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37-531: The Yankee Joe Formation consists of 900 meters (3,000 ft) of argillaceous ( clay -rich) sediments. Detrital zircon geochronology establishes a minimum age for the formation of 1474 ± 13 million years. The overlying Blackjack Formation is intruded by the Ruin Granite , with a radiometric age of 1436 ± 2 million years, thus constraining the age of the Yankee Joe to 1474 to 1436 million years. The formation

74-479: A hexagonal array in two dimensions. The fourth oxygen ion is not shared with another tetrahedron and all of the tetrahedra "point" in the same direction; i.e. all of the unshared oxygen ions are on the same side of the sheet. These unshared oxygen ions are called apical oxygen ions. In clays, the tetrahedral sheets are always bonded to octahedral sheets formed from small cations, such as aluminum or magnesium, and coordinated by six oxygen atoms. The unshared vertex from

111-417: A major constituent of deep ocean sediment , and of diatomaceous earth . A silicate mineral is generally an inorganic compound consisting of subunits with the formula [SiO 2+ n ] . Although depicted as such, the description of silicates as anions is a simplification. Balancing the charges of the silicate anions are metal cations, M . Typical cations are Mg , Fe , and Na . The Si-O-M linkage between

148-400: A net negative charge and may be bonded together either by individual cations (such as potassium in illite or sodium or calcium in smectites) or by positively charged octahedral sheets (as in chlorites ). Clay minerals include the following groups: Mixed layer clay variations exist for most of the above groups. Ordering is described as a random or regular order and is further described by

185-455: A result of the processes that have been forming and re-working the crust for billions of years. These processes include partial melting , crystallization , fractionation , metamorphism , weathering , and diagenesis . Living organisms also contribute to this geologic cycle . For example, a type of plankton known as diatoms construct their exoskeletons ("frustules") from silica extracted from seawater . The frustules of dead diatoms are

222-420: A shared oxygen vertex—a silicon:oxygen ratio of 2:7. The Nickel–Strunz classification is 09.B. Examples include: Cyclosilicates (from Greek κύκλος kýklos 'circle'), or ring silicates, have three or more tetrahedra linked in a ring. The general formula is (Si x O 3 x ) , where one or more silicon atoms can be replaced by other 4-coordinated atom(s). The silicon:oxygen ratio is 1:3. Double rings have

259-516: A significant component. For example, argillaceous limestones are limestones consisting predominantly of calcium carbonate , but including 10-40% of clay minerals: such limestones, when soft, are often called marls . Similarly, argillaceous sandstones such as greywacke , are sandstones consisting primarily of quartz grains, with the interstitial spaces filled with clay minerals. Sheet silicate Silicate minerals are rock-forming minerals made up of silicate groups. They are

296-420: A traditional technique establishing fundamental occurrences or petrologic relationships. Clay minerals are common weathering products (including weathering of feldspar ) and low-temperature hydrothermal alteration products. Clay minerals are very common in soils, in fine-grained sedimentary rocks such as shale , mudstone , and siltstone and in fine-grained metamorphic slate and phyllite . Given

333-401: Is 09.D – examples include: Phyllosilicates (from Greek φύλλον phýllon 'leaf'), or sheet silicates, form parallel sheets of silicate tetrahedra with Si 2 O 5 or a 2:5 ratio. The Nickel–Strunz classification is 09.E. All phyllosilicate minerals are hydrated , with either water or hydroxyl groups attached. Examples include: Tectosilicates, or "framework silicates," have

370-399: Is 100 to 500 meters (350 to 1,500 ft) of brown slate that grades upwards into quartz -rich arkose. The formation erodes to a slope and is visibly folded. The formation is interpreted as a nearshore fluvial and tidal deposit. It has been heavily deformed by thrusting that produced ~50% shortening. The formation was deposited in a large basin, the Yankee Joe — Defiance basin, which

407-417: Is a very fine-grained geologic material that develops plasticity when wet, but becomes hard, brittle and non–plastic upon drying or firing . It is a very common material, and is the oldest known ceramic . Prehistoric humans discovered the useful properties of clay and used it for making pottery . The chemistry of clay, including its capacity to retain nutrient cations such as potassium and ammonium ,

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444-724: Is based on flat hexagonal sheets similar to those of the mica group of minerals. Standardization in terminology arose during this period as well, with special attention given to similar words that resulted in confusion, such as sheet and plane. Because clay minerals are usually (but not necessarily) ultrafine-grained, special analytical techniques are required for their identification and study. In addition to X-ray crystallography, these include electron diffraction methods, various spectroscopic methods such as Mössbauer spectroscopy , infrared spectroscopy , Raman spectroscopy , and SEM - EDS or automated mineralogy processes. These methods can be augmented by polarized light microscopy ,

481-480: Is contemporaneous with the Picuris basin . Detrital zircon age spectrums and isotope ratios from the formation support a reconstruction of the supercontinent , Rodinia , in which Australia was a source of sediments for southwestern Laurentia . The formation was first named by D.E. Livingston in 1969 for outcroppings 30 kilometers (20 mi) north of Globe, Arizona . Michael F. Doe and coinvestigators proposed removing

