Yaxhá Lake is a Guatemalan lake situated in the northern department of El Petén .
123-551: The ancient Maya City of Yaxhá was built on the shores of Yaxhá Lake, and the Maya ruins of Topoxté occupy a group of three small islands, Canté , Paxté and Topoxte , at the western end of the lake. This Guatemala location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article about a lake is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Yaxh%C3%A1 Yaxha (or Yaxhá in Spanish orthography)
246-422: A spondylus shell, a small fragment of greenstone and carbon remains mixed with unidentified vegetable fibres. The following stage, denominated 2B by archaeologists, also dates to the 8th century and consisted of the unification of Structure 218 with the neighbouring structures 217 and 219, creating a new facade with nine doorways. Three vaulted chambers were added to the east facade, with spacing between them;
369-418: A Mesoamerican ballcourt (Ballcourt 1). The patios are separated by corbel-vaulted structures that were probably elite residences; the exception is Structure 363, which is a temple between Patio 5 and Patio 6. The South Acropolis is located in the southern portion of the site core near the junction of various causeways and vias. The acropolis is bordered on the north side by the ballcourt and plazas D and E. It
492-553: A first collapse c. 100 CE, and resurged c. 250 in the Classic period. Some population centers such as Tlatilco , Monte Albán , and Cuicuilco flourished in the final stages of the Preclassic period. Meanwhile, the Olmec populations shrank and ceased to be major players in the area. Toward the end of the Preclassic period, political and commercial hegemony shifted to the population centers in
615-599: A triadic pyramid forming a part of an E-Group astronomical complex. The South Acropolis , sometimes referred to as the Main Acropolis , was built upon a high karstic hill. It had a long history, with construction starting at the end of the Middle Preclassic period and continuing through to the Terminal Classic. The acropolis is a complex consisting of six patio groups upon an artificial platform and includes
738-472: A 0.45 metres (1.5 ft) tread and a 0.35 metres (1.1 ft) riser. This Late Preclassic phase stood about 11 metres (36 ft) high. In the Early Classic a new version of the structure was built (Structure 216 sub 1). It was a stepped platform, like its predecessor, although the stairway of the new version projected westwards, possibly flanked by balustrades. The maximum height of this construction phase
861-570: A Middle Preclassic pathway that ran between the shore and the early settlement. The earliest version of the Lake Causeway was built in the Late Preclassic; it was about 10 metres (33 ft) wide and was raised 0.5 metres (1.6 ft) above natural ground level. The Via 5 continuation did not exist in the Late Preclassic, when the later city centre had not yet developed. During the Late Classic
984-413: A bench inside the north chamber and the addition of small zoomorphic masks to the sunken panels of the cornice. Phase 1C consisted of the addition of a small platform to the western facade. The Early Classic substructure has suffered subsidence at the southern end due to movement of a geological fault . Stage 2A dates to the Late Classic, during the 8th century AD. The western facade became the main facade,
1107-453: A butterfly ornament over the mouth, and wears a feathered headdress. The warrior carries a spear and a shield. The monument is very similar to Stela 32 from Tikal and is associated with the intervention of Teotihuacan in the Petén region during the Early Classic period. Stela 13 was a sculpted monument but it has been broken into fragments, although much of the sculpture is preserved. The text on
1230-639: A former partner in the Aztec Triple Alliance . Although not all parts of Mesoamerica were brought under control of the Spanish Empire immediately, the defeat of the Aztecs marked the dramatic beginning of an inexorable process of conquest in Mesoamerica and incorporation that Spain completed in the mid-seventeenth century. Indigenous peoples did not disappear, although their numbers were greatly reduced in
1353-460: A large site as far back as the Middle Preclassic (c. 1000–350 BC). Archaeological investigations indicate that the earliest, Middle Preclassic, settlement was in what developed into the southern and western sectors of the city. In the Late Preclassic the city became the largest settlement in the Yaxha-Sacnab basin, with a marked increase in population and in construction activity. The city reached
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#17328836294691476-569: A matter of vital significance because of its importance for agriculture, the economic basis of Mesoamerican society, and to predict events in the future such as lunar and solar eclipses, an important feature for the rulers, proving to the commoners their links with the heavenly world. The Middle Classic period ended in Northern Mesoamerica with the decline of Teotihuacan. This allowed other regional power centers to flourish and compete for control of trade routes and natural resources. In this way
1599-477: A milestone of Mesoamerican history, as various characteristics that define the region first appeared there. Among them are the state organization, the development of the 260-day ritual calendar and the 365-day secular calendar, the first writing system, and urban planning. The development of this culture started 1600 to 1500 BCE, though it continued to consolidate itself up to the 12th century BCE. Its principal sites were La Venta , San Lorenzo , and Tres Zapotes in
1722-455: A network of sacbeob (causeways) that connect the central, northern (Maler), and eastern 'acropoleis', and the Lake causeway that was the main entrance in the past. The top of Temple 216 (restored) provides a view of the two lakes on one side and the jungle and the stepped-pyramids on the other. Yaxha possesses one of very few twin pyramid complexes outside of Tikal; the fact that the site holds
1845-510: A number of major archaeological groups linked by causeways . Approximately 40 Maya stelae have been discovered at the site, about half of which feature sculpture. The name Yaxha derives from the Mayan yaxa' , which means "blue-green water". Yaxha is notable for the survival of its toponym from the Classic period, when it was a thriving city. David Stuart first proposed that the emblem glyph of
1968-460: A palace and a ballcourt . A high status Late Classic burial (Burial YX-08) was also found in Structure 218, buried in a cist in front of the main entrance. Four individuals were interred to the south of this principal burial during the Terminal Classic. They were not buried in cists and were unaccompanied by offerings. The bones belonged to individuals of varying ages and gender. At this time, during
