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50-590: The area is famous for the Yangbajain Geothermal Field , which has been harnessed to produce electricity for the capital Lhasa . There is a thermoelectric power plant on the edge of the Yangbajain field covering 20–30 square kilometers. The power plant was established in 1977, and was the first development of geothermal power not only in Tibet but in the whole of China . The Yangbajain hot springs field

100-626: A Bresle test . Salinization (increasing salinity, aka freshwater salinization syndrome ) and subsequent increased metal leaching is an ongoing problem throughout North America and European fresh waterways. In highway de-icing, salt has been associated with corrosion of bridge decks, motor vehicles, reinforcement bar and wire, and unprotected steel structures used in road construction. Surface runoff , vehicle spraying, and windblown salt also affect soil, roadside vegetation, and local surface water and groundwater supplies. Although evidence of environmental loading of salt has been found during peak usage,

150-432: A face-centered cubic (fcc) lattice with a two-atom basis or as two interpenetrating face centered cubic lattices. The first atom is located at each lattice point, and the second atom is located halfway between lattice points along the fcc unit cell edge. Solid sodium chloride has a melting point of 801 °C and liquid sodium chloride boils at 1465 °C. Atomic-resolution real-time video imaging allows visualization of

200-572: A semi-graben fault-depression basin caused by the foremontane fault zone of the Nyainqentanglha Mountains. The SE-dipping detachment fault began to form about 8 Ma. Most of the outcropped rocks are metamorphosed lower Paleozoic rocks, Paleogene volcano-clastic rock series, Neogene conglomerates and loose sediment accumulations from the Quaternary . The fault structures in the region run NE, NW, and nearly N-S. The NE faults are

250-664: A major power plant with 25 MW capacity. The Yangbajain geothermal field is in a plateau basin on the southern slopes of the Nyainqentanglha Mountains , near to the Qinghai–Tibet Highway ( China National Highway 318 ) in Damxung County. The Qinghai–Tibet Railway , which terminates in Lhasa, also passes through Yangbajain. The field covers 40 square kilometres (15 sq mi). It delivers natural thermal energy at

300-632: A major source of food spoilage. Even though more effective desiccants are available, few are safe for humans to ingest. Many microorganisms cannot live in a salty environment: water is drawn out of their cells by osmosis . For this reason salt is used to preserve some foods, such as bacon, fish, or cabbage. In many dairy industries, salt is added to cheese as a color-, fermentation-, and texture-control agent. The dairy subsector includes companies that manufacture creamery butter, condensed and evaporated milk, frozen desserts, ice cream, natural and processed cheese, and specialty dairy products. In canning, salt

350-592: A nearby site and renamed CCOSMA. 30°5′N 90°33′E  /  30.083°N 90.550°E  / 30.083; 90.550 Yangbajain Geothermal Field The Yangbajain Geothermal Field (羊八井地热田) is a geothermal field near the town of Yangbajain in Damxung County , Tibet Autonomous Region, China. The fluid is heated by magmatic activity not far below the surface. It is a tourist attraction and also supplies steam to

400-461: A preservative, salt inhibits the growth of bacteria. Salt acts as a binder in sausages to form a binding gel made up of meat, fat, and moisture. Salt also acts as a flavor enhancer and as a tenderizer . It is used as a cheap and safe desiccant because of its hygroscopic properties, making salting an effective method of food preservation historically; the salt draws water out of bacteria through osmotic pressure , keeping it from reproducing,

450-454: A problem in any coating application, because trapped salts cause great problems in adhesion. Naval authorities and ship builders monitor the salt concentrations on surfaces during construction. Maximal salt concentrations on surfaces are dependent on the authority and application. The IMO regulation is mostly used and sets salt levels to a maximum of 50 mg/m soluble salts measured as sodium chloride. These measurements are done by means of

500-471: A shallow reservoir with temperatures up to 165 °C (329 °F), and a deep reservoir with temperatures up to 329 °C (624 °F). The deep reservoir included an upper section between 950 and 1,350 metres (3,120 and 4,430 ft) deep and a lower and hotter section below 1,850 metres (6,070 ft). Both the upper and lower reservoirs contained sodium chloride thermal water. The shallow reservoir covers 148 square kilometres (57 sq mi) and