518-504: Is formed from a stack of layers interspaced with the interlayers. Clay minerals can be classified as 1:1 or 2:1. A 1:1 clay would consist of one tetrahedral sheet and one octahedral sheet, and examples would be kaolinite and serpentinite . A 2:1 clay consists of an octahedral sheet sandwiched between two tetrahedral sheets, and examples are talc , vermiculite , and montmorillonite . The layers in 1:1 clays are uncharged and are bonded by hydrogen bonds between layers, but 2:1 layers have

555-545: Is important to soil fertility. Because the individual particles in clay are less than 4 micrometers (0.00016 in) in size, they cannot be characterized by ordinary optical or physical methods. The crystallographic structure of clay minerals became better understood in the 1930s with advancements in the x-ray diffraction (XRD) technique indispensable to deciphering their crystal lattice. Clay particles were found to be predominantly sheet silicate (phyllosilicate) minerals, now grouped together as clay minerals. Their structure

592-400: Is known as corrensite , R1 illite-smectite is rectorite . X-ray rf(001) is the spacing between layers in nanometers, as determined by X-ray crystallography. Glycol (mg/g) is the adsorption capacity for glycol, which occupies the interlayer sites when the clay is exposed to a vapor of ethylene glycol at 60 °C (140 °F) for eight hours. CEC is the cation exchange capacity of

629-431: Is only one tetrahedral and one octahedral group in each layer the clay is known as a 1:1 clay. The alternative, known as a 2:1 clay, has two tetrahedral sheets with the unshared vertex of each sheet pointing towards each other and forming each side of the octahedral sheet. Bonding between the tetrahedral and octahedral sheets requires that the tetrahedral sheet becomes corrugated or twisted, causing ditrigonal distortion to

666-407: The polymerization of RNA in aqueous solution from nucleotide monomers, and the formation of membranes from lipids. In 1998, Hyman Hartman proposed that "the first organisms were self-replicating iron-rich clays which fixed carbon dioxide into oxalic acid and other dicarboxylic acids . This system of replicating clays and their metabolic phenotype then evolved into the sulfide rich region of

703-684: The Yankee Joe and Blackjack into the Yankee Joe Group. Argillaceous Clay minerals are hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates (e.g. kaolin , Al 2 Si 2 O 5 ( OH ) 4 ), sometimes with variable amounts of iron , magnesium , alkali metals , alkaline earths , and other cations found on or near some planetary surfaces . Clay minerals form in the presence of water and have been important to life, and many theories of abiogenesis involve them. They are important constituents of soils , and have been useful to humans since ancient times in agriculture and manufacturing . Clay

740-456: The anion would be just neutral silica [SiO 2 ] n . Replacement of one in every four silicon atoms by an aluminum atom results in the anion [AlSi 3 O 8 ] n , whose charge is neutralized by the potassium cations K . In mineralogy , silicate minerals are classified into seven major groups according to the structure of their silicate anion: Tectosilicates can only have additional cations if some of

777-440: The applications of clays include drug delivery, tissue engineering, and bioprinting. Clay minerals can be incorporated in lime-metakaolin mortars to improve mechanical properties. Electrochemical separation helps to obtain modified saponite-containing products with high smectite-group minerals concentrations, lower mineral particles size, more compact structure, and greater surface area. These characteristics open possibilities for

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814-571: The average pH level of 7.1 is reached at 30% of the pulp added and an experimental site with perennial grasses proved the efficacy of the technique. Moreover, the reclamation of disturbed lands is an integral part of the social and environmental responsibility of the mining company and this scenario addresses the community necessities at both local and regional levels. The results of glycol adsorption, cation exchange capacity, X-ray diffraction, differential thermal analysis, and chemical tests all give data that may be used for quantitative estimations. After

851-482: The clay. K 2 O (%) is the percent content of potassium oxide in the clay. DTA describes the differential thermal analysis curve of the clay. The clay hypothesis for the origin of life was proposed by Graham Cairns-Smith in 1985. It postulates that complex organic molecules arose gradually on pre-existing, non-organic replication surfaces of silicate crystals in contact with an aqueous solution. The clay mineral montmorillonite has been shown to catalyze

888-433: The dwarf planet Ceres , asteroid 101955 Bennu , and comet Tempel 1 , as well as Jupiter's moon Europa . Like all phyllosilicates, clay minerals are characterised by two-dimensional sheets of corner-sharing SiO 4 tetrahedra or AlO 4 octahedra. The sheet units have the chemical composition (Al, Si) 3 O 4 . Each silica tetrahedron shares three of its vertex oxygen ions with other tetrahedra, forming