2091-471: A palace-type building in the East Acropolis. The remains were deposited in a cist and possibly belonged to a member of the city's elite. The remains were those of a young adult male in his early twenties, interred lying upon his back with his skull towards the north. The skull was deformed and the upper incisors were artificially modified with jade incrustations. Two pieces of sculpted jade were found near
2214-423: A palace. The East Acropolis plaza featured a west-facing monumental stairway built in the Late Preclassic and remodelled in the Late Classic. The first version of the temple was built in the Late Preclassic, while the earliest version of the palace dates to the Early Classic. The East Acropolis appears to have been temporarily abandoned at the end of the Early Classic due to destruction caused by an earthquake, but
2337-578: A path to asserting dominance over the Valley of Mexico region not seen since Teotihuacan. By the 15th century, the Mayan 'revival' in Yucatan and southern Guatemala and the flourishing of Aztec imperialism evidently enabled a renaissance of fine arts and science. Examples include the 'Pueblan-Mexica' style in pottery, codex illumination, and goldwork, the flourishing of Nahua poetry, and the botanical institutes established by
2460-469: A period of rapid movement and population growth—especially in Central Mexico post-1200—and of experimentation in governance. For instance, in Yucatan, 'dual rulership' apparently replaced the more theocratic governments of Classic times, while oligarchic councils operated in much of central Mexico. Likewise, it appears that the wealthy pochteca (merchant class) and military orders became more powerful than
2583-402: A plain monument, was erected on the platform. Also in the Terminal Classic the restrictions at the north end of the causeway where it met Via 5 were removed; the whole area was levelled with finely dressed stone and mortar that left the access free for the entire width of the causeway. Ceramic remains recovered from the Lake Causeway are scarce and poorly preserved due to the strong waterflow along
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#17328836294692706-656: A site that also shows Olmec influences, ceded dominance of the Oaxacan plateau to Monte Albán toward the end of the middle Preclassic Era. During this same time, the Chupícuaro culture flourished in Bajío , while along the Gulf the Olmecs entered a period of decline. One of the great cultural milestones that marked the Middle Preclassic period is the development of the first writing system, by either
2829-423: A small dominant group ruled over the majority of the population. This majority was forced to pay tribute and to participate in the building of public structures such as irrigation systems, religious edifices, and means of communication. The growth of the cities could not have happened without advances in agricultural methods and the strengthening of trade networks involving not only the peoples of Mesoamerica, but also
2952-773: A step-wise fashion. The Teotihuacan architectural style was reproduced and modified in other cities throughout Mesoamerica, the clearest examples being the Zapotec capital of Monte Alban and Kaminal Juyú in Guatemala. Centuries later, long after Teotihuacan was abandoned c. 700 CE, cities of the Postclassic era followed the style of Teotihuacan construction, especially Tula , Tenochtitlan , and Chichén Itzá . Many scientific advances were also achieved during this period. The Maya refined their calendar, script, and mathematics to their highest level of development. Writing came to be used throughout
3075-401: A twin-pyramid complex provides a visible insight into the political alliances that eventually influenced the architectural style of the city at its peak, although it appears that the complex at Yaxha was unfinished. Plaza A is a twin pyramid complex to the north of the East Acropolis. It was built during the 8th century AD. Plaza B is on the west side of the East Acropolis. Plaza C
3198-485: Is a Mesoamerican archaeological site in the northeast of the Petén Basin in modern-day Guatemala . As a ceremonial centre of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization , Yaxha was the third largest city in the region and experienced its maximum power during the Early Classic period (c. AD 250–600). The city was located on a ridge overlooking Lake Yaxha. The name of the city derives from the Mayan for "blue-green water"; it
3321-434: Is a notable survival of a Classic period place-name into the modern day. The Yaxha kingdom is estimated to have covered an area of 237 square kilometres (92 sq mi) and to have had a peak population of 42,000 in the Late Classic period of Mesoamerican chronology . Yaxha had a long history of occupation with the first settlement being founded sometime in the Middle Preclassic period (c. 1000–350 BC). It developed into
3444-641: Is an E-Group astronomical complex to the southeast of the site core, linked to the city centre by the Lincloln Causeway. Three Early Classic stelae were erected on the east side of the plaza. Plaza D is in the site core, at the northwest end of the Lincoln Causeway and immediately north of the South Acropolis. It is bordered to the north by the Northeast Acropolis. Plaza E is situated in
3567-457: Is bordered on the western side by Via 5 and on the southern side by Via 6. In its final form during the Terminal Classic the basal platform formed an irregular rectangle measuring 200 metres (660 ft) east-west by 100 to 120 metres (330 to 390 ft) north-south. The platform had stepped levels and rounded corners; the principal access appears to have been a stairway on the west half of the north side, which linked Plaza E with Patios 5 and 6 of
3690-543: Is located in Plaza E. It dates to the Late Classic and depicts an ornate figure with a large headdress. The monument is badly damaged and broken into several pieces. Stela 36 is a badly eroded monument on the west side of Plaza B. Stela 41 was raised at the base of the access stairway of Temple 216 in the 8th century AD. The monument is missing its butt, and may not be in its original location; all four sides are sculpted in an Early Classic iconographic style. The front face of
3813-520: Is situated in the Maler Group. It is badly damaged with only the lower portion surviving. It has been dated to the Early Classic. Stela 11 is a well preserved Early Classic monument on the east side of Plaza B, at the base of Structure 218 in the East Acropolis. The style of the stela is that of Teotihuacan, with the sculpted figure of a warrior with the attributes of Tlaloc, the central Mexican rain deity. The figure bears characteristic eye rings, and