550-543: A total of 25 MW. The geothermal field delivers 25.181 MW, or 100 GWh annually, to the city of Lhasa to the south. As of 2000 the Yangbajing power plants were using 1,200 tons per day of water from the shallow reservoir, but pressure was falling fast and the turbines could not operate at full capacity. Deeper wells were being drilled to tap into lower-lying thermal fluid. Although rivers in Tibet are generally considered to be clean,

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600-599: A transmission line that runs southeast along the Duilong River . It was the main source of power for Lhasa until the Yamdrok Hydropower Station came into operation in 1998. The highest temperature inside the drilling hole is 125.5 °C (257.9 °F). By the end of 2000 eight steam turbo generators had been installed at the Yangbajain Geothermal Station, each with capacity of 3 MW, giving

650-421: Is deicing of roadways in sub-freezing weather. In addition to the many familiar domestic uses of salt, more dominant applications of the approximately 250 million tonnes per year production (2008 data) include chemicals and de-icing. Salt is used, directly or indirectly, in the production of many chemicals, which consume most of the world's production. It is the starting point for the chloralkali process ,

700-613: Is 15.5 metres (51 ft) deep, with water temperatures of 49 to 57 °C (120 to 135 °F). The local people have made pools for bathing in the west of the lake. The geothermal field is also used to operate greenhouses. The Yangbajain Geothermal Station was established in 1977. It is the first geothermal power station to be built in Tibet and is the largest geothermal steam power plant in China. 4,000 kW of electricity from Yangbajain began to be delivered to Lhasa in 1981 along

750-399: Is added to animal hides to inhibit microbial activity on the underside of the hides and to attract moisture back into the hides. In rubber manufacture, salt is used to make buna , neoprene , and white rubber types. Salt brine and sulfuric acid are used to coagulate an emulsified latex made from chlorinated butadiene . Salt also is added to secure the soil and to provide firmness to

800-467: Is added to food, either by the food producer or by the consumer, as a flavor enhancer, preservative, binder, fermentation -control additive, texture-control agent, and color developer. The salt consumption in the food industry is subdivided, in descending order of consumption, into other food processing, meat packers, canning , baking, dairy, and grain mill products. Salt is added to promote color development in bacon, ham and other processed meat products. As

850-477: Is also used a seasoning agent, e.g. in potato chips, pretzels , and cat and dog food. Sodium chloride is used in veterinary medicine as emesis -causing agent. It is given as warm saturated solution. Emesis can also be caused by pharyngeal placement of small amount of plain salt or salt crystals. For watering plants to use sodium chloride ( NaCl ) as a fertilizer, moderate concentration is used to avoid potential toxicity: 1–3 grams (0.035–0.106 oz) per liter

900-527: Is an ionic compound with the chemical formula NaCl , representing a 1:1 ratio of sodium and chlorine ions. It is transparent or translucent, brittle, hygroscopic , and occurs as the mineral halite . In its edible form, it is commonly used as a condiment and food preservative . Large quantities of sodium chloride are used in many industrial processes, and it is a major source of sodium and chlorine compounds used as feedstocks for further chemical syntheses . Another major application of sodium chloride

950-432: Is at an elevation of 4,290 to 4,500 metres (14,070 to 14,760 ft) which makes it the highest elevation set of hot springs in China, and possibly the world. The highest temperature inside the drilling hole is 125.5°C. The Holy Medical Spring Resort has both two indoor swimming pools and one outdoor swimming pool, all filled with hot springs water. Bathing is allowed at an elevation of 4200 m AMSL , likely making it

1000-464: Is basically a Quaternary basin underlaid by a large granite batholith . The basin has been filled with glacial deposits from the north and alluvial-pluvial sediments from the south. Fluid flows horizontally into the reservoir through the faults around the basin. A drill hole in the northern part of the field with a final depth of 2,006 metres (6,581 ft) found thermal fluid with a maximum temperature of 329 °C (624 °F). Chemical analysis of

