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94-619: The database contains the names and biographical details of people who are thought to be detained in the camps. Many of the profiles also contain personal testimonies by the families and friends of the detainees. Gene Bunin is a Russian-American linguistic researcher, who lived in Xinjiang until 2018, when Chinese police forced him to leave. He created the database to “have one place" to store detailed information of people interred in prison camps or disappeared after only "limited attempts" had been made to identify detainees. In January 2023, following

188-465: A market economy from a command economy in 1990–1991 and made efforts to rebuild and restructure their economic systems, often following neoliberal shock therapy policies, with varying results. In all, the process triggered severe economic declines, with gross domestic product (GDP) dropping by more than 40% overall between 1990 and 1995. This decline in GDP was much more intense than the 27% decline that

282-731: A roadmap for future integration and established the Eurasian Economic Commission (modelled on the European Commission ). The Eurasian Economic Commission serves as the regulatory agency for the Eurasian Customs Union, the Single Economic Space and the Eurasian Economic Union. The Eurasian Economic Union is an economic union of post-Soviet states. The treaty aiming for the establishment of

376-471: A database's post on Twitter regarding the addition of a large number of police officers to its "Accountability" section, internet users noted that images of two of the Xinjiang police officers were those of Hong Kong actors Andy Lau Tak-wah and Chow Yun-fat . Soon after it drew attention on social media , the Xinjiang Victims Database added a clarification stating that the data were sourced from

470-463: A dual American-Russian citizen and resident of Los Angeles, was arrested while visiting family in Russia and charged with treason for sending $ 51.80 to Razom , a New York City -based nonprofit organization that sends humanitarian assistance to Ukraine . She initially faced life in prison, but pleaded guilty and was sentenced to 12 years in prison. In July 2024, Russian-American journalist Alsu Kurmasheva

564-576: A few thousand citizens to emigrate to the United States. However, just as had happened 20 years prior, the USSR saw hundreds of thousands of its citizens emigrate to the United States during the 1970s. The Soviet Union then created the "diploma tax" which charged any person that had studied in Russia and was trying to emigrate a hefty fine. This was mainly done to deter Soviet Jews who tended to be scientists and other valued intellects from emigrating to Israel or

658-627: A file cache of an Urumqi database previously written about in The Intercept , with the police officers occasionally using avatars that were not photos of themselves, including that of Andy Lau, which had not been noticed by the database staff. The photos assigned to police officer profiles also contained a cartoon portrait of police officer Jin Xiaowei, believed to be his likeness, which was also criticized in Chinese media. This database -related article

752-508: A free trade area, but the agreements were never signed. On 19 October 2011, Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan and Ukraine signed a free trade agreement. Uzbekistan joined the free trade area in 2013. The Eurasian Economic Community (EURASEC), formerly the CIS Customs Union, was established by Russia , Belarus , Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan . Ukraine and Moldova have observer status in

846-1121: A number of multinational organizations such as: Regarding political freedom in the former Soviet republics, Freedom House 's 2021 report listed the following: Similarly, the Press Freedom Index published by Reporters Without Borders in 2022 recorded the following as regards press freedom : It has been remarked that several post-Soviet states did not change leadership for decades since their independence, such as Nursultan Nazarbayev in Kazakhstan until his surprise resignation in 2019, and Islam Karimov in Uzbekistan, until his death in September 2016. All of these had originally more limited terms but through decrees or referendums prolonged their stay in office (a practice also followed by Presidents Alexander Lukashenko of Belarus and Emomali Rahmon of Tajikistan). Askar Akayev of Kyrgyzstan had likewise served as President since its independence until he

940-673: A pressure for democracy. This is one of the few social disasters that the church has survived, in which it was not the cause. But if successful politically, it faces economic challenges beyond its grasp." The Central Asian states ( Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan ) plus Azerbaijan in the Southern Caucasus are Muslim , except for their dwindling Russian and other European minorities. The Baltic countries are historically Western Christian ( Protestant and Roman Catholic ), which adds another layer of pro-Western orientation to those countries, although

1034-456: A sharp increase compared to 1.5% of the late Soviet era. This instability and bleak outcome prompted a large new wave of both political and economic emigration from Russia, and one of the major targets became the United States, which was experiencing an unprecedented stock market boom in 1995–2001. A notable part of the 1991—2001 immigration wave consisted of scientists and engineers who, faced with extremely poor job market at home coupled with