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3936-402: Is sometimes thought to have been a period of increased chaos and warfare. The Postclassic is often viewed as a period of cultural decline. However, it was a time of technological advancement in architecture, engineering, and weaponry. Metallurgy (introduced c. 800) came into use for jewelry and some tools, with new alloys and techniques being developed in a few centuries. The Postclassic was
4059-545: Is stylistically related to the Izapan culture of the Pacific coast. It is poorly preserved and only the lower panel survives; it bears a similarity to the equivalent panel on Stela 4. Stela 4 is the central stela on the east side of Plaza C and is the best preserved of the three Early Classic monuments. It bears the sculpted image of a standing figure with left-facing feet standing upon a grotesque head. Two hieroglyphs are carved to
4182-456: The Classic Maya collapse . During the Postclassic (c. 900–1525) there is some evidence of activity at the site associated with the inhabited islands of Lake Yaxha but these were not in any way associated with occupation of the city itself, rather consisting of pieces of ceramic and food refuse left at the city by the islanders. Teoberto Maler first reported Yaxha's existence after visiting
4305-506: The Lake Texcoco basin were concentrated. The cities of this era were characterized by their multi-ethnic composition, which entailed the cohabitation in the same population centers of people with different languages, cultural practices, and places of origin. During this period the alliances between the regional political elites were strengthened, especially for those allied with Teotihuacan. Also, social differentiation became more pronounced:
4428-599: The Maya , the Olmec , or the Zapotec . During this period, the Mesoamerican societies were highly stratified . The connections between different centers of power permitted the rise of regional elites that controlled natural resources and peasant labor. This social differentiation was based on the possession of certain technical knowledge, such as astronomy , writing, and commerce. Furthermore,
4551-862: The Mirador Basin (in modern-day Guatemala ) and the Epi-Olmec culture in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (in modern-day Chiapas ), later expanding into Guatemala and the Yucatan Peninsula . In Central America , there were some Olmec influences, the archaeological sites of Los Naranjos and Yarumela in Honduras stand out, built by ancestors of the Lencas , which reflect an architectural influence of this culture on Central American soil. Other sites with possible Olmec influence have been reported, such as Puerto Escondido, in
4674-608: The Pyramid of the Moon in Teotihuacan . Around the start of the common era, Cuicuilco had disappeared, and the hegemony over the Mexican basin had passed to Teotihuacan. The next two centuries marked the period in which the so-called city of the gods consolidated its power, becoming the premier Mesoamerican city of the first millennium, and the principal political, economic, and cultural center for
4797-517: The Valley of Mexico . Around Lake Texcoco there existed a number of villages that grew into true cities: Tlatilco and Cuicuilco are examples. The former was found on the northern bank of the lake, while the latter was on the slopes of the mountainous region of Ajusco . Tlatilco maintained strong relationships with the cultures of the West, so much so that Cuicuilco controlled commerce in the Maya area, Oaxaca, and
4920-636: The "Heart of the Mountain" The exact causes of the Olmec decline are unknown. In the Pacific lowlands of the Maya Area, Takalik Abaj c. 800 BCE, Izapa c. 700 BCE, and Chocola c. 600 BCE, along with Kaminaljuyú c. 800 BCE, in the central Highlands of Guatemala, advanced in the direction of what would be the Classic Maya culture. Apart from the West, where the tradition of the Tumbas de tiro had taken root, in all
5043-573: The 21st century; The South Acropolis was excavated from 2005 through to 2007. The early 21st century excavations of Yaxha formed a part of the Peten Sustainable Development Programme ( Programa de Desarrollo Sostenible de Petén ) funded by the Banco Interamericano de Desarollo ( Inter-American Development Bank ). Yaxha is the third largest ruin in Guatemala, with only Tikal and El Mirador being larger. The centre of
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5166-421: The 9th century AD, a three-chambered building with a perishable roof was built upon the upper platform of the structure; the chambers were linked by doorways. The only access to the building was via a narrow, sunken stairway built directly over the earthquake fissure. In its final form Structure 218 stood 38 metres (125 ft) high, with four stepped platforms supporting the superstructure. The final remodelling of
5289-409: The 9th century, in the Terminal Classic, the base of the structure was dressed with masonry and two small platforms were added to the southeastern portion of the building, one against the north side and the other against the southeastern corner. Structure 363 is a temple located between Patio 5 and Patio 6 of the South Acropolis. A stone monument was placed in front of the west facade of the temple;
5412-614: The Aztec elite. Spain was the first European power to contact Mesoamerica. Its conquistadors , aided by numerous native allies, conquered the Aztecs. 1521–1821 CE The Colonial Period was initiated with the Spanish conquest (1519–1521), which ended the hegemony of the Aztec Empire . It was accomplished with Spaniards' strategic alliances with enemies of the empire, most especially Tlaxcala , but also Huexotzinco, Xochimilco, and even Texcoco ,
5535-407: The Aztec empire (1519–1521) marks the end of indigenous rule and the incorporation of indigenous peoples as subjects of the Spanish Empire for the 300 year colonial period . The postcolonial period began with Mexican independence in 1821 and continues to the present day. European conquest did not end the existence of Mesoamerica's indigenous peoples, but did subject them to new political regimes. In
5658-516: The Classic (250–900 CE), and the Postclassic (900–1521 CE ); as well as the post European contact Colonial Period (1521–1821), and Postcolonial, or the period after independence from Spain (1821–present). The periodisation of Mesoamerica by researchers is based on archaeological, ethnohistorical, and modern cultural anthropology research dating to the early twentieth century. Archaeologists, ethnohistorians, historians, and cultural anthropologists continue to work to develop cultural histories of