1050-482: Is found in the Earth's crust as the mineral halite (rock salt), and a tiny amount exists as suspended sea salt particles in the atmosphere. These particles are the dominant cloud condensation nuclei far out at sea, which allow the formation of clouds in otherwise non-polluted air . Salt is currently mass-produced by evaporation of seawater or brine from brine wells and salt lakes . Mining of rock salt

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1100-578: Is generally safe and effective for most plants. Sodium chloride is used together with water as one of the primary solutions for intravenous therapy . Nasal spray often contains a saline solution. Sodium chloride is also available as an oral tablet, and is taken to treat low sodium levels. Sodium chloride is the principal extinguishing agent in dry-powder fire extinguishers that are used on combustible metal fires, for metals such as magnesium, zirconium, titanium, and lithium (Class D extinguishers). The salt forms an oxygen-excluding crust that smothers

1150-415: Is mostly hosted in porous Quaternary alluvium. Its basement is Himalayan granite and tuff. The water is a mixture of cold groundwater and deep thermal water. The deep reservoir was thought to have an area of 3.8 square kilometres (1.5 sq mi) below 750 metres (2,460 ft), contained in fractured bedrock. The thermal water is held in tectonic fissures and fracture zones. The isotopic composition of

1200-987: Is near 108.7 °C (227.7 °F). The pH of a sodium chloride solution remains ≈7 due to the extremely weak basicity of the Cl ion, which is the conjugate base of the strong acid HCl. In other words, NaCl has no effect on system pH in diluted solutions where the effects of ionic strength and activity coefficients are negligible. Common salt has a 1:1 molar ratio of sodium and chlorine. In 2013, compounds of sodium and chloride of different stoichiometries have been discovered; five new compounds were predicted (e.g., Na 3 Cl, Na 2 Cl, Na 3 Cl 2 , NaCl 3 , and NaCl 7 ). The existence of some of them has been experimentally confirmed at high pressures and other conditions: cubic and orthorhombic NaCl 3 , two-dimensional metallic tetragonal Na 3 Cl and exotic hexagonal NaCl. This indicates that compounds violating chemical intuition are possible, in simple systems under non-ambient conditions. Salt

1250-586: Is primarily added as a flavor enhancer and preservative . It also is used as a carrier for other ingredients, dehydrating agent, enzyme inhibitor and tenderizer. In baking, salt is added to control the rate of fermentation in bread dough. It also is used to strengthen the gluten (the elastic protein-water complex in certain doughs) and as a flavor enhancer, such as a topping on baked goods. The food-processing category also contains grain mill products. These products consist of milling flour and rice and manufacturing cereal breakfast food and blended or prepared flour. Salt

1300-569: Is used to flocculate and increase the density of the drilling fluid to overcome high downwell gas pressures. Whenever a drill hits a salt formation, salt is added to the drilling fluid to saturate the solution in order to minimize the dissolution within the salt stratum. Salt is also used to increase the curing of concrete in cemented casings. In textiles and dyeing, salt is used as a brine rinse to separate organic contaminants, to promote "salting out" of dyestuff precipitates, and to blend with concentrated dyes to increase yield in dyebaths and make

1350-475: Is used to produce glass , sodium bicarbonate , and dyes , as well as a myriad of other chemicals. In the Mannheim process , sodium chloride is used for the production of sodium sulfate and hydrochloric acid . Sodium chloride is heavily used, so even relatively minor applications can consume massive quantities. In oil and gas exploration, salt is an important component of drilling fluids in well drilling. It

1400-428: The area north of the highway, thermal fluids from this depth rises through a deep fault to the surface. In the area south of the highway, thermal fluid in the surface zone is heated by mixing with fluids that in turn are heated by deep circulation near the magmatic heat source. Carbon dioxide in the hot spring gases is probably largely organic, from the sedimentary rocks of the field. A 2000 paper presented evidence for

1450-461: The colors look sharper. One of its main roles is to provide the positive ion charge to promote the absorption of negatively charged ions of dyes. For use in the pulp and paper industry , it is used to manufacture sodium chlorate , which is then reacted with sulfuric acid and a reducing agent such as methanol to manufacture chlorine dioxide , a bleaching chemical that is widely used to bleach wood pulp . In tanning and leather treatment, salt

