the gods in ways that would satisfy the expectations of the tribe. Before carrying out these functions, the bohíques performed certain cleansing and purifying rituals , such as fasting for several days and inhaling sacred tobacco snuff. Taíno staples included vegetables, fruit, meat, and fish. Though there were no large animals native to
15252-408: Was to hook a remora , also known as a suckerfish, to a line secured to a canoe and wait for the fish to attach itself to a larger fish or even a sea turtle. Once this happened, someone would dive into the water to retrieve the catch. Another method used by the Taínos involved shredding the stems and roots of poisonous senna plants and throwing them into nearby streams or rivers. After eating the bait,
15376-421: Was yuca or cassava , a woody shrub cultivated for its edible and starchy tuberous root . It was planted using a coa , a kind of hoe made completely from wood. Women processed the poisonous variety of cassava by squeezing it to extract its toxic juices. Roots were then ground into flour for bread. Batata ( sweet potato ) was the next most important root crop. Tobacco was grown by pre-Columbian peoples in
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