5781-455: The Classic era. In the Maya region, under considerable military influence by Teotihuacan after the "arrival" of Siyaj K'ak' in 378 CE, numerous city states such as Tikal , Uaxactun , Calakmul , Copán , Quirigua , Palenque , Cobá , and Caracol reached their zeniths. Each of these polities was generally independent, although they often formed alliances and sometimes became vassal states of each other. The main conflict during this period
5904-449: The Gulf coast. The rivalry between the two cities ended with the decline of Tlatilco. Meanwhile, at Monte Albán in the Valley of Oaxaca , the Zapotec had begun developing culturally independent of the Olmec, adopting aspects of that culture but making their own contributions as well. On the southern coast of Guatemala, Kaminaljuyú advanced in the direction of what would be the Classic Maya culture, even though its links to Central Mexico and
6027-531: The Gulf plains. Whatever their origin, these bearers of Olmec culture arrived at the leeward shore some eight thousand years BCE, entering like a wedge among the fringe of proto-Maya peoples who lived along the coast, a migration that would explain the separation of the Huastecs of the north of Veracruz from the rest of the Maya peoples based in the Yucatán Peninsula and Guatemala . The Olmec culture represents
6150-401: The Gulf would initially provide their cultural models. Apart from the West, where the tradition of the Tumbas de tiro had taken root, in all the regions of Mesoamerica the cities grew in wealth, with monumental constructions carried out according to urban plans that were surprisingly complex. The circular pyramid of Cuicuilco dates from this time, as well as the central plaza of Monte Albán, and
6273-456: The Highlands were a geographic and temporal bridge between Early Preclassic villages of the Pacific coast and later Petén lowlands cities. In Monte Alto near La Democracia, Escuintla , in the Pacific lowlands of Guatemala , some giant stone heads and potbelly sculptures ( barrigones ) have been found, dated at c. 1800 BCE , of the so-named Monte Alto Culture . Around 1500 BCE,
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#17328836294696396-401: The Late Classic the city fought several wars against the neighbouring city of Naranjo , which had eclipsed Yaxha in power but was never able to complete dominate it. In 710, king K'ak' Tiliw Chan Chaak of Naranjo sacked Yaxha, captured its king and sacrificed him. In the latter 8th century, king K'ak' Ukalaw Chan Chaak of Naranjo took a Yaxha princess as his wife; Lady Shell Star provided
6519-486: The Maya area, Oaxaca, and the Gulf coast. The rivalry between the two cities ended with the decline of Tlatilco. Meanwhile, at Monte Albán in Oaxaca, the Zapotec had begun developing culturally independent of the Olmec, adopting aspects of that culture and making their own contributions as well. In Peten, the great Classic Maya cities of Tikal , Uaxactun , and Seibal , began their growth at c. 300 BCE. Cuicuilco's hegemony over
6642-522: The Mayan area, although it was still regarded as a noble activity and practiced only by noble scribes, painters, and priests. Using a similar system of writing, other cultures developed their own scripts, the most notable examples being those of the Ñuiñe culture and the Zapotecs of Oaxaca, although the Mayan system was the only fully developed writing system in Precolumbian America. Astronomy remained
6765-412: The Middle Preclassic period saw the beginnings of the process of urbanization that would come to define the societies of the Classic period. In the Maya area, cities such as Nakbe c. 1000 BCE, El Mirador c. 650 BCE, Cival c. 350 BCE, and San Bartolo show the same monumental architecture of the Classic period. In fact, El Mirador is the largest Maya city. It has been argued that the Maya experienced
6888-411: The Middle Preclassic. In the Preclassic the East Acropolis was laid out as a triadic pyramid complex but was radically modified during the Early Classic. In its final form the East Acropolis formed a closed complex with twelve structures covering a total area of 8,100 square metres (87,000 sq ft). The main buildings of the East Acropolis were Structure 216, a pyramid-temple, and Structure 218,
7011-421: The Olmecs is still widely debated. Based on linguistic evidence, archaeologists and anthropologists generally believe that they were either speakers of an Oto-Manguean language, or (more likely) the ancestors of the present-day Zoque people who live in the north of Chiapas and Oaxaca . According to this second hypothesis, Zoque tribes emigrated toward the south after the fall of the major population centers of
7134-404: The Petén lakes region. In the Late Classic (c. AD 600–900) the city developed with major construction projects taking place across the city centre, especially during the 8th century; the twin pyramid complex is an example of one of the major construction projects undertaken at this time. At this time the city became an important trading centre to the southeast of the great city of Tikal. During
7257-554: The Postclassic era. In addition, southern peoples established themselves in the center of Mexico, including the Olmec-Xicalanca, who came from the Yucatán Peninsula and founded Cacaxtla and Xochicalco . In the Maya region, Tikal , an ally of Teotihuacan, experienced a decline, the so-called Tikal Hiatus, after being defeated by Dos Pilas , and Caracol , ally of Calakmul , lasted about another 100 years. During this hiatus,
7380-629: The Sula Valley, near La Lima, and Hato Viejo in the department of Olancho , where a jadeite statuette has been found that shares many characteristics with those found in Mexico. 250–900 CE The Classic Period was dominated by numerous independent city-states in the Maya region and also featured the beginnings of political unity in central Mexico and the Yucatán. Regional differences between cultures grew more manifest. The city-state of Teotihuacan dominated
7503-530: The Valley of Mexico until the early 8th century, but little is known of the political structure of the region because the Teotihuacanos left no written records. The city-state of Monte Albán dominated the Valley of Oaxaca until the late Classic, leaving limited records in their script , which is as yet mostly undeciphered. Highly sophisticated arts such as stuccowork, architecture, sculptural reliefs, mural painting, pottery, and lapidary developed and spread during
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#17328836294697626-492: The Yaxha polity in the Terminal Classic (c. AD 800–900) as took place at other cities in the vicinity. Instead there is evidence of renewed and widespread construction activity. It is apparent that the local elite made every effort to prolong the city's Late Classic political system. Some entry controls to the city were removed in order to encourage the flow of visitors to Yaxha from surrounding areas that were more immediately affected by