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1128-548: A significantly higher wage in the US than in Russia. The number of Russian migrants with university educations is higher than that of US natives and other foreign born groups. 51% of lawful Russian migrants obtain permanent residence from immediate family member of US citizens, 20% obtain it from the Diversity Lottery, 18% obtain it through employment, 6% are family sponsored, and 5% are refugee and asylum seekers. The Soviet Union

1222-475: A successful transition to capitalism and more democracy." Commenting on Milanović's report in 2021, Kristen Ghodsee says this view is "essentially correct" and perhaps underestimates "the negative impacts of transition by focusing only on GDP, inequality and democratic consolidation" whereas Mitchell A. Orenstein says this view is "overly pessimistic" and notes that "Poland had done spectacularly well and living standards had increased in many countries." Most of

1316-510: A year: 593,700 in 1891–1900, 1.6 million in 1901–1910, 868,000 in 1911–1914, and 43,000 in 1915–1917. The most prominent Russian groups that immigrated in this period were groups from Imperial Russia seeking freedom from religious persecution. These included Russian Jews , escaping the 1881–1882 pogroms , who moved to New York City and other coastal cities; the Spiritual Christians, treated as heretics at home, who settled largely in

1410-489: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Russian Americans Russian Americans (Russian: русские американцы , romanized : russkiye amerikantsy , IPA: [ˈruskʲɪje ɐmʲɪrʲɪˈkant͡sɨ] ) are Americans of full or partial Russian ancestry. The term can apply to recent Russian immigrants to the United States, as well as to those who settled in the 19th-century Russian possessions in northwestern America. Russian Americans comprise

1504-504: Is a closely related organization. Observer countries include Armenia , Bulgaria and Poland . Just like GUAM before it, this forum is largely seen as intending to counteract Russian influence in the area. This is the only international forum centered in the post-Soviet space in which the Baltic countries also participate. In addition, the other three post-Soviet states in it are all members of GUAM. The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO),

1598-594: Is a guideline. There are Russians who are considered second wave even if they arrived after 1922 up to 1948. During the Soviet era , emigration was prohibited, and limited to very few defectors and dissidents who immigrated to the United States of America and other Western Bloc countries for political reasons. Immigration to the US from Russia was also severely restricted via the National Origins formula introduced by

1692-456: Is composed of China and five post-Soviet states, namely Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The organization was founded in 2001, though its predecessor, the Shanghai Five grouping, has existed since 1996. Its aims revolve around security-related issues such as border demarcation, terrorism and energy. Apart from above, the former Soviet republics also hold membership in

1786-549: Is often referred to as the first wave, when discussing Soviet era immigration. The head of the Russian Provisional Government , Alexander Kerensky , was one of those immigrants. Since the immigrants were of the higher classes of the Russian Empire , they contributed significantly to American science and culture. Inventors Vladimir Zworykin , often referred to as "father of television", Alexander M. Poniatoff ,

1880-569: Is sometimes used to refer to the post-Soviet states other than Russia. Following the end of the Cold War , the international community de facto recognized Russia as the successor state to the Soviet Union as a whole, rather than to just the Russian SFSR. In contrast, the other post-Soviet states were recognized as successors only to their corresponding Union Republics. However, Russia's status as

1974-1227: The Armenian SSR , the Azerbaijan SSR , the Byelorussian SSR , the Estonian SSR , the Georgian SSR , the Kazakh SSR , the Kirghiz SSR , the Latvian SSR , the Lithuanian SSR , the Moldavian SSR , the Russian SFSR , the Tajik SSR , the Turkmen SSR , the Ukrainian SSR , and the Uzbek SSR . In Russia, the term " near abroad " ( Russian : ближнее зарубежье , romanized :  bližneye zarubežye )

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2068-512: The Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) were the first to break away from the Soviet Union by proclaiming the restoration of their national independence in 1990; they cited legal continuity from the original Baltic states , asserting that Baltic sovereignty had continued on a de jure basis due to the belligerent nature of the 1940 Soviet annexation . Subsequently, the 12 remaining Union Republics seceded, with all of them jointly establishing

2162-839: The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and most of them later joining the Russian-led Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO). On the other hand, the three Baltic states pursued a policy of near-total disengagement with the Russian-dominated post-Soviet sphere, instead focusing on integrating themselves with the European Union (EU) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). They successfully attained NATO membership and were granted EU membership in 2004. Since

2256-530: The Communist regime , such as Vladimir Horowitz in 1925 or Ayn Rand in 1926, or were deported by it, such as Joseph Brodsky in 1972, or Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn in 1974, some were communists themselves, and left in fear of prosecution, such as NKVD operative Alexander Orlov who escaped the purge in 1938 or Svetlana Alliluyeva , daughter of Joseph Stalin , who left in 1967. Some were diplomats and military personnel who defected to sell their knowledge, such as