925-585: The formula (Si 2 x O 5 x ) or a 2:5 ratio. The Nickel–Strunz classification is 09.C. Possible ring sizes include: Some example minerals are: The ring in axinite contains two B and four Si tetrahedra and is highly distorted compared to the other 6-member ring cyclosilicates. Inosilicates (from Greek ἴς is [genitive: ἰνός inos ] 'fibre'), or chain silicates, have interlocking chains of silicate tetrahedra with either SiO 3 , 1:3 ratio, for single chains or Si 4 O 11 , 4:11 ratio, for double chains. The Nickel–Strunz classification

962-454: The hexagonal array, and the octahedral sheet is flattened. This minimizes the overall bond-valence distortions of the crystallite. Depending on the composition of the tetrahedral and octahedral sheets, the layer will have no charge or will have a net negative charge. If the layers are charged this charge is balanced by interlayer cations such as Na or K or by a lone octahedral sheet. The interlayer may also contain water. The crystal structure

999-425: The hot spring acquiring the ability to fix nitrogen . Finally phosphate was incorporated into the evolving system which allowed the synthesis of nucleotides and phospholipids." The structural and compositional versatility of clay minerals gives them interesting biological properties. Due to disc-shaped and charged surfaces, clay interacts with a range of drugs, protein, polymers, DNA, or other macromolecules. Some of

1036-409: The largest and most important class of minerals and make up approximately 90 percent of Earth's crust . In mineralogy , silica (silicon dioxide, SiO 2 ) is usually considered a silicate mineral rather than an oxide mineral . Silica is found in nature as the mineral quartz , and its polymorphs . On Earth, a wide variety of silicate minerals occur in an even wider range of combinations as

1073-452: The manufacture of high-quality ceramics and heavy-metal sorbents from saponite-containing products. Furthermore, tail grinding occurs during the preparation of the raw material for ceramics; this waste reprocessing is of high importance for the use of clay pulp as a neutralizing agent, as fine particles are required for the reaction. Experiments on the histosol deacidification with the alkaline clay slurry demonstrated that neutralization with

1110-510: The oxide has a coordination number of two. Some silicon centers may be replaced by atoms of other elements, still bound to the four corner oxygen corners. If the substituted atom is not normally tetravalent, it usually contributes extra charge to the anion, which then requires extra cations . For example, in the mineral orthoclase [KAlSi 3 O 8 ] n , the anion is a tridimensional network of tetrahedra in which all oxygen corners are shared. If all tetrahedra had silicon centers,

1147-452: The quantities of organic matter, carbonates, free oxides, and nonclay minerals have been determined, the percentages of clay minerals are estimated using the appropriate glycol adsorption, cation exchange capacity, K20, and DTA data. The amount of illite is estimated from the K20 content since this is the only clay mineral containing potassium. Argillaceous rocks are those in which clay minerals are

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1184-581: The requirement of water, clay minerals are relatively rare in the Solar System , though they occur extensively on Earth where water has interacted with other minerals and organic matter . Clay minerals have been detected at several locations on Mars , including Echus Chasma , Mawrth Vallis , the Memnonia quadrangle and the Elysium quadrangle . Spectrography has confirmed their presence on celestial bodies including

1221-441: The silicates and the metals are strong, polar-covalent bonds. Silicate anions ([SiO 2+ n ] ) are invariably colorless, or when crushed to a fine powder, white. The colors of silicate minerals arise from the metal component, commonly iron. In most silicate minerals, silicon is tetrahedral, being surrounded by four oxides. The coordination number of the oxides is variable except when it bridges two silicon centers, in which case

1258-541: The silicon is replaced by an atom of lower valence such as aluminum. Al for Si substitution is common. Nesosilicates (from Greek νῆσος nēsos 'island'), or orthosilicates, have the orthosilicate ion , present as isolated (insular) [SiO 4 ] tetrahedra connected only by interstitial cations . The Nickel–Strunz classification is 09.A –examples include: Sorosilicates (from Greek σωρός sōros 'heap, mound') have isolated pyrosilicate anions Si 2 O 7 , consisting of double tetrahedra with

1295-437: The term reichweite , which is German for range or reach. Literature articles will refer to an R1 ordered illite-smectite, for example. This type would be ordered in an illite-smectite-illite-smectite (ISIS) fashion. R0 on the other hand describes random ordering, and other advanced ordering types are also found (R3, etc.). Mixed layer clay minerals which are perfect R1 types often get their own names. R1 ordered chlorite-smectite

1332-402: The tetrahedral sheet also forms part of one side of the octahedral sheet, but an additional oxygen atom is located above the gap in the tetrahedral sheet at the center of the six tetrahedra. This oxygen atom is bonded to a hydrogen atom forming an OH group in the clay structure. Clays can be categorized depending on the way that tetrahedral and octahedral sheets are packaged into layers . If there

1369-676: Was originally assigned to the Hess Canyon Group , in which it overlies the White Ledges Formation and is in turn overlain by the Blackjack Formation. The formation is divided into three informal members . The lower member is 60 to 200 meters (200 to 600 ft) of brown to maroon mudstone , with some arkose and graywacke at the base of the member. The middle member is 200 to 300 meters (500 to 1,000 ft) of tan to white mudstone with some silty shale . The upper member

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