7749-481: The acropolis. Excavations of the acropolis took place in 1996 and 2006; excavators found evidence of earlier archaeological investigation that had not been recorded and suggested professional investigation in the 1970s. The Maler Group is located to the north of the site core, linked to it by the Blom Causeway. Structure 216 is a large pyramid on the east side of Plaza A upon the East Acropolis. The remains of
7872-453: The ballgame, and others that they were images of the Olmec governing elite. The Olmec are also known for their small carvings made of jade and other greenstones . So many of the Olmec figurines and sculptures contain representations of the were-jaguar , that, according to José María Covarrubias , they could be forerunners of the worship of the rain god, or maybe a predecessor of the future Tezcatlipoca in his manifestation as Tepeyolohtli,
7995-468: The basic technologies of Mesoamerica in terms of stone-grinding, drilling, pottery etc. were established during this period. 2000 BCE – 250 CE During the Preclassic Era , or Formative Period , large-scale ceremonial architecture, writing, cities, and states developed. Many of the distinctive elements of Mesoamerican civilization can be traced to this period, including the dominance of corn,
8118-490: The best-known expressions of Olmec culture are giant stone heads, sculptured monoliths up to three meters in height and several tons in weight. These feats of Olmec stonecutting are especially impressive when one considers that Mesoamericans lacked iron tools and that the heads are at sites dozens of kilometers from the quarries where their basalt was mined. The function of these monuments is unknown. Some authors propose that they were commemorative monuments for notable players of
8241-474: The borders of the Yaxha-Nakum-Naranjo National Park , which encompasses an area of 37,160 hectares (143.5 sq mi) and incorporates the remains of four ancient Maya cities: Yaxha, Topoxte , Nakum and Naranjo , as well as 10 intermediate sites and more than 280 smaller settlements. All dates A.D. Yaxha was already significant in the Late Preclassic (c. 350 BC – AD 250), and was
8364-421: The building as measured from the plaza floor may have been over 6.5 metres (21 ft). The rear, east, side of Stage 2A consisted of three plain, stepped levels. Two benches were built against the corners, possibly to disguise the subsidence that occurred as a result of the earlier earthquake. An offering was deposited underneath the central chamber; it consisted of 9 grey obsidian eccentrics, 14 flint eccentrics,
8487-506: The building of pyramids, human sacrifice , jaguar-worship , the complex calendar, and many of the gods. The Olmec civilization developed and flourished at such sites as La Venta and San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán , eventually succeeded by the Epi-Olmec culture between 300–250 BCE. The Zapotec civilization arose in the Valley of Oaxaca , the Teotihuacan civilization arose in the Valley of Mexico . The Maya civilization began to develop in
8610-420: The building resulted in the blocking of the top of the stairway with a wall. Structure 219 is another palace-type structure at the south end of Structure 218 in the East Acropolis. The first phase of construction dates to the Early Classic. In the 8th century Structure 219 was rebuilt in a very similar manner to Structure 217, with two vaulted chambers upon a basal platform and an east-facing stairway. During
8733-437: The causeway to the union with Via 5 there is an approximate difference in altitude of more than 50 metres (160 ft). There is some evidence that steps were carved from the limestone bedrock where the southern platform met the Lake Causeway. During a second phase of construction in the Late Classic, the southern platform was enlarged to measure 32 metres (105 ft) east-west by 19 metres (62 ft) north-south. The platform
8856-432: The causeway was further developed and extended with the formal construction of Via 5 running across the site core. The point where the two met was deliberately narrowed with the construction of flanking buildings and is likely to have been a guard post where access to the site core was controlled. It is likely that travellers and goods arriving at the city were inspected and taxed at this control point. At its narrowest point
8979-405: The centre of the western facade. Traces of red pigment survive on the cornice. The location and characteristic of this Early Classic phase lead archaeologists to believe that it was built slightly after the Early Classic phase of Structure 216 (sub 1). The building was remodelled a number of times in the Early Classic. Stage 1B consisted in the division of the room into three chambers, the addition of
9102-523: The chart below of prehispanic cultures, the dates mentioned are approximations, and that the transition from one period to another did not occur at the same time nor under the same circumstances in all societies. The Preclassic period ran from 2500 BCE to 200 CE. Its beginnings are marked by the development of the first ceramic traditions in the West, specifically at sites such as Matanchén , Nayarit , and Puerto Marqués, in Guerrero . Some authors hold that
9225-418: The cities of Dos Pilas, Piedras Negras , Caracol , Calakmul, Palenque , Copán , and Yaxchilán were consolidated. These and other city-states of the region found themselves involved in bloody wars with changing alliances, until Tikal defeated, in order, Dos Pilas, Caracol, with the help of Yaxha and El Naranjo , Waka , Calakmul's last ally, and finally Calakmul itself, an event that took place in 732 with
9348-427: The city centre to Plaza C. Approximately 40 Maya stelae have been recovered at Yaxha, half of which were plain monuments without sculpted faces. Stela A is a plain stela that was raised upon the platform at the southern (lake-side) end of the Lake Causeway during the Terminal Classic. Stela 3 is the northernmost of the three stelae erected on the east side of Plaza C. It dates to the Early Classic period and
9471-508: The city consisted of a number of plazas and architectural groups, with outlying groups and the lake shore linked by causeways . The main architectural groups are the Maler Group to the north, linked to the central area by the Blom Causeway; the South (or Main) Acropolis, the West Group, the Northeast Acropolis, the East Acropolis and a number of plazas and lesser groups make up the site core. The city