2350-544: The Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations which aims to forge closer integration. The Community of Democratic Choice (CDC) was formed in December 2005 at the primary instigation of Ukraine and Georgia, and composed of six post-Soviet states (Ukraine, Georgia, Moldova, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) and three other countries of Eastern and Central Europe ( Slovenia , Romania and North Macedonia ). The Black Sea Forum (BSF)

2444-533: The Lautenberg Amendment passed in 1989 and renewed annually. Those who could claim family reunion could apply for the direct US visa, and were still receiving the political refugee status in the early 1990s. 50,716 citizens of ex-USSR were granted political refugee status by the United States in 1990, 38,661 in 1991, 61,298 in 1992, 48,627 in 1993, 43,470 in 1994, 35,716 in 1995 with the trend steadily dropping to as low as 1,394 refugees accepted in 2003. For

2538-664: The Old Believers , persecuted as schismatics, arrived and settled in small groups in California, Oregon (particularly the Willamette Valley region), Pennsylvania , and New York. Immigrants of this wave include Irving Berlin , legend of American songwriting and André Tchelistcheff , influential Californian winemaker. World War I dealt a heavy blow to Russia. Between 1914 and 1918, starvation and poverty increased in all parts of Russian society, and soon many Russians questioned

2632-538: The Partnership for Peace and Individual Partnership Action Plan program include Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. Four member states, namely Georgia , Ukraine , Azerbaijan and Moldova , established the GUAM group that was largely seen as intending to counter Russian dominance in the region. Notably, these four nations do not participate in any of

2726-901: The Russian Revolution of 1917 and the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922, many White émigrés also arrived, especially in New York, Philadelphia , and New England . Emigration from Russia subsequently became very restricted during the Soviet era (1917–1991). However, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union at the end of the Cold War , immigration to the United States increased considerably. In several major US cities, many Jewish Americans who trace their heritage back to Russia and other Americans of East Slavic origin, such as Belarusian Americans and Rusyn Americans , sometimes identify as Russian Americans. Additionally, certain non-Slavic groups from

2820-463: The dissolution of the Soviet Union . Only organizations that are mainly (or completely) composed of post-Soviet states are listed in this section; organizations with wider memberships are not discussed. The 15 post-Soviet states are divided in their participation to the regional blocs: The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) consists of 10 former Soviet Republics that differ in their membership status. As of December 2010, 9 countries have ratified

2914-659: The former Soviet Union ( FSU ) or the former Soviet republics , are the independent sovereign states that emerged/re-emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. Prior to their independence, they existed as Union Republics , which were the top-level constituents of the Soviet Union . There are 15 post-Soviet states in total: Armenia , Azerbaijan , Belarus , Estonia , Georgia , Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan , Latvia , Lithuania , Moldova , Russia , Tajikistan , Turkmenistan , Ukraine , and Uzbekistan . Each of these countries succeeded their respective Union Republics:

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3008-655: The post-Soviet space , such as Armenian Americans , Georgian Americans , and Moldovan Americans , have a longstanding historical association with the Russian American community. According to the Institute of Modern Russia in 2011, the Russian American population is estimated to be 3.13 million. The American Community Survey of the US census shows the total number of people in the US age 5 and over speaking Russian at home to be slightly over 900,000, as of 2020. Many Russian Americans do not speak Russian , having been born in

3102-405: The 2000s, many EU officials have stressed the importance of establishing EU Association Agreements with the other post-Soviet states. Ukraine and Georgia have actively sought NATO membership due to increasingly hostile Russian interference in their internal affairs . Due to the post-Soviet conflicts , several disputed states with varying degrees of international recognition have emerged within

3196-544: The American society. Most Russians in Alaska today are descendants of Russian settlers who came just before, during, and/or after Soviet era; two thirds of the population of town of Alaska named Nikolaevsk are descendants of recent Russian settlers who came in the 1960s. The first massive wave of immigration from all areas of Europe to the United States took place in the late 19th century. Although some immigration took place earlier –

3290-456: The CIS charter and are full CIS members (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan), one country (Turkmenistan) is an associate member and two countries (Georgia, Ukraine) left the organization in 2009 and in 2018. In 2014, Ukraine declined its CIS chairmanship and considered withdrawal from the organization. In 1994, the CIS countries agreed to create