1500-452: The efficiency can have large economic paybacks. Some applications of chlorine include PVC thermoplastics production, disinfectants, and solvents. Sodium hydroxide is extensively used in many different industries enabling production of paper, soap, and aluminium etc. Sodium chloride is used in the Solvay process to produce sodium carbonate and calcium chloride . Sodium carbonate, in turn,

1550-410: The field. A resort developed by government agencies in 1998 has hot spring baths that are reputed to have curative powers. There are two warm indoor pools and an outdoor pool where tourists can relax in spectacular mountain surroundings. A 7,300 square metres (79,000 sq ft) hot water lake lies to the east of the geothermal ground, from which steam rises high in the air on a clear day. The lake

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1600-600: The fire. Since at least medieval times, people have used salt as a cleansing agent rubbed on household surfaces. It is also used in many brands of shampoo , toothpaste, and popularly to de-ice driveways and patches of ice. Sodium chloride crystals have a transmittance of at least 90% (through 1 mm) for infrared light having wavelengths in the range 0.2– 18  μm . They were used in optical components such as windows and lenses, where few non-absorbing alternatives existed in that spectral range. While inexpensive, NaCl crystals are soft and hygroscopic – when exposed to

1650-447: The formula [Na(H 2 O) 8 ] , with the Na–O distance of 250  pm . The chloride ions are also strongly solvated, each being surrounded by an average of six molecules of water. Solutions of sodium chloride have very different properties from pure water. The eutectic point is −21.12 °C (−6.02 °F) for 23.31% mass fraction of salt, and the boiling point of saturated salt solution

1700-476: The foundation on which highways are built. The salt acts to minimize the effects of shifting caused in the subsurface by changes in humidity and traffic load. Hard water contains calcium and magnesium ions that interfere with action of soap and contribute to the buildup of a scale or film of alkaline mineral deposits in household and industrial equipment and pipes. Commercial and residential water-softening units use ion-exchange resins to remove ions that cause

1750-444: The gritting vehicles despite being stockpiled prior to use. In recent years this additive has also been used in table salt. Other additives had been used in road salt to reduce the total costs. For example, in the US, a byproduct carbohydrate solution from sugar-beet processing was mixed with rock salt and adhered to road surfaces about 40% better than loose rock salt alone. Because it stayed on

1800-581: The ground surface of up to 107,000 kilocalories per second. Yangbajain Geothermal Field is currently the largest proven geothermal field of its nature in China. It has an estimated power generation potential of 150,000 kW. The Yangbajing Basin lies between the Nyainquentanglha Range to the northwest and the Yarlu-Zangbo suture to the south. The geothermal field is in the central part of

1850-429: The hardness. These resins are generated and regenerated using sodium chloride. The second major application of salt is for deicing and anti-icing of roads, both in grit bins and spread by winter service vehicles . In anticipation of snowfall, roads are optimally "anti-iced" with brine (concentrated solution of salt in water), which prevents bonding between the snow-ice and the road surface. This procedure obviates

1900-673: The heavy use of salt after the snowfall. For de-icing, mixtures of brine and salt are used, sometimes with additional agents such as calcium chloride and/or magnesium chloride . The use of salt or brine becomes ineffective below −10 °C (14 °F). Salt for de-icing in the United Kingdom predominantly comes from a single mine in Winsford in Cheshire . Prior to distribution it is mixed with <100 ppm of sodium ferrocyanide as an anticaking agent , which enables rock salt to flow freely out of

1950-520: The highest swimming pool in the world. The YBJ International Cosmic Ray Observatory (羊八井国际宇宙线观测站) is located in the Yangbajing valley of the Tibetan highland, a site chosen for its high elevation at 4300 meters above sea level. Collaborating institutes includes the INFN (Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare) and various Chinese and Japanese universities. The KOSMA 3-m submillimeter telescope has been relocated to

2000-419: The industrial process to produce chlorine and sodium hydroxide , according to the chemical equation This electrolysis is conducted in either a mercury cell, a diaphragm cell, or a membrane cell. Each of those uses a different method to separate the chlorine from the sodium hydroxide. Other technologies are under development due to the high energy consumption of the electrolysis, whereby small improvements in