9594-478: The core region. However, throughout Mesoamerica numerous sites show evidence of Olmec occupation, especially in the Balsas river basin, where Teopantecuanitlan is located. This site is quite enigmatic, since it dates from several centuries earlier than the main populations of the Gulf, a fact which has continued to cause controversy and given rise to the hypothesis that the Olmec culture originated in that region. Among
9717-525: The cultures of the West entered a period of decline, accompanied by an assimilation into the other peoples with whom they had maintained connections. As a result, the Tlatilco culture emerged in the Valley of Mexico , and the Olmec culture in the Gulf. Tlatilco was one of the principal Mesoamerican population centers of this period. Its people were adept at harnessing the natural resources of Lake Texcoco and at cultivating maize. Some authors posit that Tlatilco
9840-578: The disappearance of Monte Albán around 850. Normally, the Classic period in Mesoamerica is characterized as the stage in which the arts, science, urbanism, architecture, and social organization reached their peak. This period was also dominated by the influence of Teotihuacan throughout the region, and the competition between the different Mesoamerican states led to continuous warfare. This period of Mesoamerican history can be divided into three phases. Early, from 250 to 550 CE; Middle, from 550 to 700; and Late, from 700 to 900. The early Classic period began with
9963-488: The distant cultures of Oasisamerica . The arts of Mesoamerica reached their high-point in this era. Especially notable are the Maya stelae (carved pillars), exquisite monuments commemorating the stories of the Royal families, the rich corpus of polychrome ceramics, mural painting, and music. In Teotihuacan, architecture made great advances: the Classic style was defined by the construction of pyramidal bases that sloped upward in
10086-586: The early development of pottery in this area is related to the ties between South America and the coastal peoples of Mexico. The advent of ceramics is taken as an indicator of a sedentary society, and it signals the divergence of Mesoamerica from the hunter-gatherer societies in the desert to the north. The Preclassic Era (also known as the Formative Period) is divided into three phases: the Early (2500–1200 BCE), Middle (1500–600 BCE), and Late (600 BCE – 200 CE). During
10209-481: The end of the Early Classic, seismic activity caused movement of the Yaxha Fault, resulting in damage to buildings in the East Acropolis. The same earthquake appears to have caused damage across the city and at neighbouring Nakum . The earthquake may have resulted in the temporary abandonment of the East Acropolis. During this period the city established itself as an important centre on the trade routes that crossed
10332-416: The entrance from the causeway to Via 5 was just 2 metres (6.6 ft) wide. Parapets were erected flanking the Lake Causeway; they stood approximately 1 metre (3.3 ft) high and varied from 2 to 3 metres (6.6 to 9.8 ft) wide. The southern extreme of the causeway was modified with the construction of a stucco-covered platform with masonry walls defining the east and south sides. From the southern end of
10455-420: The expansion of Teotihuacan, which led to its control over the principal trade routes of northern Mesoamerica. During this time, the process of urbanization that started in the last centuries of the early Preclassic period was consolidated. The principal centers of this phase were Monte Albán , Kaminaljuyu , Ceibal , Tikal , and Calakmul , and then Teotihuacan, in which 80 per cent of the 200,000 inhabitants of
10578-454: The first phase, the manufacture of ceramics was widespread across the entire region, the cultivation of maize and vegetables became well-established, and society started to become socially stratified in a process that concluded with the appearance of the first hierarchical societies along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. In the early Preclassic period, the Capacha culture acted as a driving force in
10701-522: The height of its power during the Early Classic period of Mesoamerican chronology (c. AD 250–600), during which period the city expanded enormously. The city's Early Classic monuments are poorly preserved, meaning that the history of its period of maximum power is poorly understood. The influence of the distant metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico is evident in Early Classic imagery following Teotihuacan's decisive intervention at Tikal in AD 378. At
10824-443: The height of the corbel vaulting was reduced and the previous structure was filled. Structure 218 Sub 2A measured 36.5 metres (120 ft) long and was raised upon a 1.85 metres (6.1 ft) high platform. Like the earlier version, it had a long room with a vaulted ceiling; the walls were 1 metre (3.3 ft) thick and the interior vaulting was 2.6 metres (8.5 ft) high. The building featured decorated cornices. The total height of
10947-498: The incline caused during the rain season, resulting in artefacts being eroded and washed downhill towards the lake. The Blom Causeway ( Calzada Blom in Spanish) runs north from the city centre to the Maler Group. The Galindo Causeway ( Calzada Galindo in Spanish) runs north–south between the East Acropolis (at the north end) and Plaza C (at the south end). The Lincoln Causeway ( Calzada Lincoln in Spanish) runs southeast from
11070-460: The king with his heir. This heir was unable to maintain peace between the cities and Itzamnaaj K'awiil of Naranjo went to war against Yaxha and its allies in AD 799, launching assaults against his mother's city in July and September of that year, some months after defeating a number of Yaxha's satellites. He managed to capture K'inich Lakamtuun, Yaxha's king. There is no evidence of the rapid collapse of
11193-410: The largest city in the eastern Petén lakes region during the Late Preclassic (c. 350 BC – AD 250) and expanded into an enormous city during the Early Classic (c. AD 250–600). At this time, in common with other sites in Petén, it shows strong influence from the distant metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico . It was eclipsed during the Late Classic (c. AD 600–900) by neighbouring Naranjo but
11316-466: The late Classic era commenced. Political fragmentation during this era meant no city had complete hegemony. Various population movements occurred, caused by the incursion of groups from Aridoamerica and other northern regions, who pushed the older populations of Mesoamerica south. Among these new groups were the Nahua , who would later found the cities of Tula and Tenochtitlan, the two most important capitals of