3384-656: The Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO), this being an expansion of the previous Collective Security Treaty (CST). Uzbekistan which (alongside Georgia and Azerbaijan) withdrew from the CST in 1999, joined GUAM. Then in 2005, it withdrew from GUAM and joined the CSTO in 2006. On 28 June 2012, Uzbekistan suspended its membership in the CSTO. Three former Soviet states are members of NATO: Estonia , Latvia and Lithuania . Georgia, where both public opinion and

3478-822: The EAEU was signed on 29 May 2014 by the leaders of Belarus , Kazakhstan and Russia , and came into force on 1 January 2015. Treaties aiming for Armenia 's and Kyrgyzstan 's accession to the Eurasian Economic Union were signed on 9 October 2014 and 23 December respectively. Armenia's accession treaty came into force on 2 January 2015. Kyrgyzstan ratified its accession's treaty in May 2015, and it came into force in August 2015. Moldova and Tajikistan are prospective members. Seven CIS member states, namely Russia , Belarus , Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , Uzbekistan and Armenia , have enhanced their military cooperation, establishing

3572-500: The Georgian language. While the Soviet system placed severe restrictions on religious intellectual life, traditions continued to survive. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Islamic movements have emerged alongside ethnic and secular ones. Vitaly Naumkin gives the following assessment: "Throughout the time of change, Islam has served as a symbol of identity, a force for mobilization, and

3666-699: The Russian-American Company was Fort Ross , established in 1812 by Ivan Kuskov , some 50 miles (80 km) north of San Francisco , as an agricultural supply base for Russian America. It was part of the Russian-America Company, and consisted of four outposts, including Bodega Bay, the Russian River, and the Farallon Islands. There was never an established agreement made with the government of New Spain which produced great tension between

3760-452: The Soviet Union occurred against a backdrop of economic stagnation and regression within the economy of the USSR . This period marked the breakdown of the Gosplan , the state planning agency responsible for economic planning and inter-republic economic connections, exacerbating the effects on the economies of the post-Soviet states. Most of the formerly Soviet states began the transition to

3854-591: The US Congress in 1921. The chaos and depression that plagued Europe following the conclusion of World War II drove many native Europeans to immigrate to the United States. After the war, there were about 7 million displaced persons ranging from various countries throughout continental Europe. Of these 7 million, 2 million were Russian citizens that were sent back to the USSR to be imprisoned, exiled, or even executed having been accused of going against their government and country. Roughly 20,000 Russian citizens immigrated to

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3948-442: The US as their destination, where they received the status of political refugees . This lasted for about a decade, until very early 1980s. Emigrants included the family of Google co-founder Sergey Brin , which moved to the US in 1979, citing the impossibility of an advanced scientific career for a Jew. By the 1970s, relations between the USSR and the United States began to improve and the USSR relaxed its emigration ban, permitting

4042-551: The US state of Alaska was settled by Russians and controlled by the Russian Empire ; Russian settlers include ethnic Russians but also Russified Ukrainians, Russified Romanians (from Bessarabia), and Indigenous Siberians , including Yupik , Mongolic peoples , Chukchi , Koryaks , Itelmens , and Ainu . Georg Anton Schäffer of the Russian-American Company built three forts in Kauai , Hawaii . The southernmost such post of

4136-612: The US that occurred during that period, a large number of Russians immigrated primarily for economic opportunities. These groups mainly settled in coastal cities, including Brooklyn (New York City) on the East Coast , and Los Angeles , San Francisco , Portland, Oregon , and various cities in Alaska , on the West Coast , as well as in Great Lakes cities, such as Chicago and Cleveland . After

4230-423: The US to further their careers: ballet stars Mikhail Baryshnikov in 1974 and Alexander Godunov in 1979, composer Maxim Shostakovich in 1981, hockey star Alexander Mogilny in 1989 and the entire Russian Five later, gymnast Vladimir Artemov in 1990, glam metal band Gorky Park in 1987, and many others. With perestroika , a mass Jewish emigration restarted in 1987. The numbers grew very sharply, leading to

4324-427: The USSR for the United States to do so, with a cap on the number of citizens allowed to leave per year. The Jackson-Vanik amendment made it possible for the religious minorities of the USSR such as Roman-Catholics, Evangelical Christians, and Jews to emigrate to the United States. It effectively kept emigration from the USSR to the United States open and as a result, from 1980 to 2008 some 1 million people emigrated from

4418-579: The United States and brought up in English-speaking homes. In 2007, however, Russian was the primary spoken language of 851,174 Americans at home, according to the US census. According to the Davis Center for Russian and Eurasian Studies at Harvard University , 750,000 Russian Americans were ethnic Russians in 1990. The New York City metropolitan area has historically been the leading metropolitan gateway for Russian immigrants legally admitted into