2050-471: The initial stage of crystal nucleation of sodium chloride. The Thermal conductivity of sodium chloride as a function of temperature has a maximum of 2.03 W/(cm K) at 8 K (−265.15 °C; −445.27 °F) and decreases to 0.069 at 314 K (41 °C; 106 °F). It also decreases with doping . From cold (sub-freezing) solutions, salt crystallises with water of hydration as hydrohalite (the dihydrate NaCl·2 H 2 O ). In 2023, it

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2100-731: The largest and oldest, and usually have been cut by later fractures and faults. Although there still seems to be frequent magmatic activity, the main stages of magmatic intrusion were the Yanshanian granitic intrusion (88.7 Ma), the Yanshanian dioritic intrusion (88.0 Ma), and the Later Himalayan granitic intrusion (29.7 Ma). The field is part of the Himalayan Geothermal Belt in the Lhasa-Gangdise terrane . The geothermal reservoir

2150-585: The road longer, the treatment did not have to be repeated several times, saving time and money. In the technical terms of physical chemistry, the minimum freezing point of a water-salt mixture is −21.12 °C (−6.02 °F) for 23.31 wt% of salt. Freezing near this concentration is however so slow that the eutectic point of −22.4 °C (−8.3 °F) can be reached with about 25 wt% of salt. Road salt ends up in fresh-water bodies and could harm aquatic plants and animals by disrupting their osmoregulation ability. The omnipresence of salt in coastal areas poses

2200-510: The spring rains and thaws usually dilute the concentrations of sodium in the area where salt was applied. A 2009 study found that approximately 70% of the road salt being applied in the Minneapolis-St Paul metro area is retained in the local watershed. Some agencies are substituting beer , molasses , and beet juice instead of road salt. Airlines utilize more glycol and sugar rather than salt-based solutions for deicing . Salt

2250-411: The thermal fluid indicate that there is shallow-seated magmatic activity not far below the geothermal field. Other evidence, however, indicates that if there is a magmatic heat source vertically below the field, it must be over 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) below. A 1996 paper proposed that the magmatic heat source lies to the southeast of the field at a depth of 10 to 12 kilometres (6.2 to 7.5 mi). In

2300-450: The thermal waters indicates local meteoric origin (rain and snow), including run-off from the Nyainquentanglha Range. The water runs down through the fractured rock, and is gradually warmed, with the warmer water rising towards the surface. Yangbajing has been called "the highest-altitude hot springs in the world." It includes hot springs and boiling springs, geysers and hot water lakes. Various facilities for tourists have been developed in

2350-463: The vertices of a regular octahedron . In the language of close-packing , the larger chloride ions (167 pm in size ) are arranged in a cubic array whereas the smaller sodium ions (116 pm ) fill all the cubic gaps (octahedral voids) between them. This same basic structure is found in many other compounds and is commonly known as the NaCl structure or rock salt crystal structure. It can be represented as

2400-487: The water in ambient air, they gradually cover with "frost". This limits application of NaCl to dry environments, vacuum-sealed areas, or short-term uses such as prototyping. Materials that are mechanically stronger and less sensitive to moisture, such as zinc selenide and chalcogenide glasses , more widely used than NaCl. In solid sodium chloride, each ion is surrounded by six ions of the opposite charge as expected on electrostatic grounds. The surrounding ions are located at

2450-652: The water of the Duilong River is not. A 2015 study reported that during the non-monsoon season the levels of arsenic in the river, at 205.6 μg/L were higher than the WHO guideline of 10 μg/L for drinking water. The source of the pollution seems to be untreated water from the Yangbajain Geothermal Field power station. It can be detected 90 kilometres (56 mi) downstream from this site. Sodium chloride Sodium chloride / ˌ s oʊ d i ə m ˈ k l ɔːr aɪ d / , commonly known as edible salt ,

2500-484: Was discovered that under pressure, sodium chloride can form the hydrates NaCl·8.5H 2 O and NaCl·13H 2 O. The attraction between the Na and Cl ions in the solid is so strong that only highly polar solvents like water dissolve NaCl well. When dissolved in water, the sodium chloride framework disintegrates as the Na and Cl ions become surrounded by polar water molecules. These solutions consist of metal aquo complex with

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