11439-481: The left of the figure's knees. One of the glyphs preserved on Stela 4 is the Emblem Glyph of Yaxha. Stela 5 is the southern stela of the three on the east side of Plaza C. It is badly eroded but has been dated to AD 357, making it the earliest dated monument at the city. Stela 8 is found in the Maler Group. It dates to the Early Classic and is poorly preserved with only the lower portion surviving. Stela 10
11562-536: The neck, one of them a square plaque inscribed with an anthropomorphic figure. Both of the jade pieces had traces of red pigment. Mesoamerican chronology Mesoamerican chronology divides the history of prehispanic Mesoamerica into several periods: the Paleo-Indian (first human habitation until 3500 BCE); the Archaic (before 2600 BCE), the Preclassic or Formative (2500 BCE – 250 CE),
11685-419: The next seven centuries. For many years, the Olmec culture was thought to be the 'mother culture' of Mesoamerica, because of the great influence that it exercised throughout the region. However, more recent perspectives consider this culture to be more of a process to which all the contemporary peoples contributed, and which eventually crystallized on the coasts of Veracruz and Tabasco . The ethnic identity of
11808-537: The north and south chambers (A and B) were built over the earlier benches. The central chamber (Chamber C) had flanking stairways. The talud wall between chambers A and C had the remains of a giant mask but the upper section of the wall was demolished by the Terminal Classic occupants of the city. The remains of painted murals were discovered in the interior of the central chamber of the palace, using red, blue, black and yellow pigments. The murals were badly damaged but apparently depicted human figures performing actions near
11931-470: The placement of such a monument within an acropolis complex is unusual. The Lake Causeway ( Calzada del Lago in Spanish) runs north from the lake shore to the city centre, where it continues as Via 5 . The total length of the causeway and the via is around 400 metres (1,300 ft). The Lake Causeway was designed to allow the rapid movement of goods and people between the city and the lake, and easy access to water. The Lake Causeway probably developed from
12054-421: The population centers in the Valley of Mexico . Around Lake Texcoco there existed a number of villages that grew into true cities: Tlatilco and Cuicuilco are examples. The former was found on the northern bank of the lake, while the latter was on the slopes of the mountainous region of Ajusco . Tlatilco maintained strong relationships with the cultures of the West, so much so that Cuicuilco controlled commerce in
12177-495: The process of civilizing Mesoamerica, and its pottery spread widely across the region. By 2500 BCE, small settlements were developing in Guatemala's Pacific Lowlands, places such as Tilapa, La Blanca , Ocós, El Mesak, Ujuxte , and others, where the oldest ceramic pottery from Guatemala have been found. From 2000 BCE a heavy concentration of pottery in the Pacific Coast Line has been documented. Recent excavations suggest that
12300-483: The region. 18000–8000 BCE The Paleo-Indian (less frequently, Lithic ) period or era is that which spans from the first signs of human presence in the region, which many believe to have happened due to the Bering Land Bridge, to the establishment of agriculture and other practices (e.g. pottery , permanent settlements) and subsistence techniques characteristic of proto- civilizations . In Mesoamerica,
12423-591: The regions of Mesoamerica the cities grew in wealth, with monumental constructions carried out according to urban plans that were surprisingly complex. La Danta in El Mirador , the San Bartolo murals, and the circular pyramid of Cuicuilco date from this time, as do the central plaza of Monte Albán and the Pyramid of the Moon in Teotihuacan . Toward the end of the Preclassic period, political and commercial hegemony shifted to
12546-441: The ruins in 1904. The Carnegie Institution of Washington mapped the ruins in the 1930s and the site was again mapped in the early 1970s, at which time test excavations were undertaken. The Proyecto Nacional Tikal ("National Tikal Project") carried out a survey of architectural damage at Yaxha in 1987 and in 1988 the first work was undertaken in order to stabilise some of the structures. Archaeological excavations have continued into
12669-519: The sacrifice of Yuknom Cheen's son in Tikal. That led to construction of monumental architecture in Tikal, from 740 to 810; the last date documented there was 899. The ruin of the Classic Maya civilization in the northern lowlands, begun at La Passion states such as Dos Pilas, Aguateca , Ceibal and Cancuén , c. 760, followed by the Usumacinta system cities of Yaxchilan, Piedras Negras, and Palenque, following
12792-520: The same time. The processes that gave rise to each of the cultural systems of Mesoamerica were very complex and not determined solely by the internal dynamics of each society. External as well as endogenous factors influenced their development. Among these factors, for example, were the relations between human groups and between humans and the environment, human migrations, and natural disasters. Historians and archaeologists divide pre-Hispanic Mesoamerican history into three periods. The Spanish conquest of
12915-469: The site core, on the north side of the South Acropolis and linked to it via a stairway rising from the plaza. The East Acropolis is on the east side of the city centre, to the south of the Twin Pyramid Complex. It occupies the highest area of the city and is surrounded by Plazas A, B and C. The area that was to become occupied by the East Acropolis was first levelled from the limestone bedrock in
13038-417: The site should be read Yax-ha and that the name of the city (and the lake) is of ancient origin. Located in the modern-day department of Petén , northern Guatemala , it is approximately 30 kilometres (19 mi) southeast of Tikal ; Yaxha is situated on the north shore of Lake Yaxha ; the ruins extend roughly 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) along a hilltop parallel to the lake shore. The ruins fall within
13161-416: The sixteenth century by new infectious diseases brought by the Spanish invaders; they suffered high mortality from slave labor, and during epidemics. The fall of Tenochtitlan marked the beginning of the three-hundred-year colonial period and the imposition of Spanish rule. Mesoamerican civilisation was a complex network of different cultures. As seen in the time-line below, these did not necessarily occur at
13284-401: The stela has two masks facing to the left and an anthropomorphic figure wearing a bracelet of a type used from the end of the Late Preclassic through to the Early Classic. The hieroglyphic inscriptions on the north and south faces of the stela are eroded but include a glyph that could be the Emblem Glyph of Yaxha. Burial YX-08 was excavated from in front of the main entrance to Structure 218,