4512-486: The United States forbidding entry to those emigrating from the USSR on Israeli visa, starting October 1, 1989. Israel withheld sending visa invitations from the beginning of 1989 claiming technical difficulties. After that the bulk of Jewish emigration went to Israel, nearing a million people in the following decade. However, the conditions for Soviet refugees belonging to several religious minorities - including Jews, Baptists, Pentecostalists, and Greek Catholics - were eased by

4606-418: The United States immediately following the conclusion of the war. Following the war, tensions between the United States and the then Soviet Union began to rise to lead to the USSR placing an immigration ban on its citizens in 1952. The immigration ban effectively prevented any citizen or person under the USSR from immigrating to the United States. This came after a large percentage of Russian immigrants left for

4700-415: The United States specifically leaving the USSR embarrassed at the high percentage of Russian citizens emigrating. After the immigration ban was placed into effect, any Russian citizen that attempted to or planned to leave Russia was stripped of citizenship, barred from having any contact with any remaining relatives in the USSR, and would even make it illegal for that individual's name to be spoken. Some fled

4794-461: The United States suffered in the wake of the Great Depression between 1930 and 1934. The reconfiguration of public finance in compliance with capitalist principles resulted in dramatically reduced spending on health, education and other social programs, leading to a sharp increase in poverty and economic inequality . The economic shocks associated with wholesale privatization resulted in

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4888-472: The United States. Brighton Beach, Brooklyn continues to be the most important demographic and cultural center for the Russian American experience. However, as Russian Americans have climbed in socioeconomic status , the diaspora from Russia and other former Soviet-bloc states has moved toward more affluent parts of the New York metropolitan area, notably Bergen County , New Jersey . Within Bergen County,

4982-497: The United States. In early 2023, the Biden administration resumed deportations of Russians who had fled Russia due to mobilization and political persecution . Since the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the persecution of Russian citizens who disagree with the policies of Russian leader Vladimir Putin has increased significantly. For example, in early 2024, ballet dancer Ksenia Karelina ,

5076-617: The War's purpose and the government's competency. The war intensified anti-Semitic sentiment. Jews were accused of disloyalty and expelled from areas in and near war zones. Furthermore, much of the fighting between Russia, and Austria and Germany took place in Western Russia in the Jewish Pale of Settlement . World War I uprooted half a million Russian Jews. Because of the upheavals of World War I, immigration dwindled between 1914 and 1917. But after

5170-420: The West. Due to the USSR suppressing its citizens from fleeing the USSR, the United States passed the Jackson-Vanik amendment to the Trade Act of 1974 . The amendment stipulated that the United States would review the record of human rights before permitting any special trade agreements with countries with non-market economies. As a result, the USSR was pressured into allowing those citizens that wanted to flee

5264-426: The Western United States in the cities of Los Angeles , San Francisco, and Portland, Oregon ; two large groups of Shtundists who moved to Virginia and the Dakotas , and mostly between 1874 and 1880 German-speaking Anabaptists , Russian Mennonites and Hutterites , who left the Russian Empire and settled mainly in Kansas (Mennonites), the Dakota Territory , and Montana (Hutterites). Finally in 1908–1910,

5358-483: The anti-Akayev climate that led to his overthrow. Economic, political, national, military and social problems have all been factors in separatism in the post-Soviet space. In many cases, problems due to factors such as ethnic divisions existed before the fall of the Soviet Union, and upon the fall of the union were brought into the open. Such territories and resulting military conflicts have so far been: Civil wars unrelated to separatist movements have occurred twice in

5452-434: The broader Russian invasion of Ukraine . In the political language of Russia and some other post-Soviet states, the term near abroad ( Russian : ближнее зарубежье , romanized :  blizhnee zarubezhe ) refers to the independent republics that emerged after the dissolution of the Soviet Union . Increasing usage of the term in English is connected to assertions of Russia's right to maintain significant influence in

5546-467: The city such as BP America and General Electric Co. Other Russian and later post-Soviet immigrants found work in the Cleveland Orchestra or the Cleveland Institute of Music as professional musicians and singers. The slow Brezhnev stagnation of the 1970s and Mikhail Gorbachev 's following political reforms since the mid-1980s prompted an increase of economic immigration to the United States, where artists and athletes defected or legally emigrated to

5640-517: The community; however, Ukraine has declared its desire not to become a full member state. Because having common borders with the rest of the community is a prerequisite for full membership, Moldova is barred from seeking it. Uzbekistan applied for membership in October 2005, when the process of merging Central Asian Cooperation Organization and the Eurasian Economic Community began; it joined on 25 January 2006. Uzbekistan subsequently suspended its membership in 2008. On 10 October 2014 an agreement on

5734-730: The countries has been rising. The constitutional background for taxation is similar. Central banks are often independent state institutions, which possess the monopoly on managing and implementing a state's or federation's monetary policy. Besides monetary policy, some of them also perform the supervision of the financial intermediary system . Change in gross domestic product (GDP) in constant prices, 1991–2015 *Economy of most Soviet republics started to decline in 1989–1990, thus indices for 1991 do not match pre-reform maximums. **The year when GDP decline switched to GDP growth ***World bank publishes GDP data for Estonia only from 1995 onwards. Figures for Estonia are relative to 1995 GDP. List of

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5828-408: The emergence of Russian-backed states in Ukraine in 2014: the Republic of Crimea in southern Ukraine briefly proclaimed independence before being annexed by Russia in 2014 ; and the Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic , both located in Ukraine's Donbas , were occupied and subsequently declared independence in 2014 before being formally annexed by Russia in 2022 , amidst

5922-407: The excess deaths of roughly 1 million working age individuals throughout the former Soviet bloc in the 1990s. A study by economist Steven Rosefielde asserts that 3.4 million Russians died premature deaths from 1990 to 1998, partly as the result of the shock therapy policies imposed by the Washington Consensus . The initial transition decline was eventually arrested, and after 1995 the economy in

6016-401: The first time in history, Russians became a notable part of illegal immigration to the United States . With the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the subsequent transition to free market economy came hyperinflation and a series of political and economic crises of the 1990s, culminating in the financial crash of 1998 . By mid-1993 between 39% and 49% of Russians were living in poverty ,

6110-565: The former Soviet Union to the United States. The 1970s witnessed 51,000 Soviet Jews emigrate to the United States, a majority after the Trade Agreement of 1974 was passed. The majority of the Soviet Jews that emigrated to the United States went to Cleveland. Here, chain migration began to unfold as more Soviet Jews emigrated after the 1970s, concentrating in the eastern suburbs of Cleveland. The majority of Soviet Jews that had arrived were educated and held college degrees. These new immigrants would go onto work in important industrial businesses in

6204-448: The founder of Ampex , and Alexander Lodygin , arrived with this wave. The US military benefited greatly with the arrival of such inventors as Igor Sikorsky (who invented the practical Helicopter ), Vladimir Yourkevitch , and Alexander Procofieff de Seversky . Sergei Rachmaninoff and Igor Stravinsky are by many considered to be among the greatest composers ever to live in the United States of America. The novelist Vladimir Nabokov ,

6298-517: The government unwilling to index fixed salaries according to inflation or even to make salary payments on time, left to pursue their careers abroad. This coincided with the surge of hi-tech industry in the United States, creating a strong brain drain effect. According to the National Science Foundation , there were 20,000 Russian scientists working in the United States in 2003, and the Russian software engineers were responsible for 30% of Microsoft products in 2002. Skilled professionals often command

6392-446: The increasing size of the Russian immigrant presence in its hub of Fair Lawn prompted a 2014 April Fool's satire titled, " Putin Moves Against Fair Lawn". Sometimes, Carpatho-Rusyns and Ukrainians who emigrated from Carpathian Ruthenia in the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century identify as Russian Americans. More recent émigrés would often refer to this group as the starozhili 'old residents'. This group became

6486-416: The language lost its status in other post-Soviet states after the end of the Soviet Union. It maintains semi-official status in all CIS member states, because it is the organisation's official working language, but in the three Baltic states, the Russian language is not recognized in any official capacity. Georgia, since its departure from the CIS in 2009, has begun operating its government almost exclusively in

6580-421: The largest Eastern European and East Slavic population in the US, the second-largest Slavic population generally, the nineteenth-largest ancestry group overall, and the eleventh-largest from Europe. In the mid-19th century, waves of Russian immigrants fleeing religious persecution settled in the US, including Russian Jews and Spiritual Christians . From 1880 to 1917, within the wave of European immigration to

6674-445: The most notable example being Ivan Turchaninov , who immigrated in 1856 and became a United States Army brigadier general during the Civil War– millions traveled to the new world in the last decade of the 19th century, some for political reasons, some for economic reasons, and some for a combination of both. Between 1820 and 1870 only 7,550 Russians immigrated to the United States, but starting with 1881, immigration rate exceeded 10,000