13407-457: The stela includes a date in 793, the latest recorded date at the city. The stela was erected at the base of the West Pyramid of the Twin Pyramid Complex. Stela 13 bears the image of a king of Yaxha together with a text describing the celebration of an equinox . Stela 30 is the northernmost of two stelae found in Plaza E. It is broken in two pieces. It dates to the Early Classic. Stela 31
13530-427: The temple shrine still stand upon the pyramidal base and the total height of the structure is over 30 metres (100 ft), making it the tallest structure at Yaxha. The earliest structure on the site was the plaza platform raised in the Late Preclassic, which consisted of a five-stepped platform with talud walls and an inset 17.5-metre (57 ft) wide west-facing monumental stairway, consisting of 32 steps, each with
13653-456: The temple that consisted of seven eccentrics , five of them crafted from obsidian and two from flint, and a piece of mother of pearl . Structure 217 is a palace-type structure at the north end of Structure 218 in the East Acropolis. The first phase of construction dates to the Early Classic. In the 8th century the structure was redesigned. It stood upon a basal platform with slightly inclined walls. The structure had two vaulted chambers and
13776-540: The termination of this phase and its transition into the succeeding Archaic period may generally be reckoned at between 10,000 and 8000 BCE. This dating is approximate only and different timescales may be used between fields and sub-regions. Before 2600 BCE During the Archaic Era agriculture was developed in the region and permanent villages were established. Late in this era, use of pottery and loom weaving became common, and class divisions began to appear. Many of
13899-437: The valley declined in the period 100 BCE to 1 CE. As Cuicuilco declined, Teotihuacan began to grow in importance. The next two centuries marked the period in which the so-called City of the gods consolidated its power, becoming the premier Mesoamerican city of the first millennium, and the principal political, economic, and cultural center in Central Mexico for the next seven centuries. The Classic period of Mesoamerica includes
14022-418: The years from 250 to 900 CE. The end point of this period varied from region to region: for example, in the center of Mexico it is related to the fall of the regional centers of the late Classic (sometimes called Epiclassic) period, toward the year 900; in the Gulf, with the decline of El Tajín , in the year 800; in the Maya area, with the abandonment of the highland cities in the 9th century; and in Oaxaca, with
14145-419: Was 22.75 metres (74.6 ft). In the 8th century AD a new version of Structure 216 was built, rising to a height of 23.25 metres (76.3 ft). The pyramid base had eight stepped levels with rounded corners and featured a projecting stairway. The summit shrine had three doorways and two inner chambers. Stela 41 was raised at the base of the stairway. An offering was found in the fill under the first chamber of
14268-418: Was accessed via an east-facing stairway. In the 9th century the base of the structure was dressed with masonry. Structure 218 is a palace-type structure in the East Acropolis. The earliest version of the building dates to the Early Classic period (Structure 218 sub 1A) and had a long room with a corbel-vaulted roof. The structure had multiple east-facing doorways, possibly five, and two narrow doorways in
14391-401: Was apparently the case in Classic times. This afforded some Mesoamericans a degree of social mobility. The Toltec for a time dominated central Mexico in the 9th–10th century, then collapsed. The northern Maya were for a time united under Mayapan . Oaxaca was briefly united by Mixtec rulers in the 11th–12th centuries. The Aztec Empire arose in the early 15th century and appeared to be on
14514-663: Was between Tikal and Calakmul, which fought a series of wars over the course of more than half a millennium. Each of these states declined during the Terminal Classic and were eventually abandoned. 900–1521 CE In the Postclassic Period many of the great nations and cities of the Classic Era collapsed, although some continued, such as in Oaxaca , Cholula , and the Maya of Yucatan , such as at Chichen Itza and Uxmal . This
14637-420: Was founded and inhabited by the ancestors of today's Otomi people . The Olmecs, on the other hand, had entered into an expansionist phase that led them to construct their first works of monumental architecture at San Lorenzo and La Venta . The Olmecs exchanged goods within their own core area and with sites as far away as Guerrero and Morelos and present day Guatemala and Costa Rica . San José Mogote ,
14760-483: Was linked to the shore of Lake Yaxha by the Lake Causeway. Plaza A is a twin pyramid complex . Ten main communication routes have been identified in the city, with the four principal routes having been classified as causeways by archaeologists, with the remainder classed as "vias". Yaxha was more densely occupied than most other Maya cities. The site has more than 500 structures, including about 40 stelae , 13 Altars, 9 temple pyramids, 2 Mesoamerican ballcourts , and
14883-409: Was never completely dominated. The city survived well into the Terminal Classic (c. 800–900) but was abandoned by the Postclassic period (c. 900–1525). The ruins of the city were first reported by Teoberto Maler who visited them in 1904. The site was mapped in the 1930s and again in the 1970s and stabilisation work began in the late 1980s. The ruins include the remains of more than 500 structures with
15006-434: Was reoccupied and developed during the course of the Late Classic. During the Terminal Classic (9th century AD) great quantities of ash and domestic ceramics were deposited in the East Acropolis. At this time a small platform was built against Structure 219, which blocked access to the southwestern terrace of the complex. The Northeast Acropolis dates back to the Late Preclassic and incorporates an arrangement that includes
15129-462: Was supported on the south and east sides by refurbished talud walls coated in stucco. The causeway itself was redesigned as a long ramp that joined the southern platform with the city centre and the junction with Via 5. In the Terminal Classic (c. AD 800–900) the southern end of the Lake Causeway was re-dressed with limestone fill. The stepped sides of the southern platform were filled in and covered with stone to form ramps. At about this time Stela A,
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