6768-409: The new states' constitutions define directly or indirectly the economic system of the countries parallel to the democratic transition of the 1990s, emphasising the free market economy . The average government debt in these countries is nearly 44%, but the deviation is great, because the lowest figure is close to 10% but the highest is 97%. The trend shows that the sovereign debt-to-GDP ratio in most of

6862-549: The other regional organizations that sprang up in the region since the dissolution of the Soviet Union (other than the CIS). The Union State of Russia and Belarus was originally formed on 2 April 1996 under the name Commonwealth of Russia and Belarus , before being tightened further on 8 December 1999. It was initiated by the president of Belarus, Alexander Lukashenko . On paper, the Union of Russia and Belarus intends further integration, beyond

6956-514: The pillar of the Russian Orthodox Church in America . Today, most of this group has become assimilated into the local society, with ethnic traditions continuing to survive primarily around the church. Russian-born population in the US since 2010: The median household income in 2017 for Americans of Russian descent is estimated by the US census as $ 80,554. The territory that today is

7050-417: The pilots Viktor Belenko in 1976 and Aleksandr Zuyev in 1989. Following the international condemnation of the Soviet reaction to Dymshits–Kuznetsov hijacking affair in 1970, the Soviet Union temporarily loosened emigration restrictions for Jewish emigrants, which allowed nearly 250,000 people leave the country, escaping covert antisemitism. Some went to Israel, especially at the beginning, but most chose

7144-639: The politics of some post-Soviet States. Heydar Aliyev , after constructing an extensive and ongoing cult of personality , handed the Presidency of Azerbaijan to his son, Ilham Aliyev . Theories about the children of other leaders in Central Asia being groomed for succession abound. The participation of Akayev's son and daughter in the 2005 Kyrgyz parliamentary elections boosted fears of dynastic succession being used in Kyrgyzstan as well, and may have contributed to

7238-546: The post-Soviet states began to recover, with GDP switching from negative to positive growth rates. By 2007, 10 of the 15 post-Soviet states had recovered their 1991 GDP levels. According to economist Branko Milanović , in 2015 many former Soviet republics and other former communist countries still have not caught up to their 1991 levels of output, including Bosnia-Herzegovina , Georgia , Kyrgyzstan , Moldova , Serbia , Tajikistan and Ukraine . He concluded that "only 1 out of 10 people living in 'transition' countries have seen

7332-449: The present gross domestic product (GDP) (figures are given in 2023 United States dollars for the year 2023 according to the IMF ) The post-Soviet states listed according to their Human Development Index scores in 2021: Very High Human Development: High Human Development: Medium Human Development: A number of regional organizations and cooperating blocs have sprung up since

7426-548: The region. The concept has been compared to the Monroe Doctrine , central to American grand strategy in the 20th century. The AP Styleguide recommends avoiding use of the shorthand "former Soviet republic(s)" unless relevant to the story. The 15 states may be divided into four subregions . Not included in these categories are the several de facto independent states presently lacking international recognition (read below: Separatist conflicts ). The dissolution of

7520-487: The region: Since 2003, a number of (largely) peaceful " colour revolutions " have happened in some post-Soviet states after disputed elections, with popular protests bringing into power the former opposition. There is a significant Russophone population in most of the post-Soviet states, whose political position as an ethnic minority varies from country to country. While Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, in addition to Russia, have kept Russian as an official language,

7614-584: The ruling government favor NATO membership, is in the Intensified Dialogue program with NATO. Ukraine also declared joining NATO as its geopolitical goal once again in 2017 (the first time being right after the Orange Revolution and in the beginning of presidency of Viktor Yushchenko ), after the presidency of Viktor Yanukovych , during which the government officially declared non-alignment status and ceased to seek NATO membership. Other states in

7708-515: The scope of mere cooperation, including the introduction of the rouble as a common currency. The Economic Cooperation Organization was originally formed in 1985 by Turkey , Iran and Pakistan but in 1992 the organization was expanded to include Afghanistan and the six primarily Muslim former Soviet republics: Azerbaijan , Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan . The post-Soviet disputed states of Abkhazia , South Ossetia and Transnistria are all members of

7802-482: The sole legitimate successor in this capacity has been disputed by Ukraine, which has proclaimed by law that it is the successor state to both the Ukrainian SSR and the Soviet Union as a whole. The question of whether Russia or Ukraine succeeded the Soviet Union in 1991 arose due to a comprehensive dispute between the two countries over what had been collective Soviet state-owned properties. The Union Republics of

7896-768: The termination of the Eurasian Economic Community was signed in Minsk after a session of the Interstate Council of the EAEC. The Eurasian Economic Community was terminated from 1 January 2015 in connection with the launch of the Eurasian Economic Union . Russia , Belarus , Kazakhstan created a customs union that entered into force in July 2010. Ukraine , Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan indicated interest in joining at

7990-471: The territory of the former Soviet Union. These include: Transnistria , an unrecognized Russian-backed state in eastern Moldova; and Abkhazia and South Ossetia , two partially recognized Russian-backed states in northern Georgia. The United Nations (UN) has historically considered Russian-backed states in the "near abroad" to be illegitimate and instead views them as constituting Russian-occupied territories . The aftermath of Ukraine's Maidan Revolution saw

8084-634: The time. Russia has been eager for Armenia , Moldova and Ukraine to join the custom union instead of the European Union , and the Moldovan break-away state of Transnistria has supported this. In 2013, Kyrgyzstan and Armenia announced plans to seek membership, but division over the issue in Ukraine led to the Revolution of Dignity after the Ukrainian government backed out of an EU Eastern Partnership in favor of

8178-589: The two countries. Spain claimed the land but had never established a colony there. The well-armed Russian fort prevented Spain from removing the Russians living there. Without the Russians' hospitality, the Spanish colony would have been abandoned because their supplies had been lost when Spanish supply ships sank in a large storm off the South American coast. After the independence of Mexico , tensions were reduced and trade

8272-472: The union. In 2014, voters in the Moldovan autonomous region of Gagauzia rejected closer ties to the EU in favor of the union. On 1 January 2012, Russia, Kazakhstan and Belarus established the Single Economic Space which ensures the effective functioning of a single market for goods, services, capital and labour, and to establish coherent industrial, transport, energy and agricultural policies. The agreement included

8366-474: The violinist Jasha Heifetz , and the actor Yul Brynner also left Russia in this period. As with first and second wave, if the White émigré left Russia to any country, they were still considered first or second wave, even if they ended up moving to another country, including the US at a later time. There was no 'strict' year boundaries, but a guideline to have a better understanding of the time period. Thus, 1917-1922

8460-506: The war, hundreds of thousands of Jews began leaving Europe and Russia again for the US, modern-day Israel and other countries where they hoped to start a new life. A large wave of Russians immigrated in the short time period of 1917–1922, in the wake of October Revolution and Russian Civil War . This group is known collectively as the White émigrés . The US was the third largest destination for those immigrants, after France and Serbia. This wave

8554-606: Was a sports empire, and many prominent Russian sportspeople found great acclaim and rewards for their skills in the United States. Examples are Anna Kournikova , Maria Sharapova , Alexander Ovechkin , Alexandre Volchkov , and Andrei Kirilenko . Nastia Liukin was born in Moscow, but came to America with her parents as a young child, and developed as a champion gymnast in the US. On 27 September 2022, White House press secretary Karine Jean-Pierre encouraged Russian men fleeing their home country to avoid being drafted to apply for asylum in

8648-611: Was established with the new government of Mexican California . Russian America was not a profitable colony because of high transportation costs and the declining animal population. After it was purchased by the United States in 1867, most Russian settlers went back to Russia, but some resettled in southern Alaska and California. Included in these were the first miners and merchants of the California gold rush . All descendants of Russian settlers from Russian Empire, including mixed-race with partial Alaska Native blood, totally assimilated to

8742-511: Was forced to resign as a result of the Kyrgyz revolution of 2005 . Saparmurat Niyazov in Turkmenistan ruled from independence until his death in 2006, creating a personality cult around himself. His successor, Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov, has maintained a personality cult of his own that has replaced the worshipping of Niyazov. The issue of dynastical succession has been another element affecting

8836-1204: Was sentenced to 6.5 years in prison for spreading "false information" about Russia's military operations in Ukraine. Communities with high percentages of people of Russian ancestry The top US communities with the highest percentage of people claiming Russian ancestry are: US communities with the most residents born in Russia Top US communities with the most residents born in Russia are: Apart from such settlements as Brighton Beach, Brooklyn , concentrations of Russian Americans can be found in Bergen County, New Jersey ; Queens ; Staten Island ; Anchorage, Alaska ; Baltimore ; Boston ; The Bronx ; other parts of Brooklyn ; Chicago ; Cleveland ; Detroit ; Los Angeles ; Beverly Hills ; Miami ; Milwaukee ; Minneapolis ; Palm Beach ; Houston ; Dallas ; Orlando ; Philadelphia ; Pittsburgh ; Portland, Oregon ; Sacramento ; San Francisco ; Raleigh and Research Triangle Region North Carolina , and Seattle . Post-Soviet states The post-Soviet states , also referred to as

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