121-528: Fajia ( Chinese : 法家 ; pinyin : fǎjiā ), or the School of fa (laws, methods), often translated as Legalism , is a school of mainly Warring States period classical Chinese philosophy . Often interpreted in the West along realist lines, its members works contributed variously to the formation of the bureaucratic Chinese empire , and early elements of Daoism. The later Han takes Guan Zhong as forefather of
242-647: A "key element" in the "enlightened governance" of the purported former kings. Likely originating in the debates of the Neo- Mohists and school of names , although Liu Xiang (77–6BCE) lists Shen Buhai under Fajia , he still considered his doctrine to be that of Xing-Ming , or "form" and "name". Sima Qian claimed Shen Buhai and Han Fei as favoring it, but rooted in Huang-Lao Daoism. Described as holding outcomes accountable to claims , Sima Qian glosses Shen Buhai, Shang Yang and Han Fei under it; early connected with
363-569: A category of Masters Texts in the Han dynasty imperial library, becoming a major category in Han dynasty catalogues, namely the Han state's own Book of Han (111ce). Alongside Shang Yang , Shen Buhai , Shen Dao and Han Fei , six other lost texts were included under it. A combination of Shang Yang with Shen Buhai in the Han Feizi likely contributed to a Legalist interpretation of Fajia. Included by Ban Gu in
484-521: A changing with times paradigm, or one of timeliness , "dominated" the age. Pines takes Shang Yang and Han Fei's more specific view of history as an evolutionary process as contrasting. It might have influenced an end of history view expressed by the Qin dynasty , but would be a radical departure from the earlier ideas. Sinologist Hansen also once took the Dao of Shen Dao and Han Fei as aiming at what they took to be
605-443: A component—either a character or a sub-component called a radical —usually involves either a reduction in its total number of strokes , or an apparent streamlining of which strokes are chosen in what places—for example, the ⼓ ' WRAP ' radical used in the traditional character 沒 is simplified to ⼏ ' TABLE ' to form the simplified character 没 . By systematically simplifying radicals, large swaths of
726-434: A conversion table. While exercising such derivation, the following rules should be observed: Sample Derivations : The Series One List of Variant Characters reduces the number of total standard characters. First, amongst each set of variant characters sharing identical pronunciation and meaning, one character (usually the simplest in form) is elevated to the standard character set, and the rest are made obsolete. Then amongst
847-466: A court of administrators likely based on Shen Buhai and Han Fei. But, Sima Qian's chapter concludes: The Way of Laozi esteemed emptiness, reacting to changes through non-action. Profound and subtle, his words are difficult to comprehend. Zhuangzi was unfettered by the Way and virtue, setting loose his discussions; yet his essentials go back to spontaneity. Master Shen (Buhai) treated the lowly as lowly, applying
968-554: A cruel official under the Emperor Wu of Han . Even by the Records own timeline, a purported Huang-Lao might have emerged in the academies some decades after Shen Buhai's death, likely preceding a consolidated Daodejing (Laozi) or Zhuangzi. Discussing an administrative Way of government, he is as lacking in later metaphysical conceptions of the Daoist Dao . But apart from Shang Yang,
1089-538: A dividing line between them has never otherwise been entirely clear, and the other have been described them in syncretic, Daoistic terms. Termed "responsiveness through accommodation" by a commentary to the Shiji , Shen Buhai has ideas very similar to that of Non-action in the Guanzi , which was classed as Daoist long before it was classed as 'Legalist'. With Daosim poorly definable for the period, some western Sinologist modernly use
1210-407: A few revised forms, and was implemented for official use by China's State Council on 5 June 2013. In Chinese, simplified characters are referred to by their official name 简化字 ; jiǎnhuàzì , or colloquially as 简体字 ; jiǎntǐzì . The latter term refers broadly to all character variants featuring simplifications of character form or structure, a practice which has always been present as
1331-415: A historical cause of changing conditions", namely population growth, acknowledging that an underpopulated society only need moral ties. The Guanzi text sees punishment as unnecessary in ancient times with an abundance of resources, making it a question of poverty rather than human nature. Human nature is a Confucian issue. Graham otherwise considers the customs current of the time as having no significance to
SECTION 10
#17328763733691452-586: A main example of Zhuangzi influence in the Han, a Laozi-Zhuangi Daoism may otherwise be more accurate for the third century A.D, Although those listed under the fa-school arguably were focused on fa standards and methods, the Han Feizi is also focused on Daoistic concepts wu wei and Dao . While some may have been earlier than the Daodejing (Laozi), it would almost go without saying that the Han Feizi would be influenced by it. But those who included commentaries on it in
1573-445: A major influence by the Han dynasty , grand chancellor Shen Buhai likely played a key role in the development of the merit system , and could be seen as its founder. With formative influence for the Qin and Chinese law, Shang Yang reformed the peripheral Qin state into a strongly centralized, powerful kingdom, ultimately unifying China in 221 BCE. Largely responsible for their synthesis as
1694-422: A more " realist " anti-Confucian than Daoist interpretation of the Han Feizi, or for impartial laws and technique as purportedly bolstering the authority of a wu wei semi-inactive ruler. An interpretation of the Daodejing (Laozi) as simply cynically political would be flawed. Still, together with qigong , it can be viewed as a manual for politics and military strategy. In contrast to it's modern representation,
1815-547: A negative view of fa laws, not much favoring "state activism in general". Sima Qian would seem to favor limitation of the bureaucracy, but argues from a standpoint that needs have changed with the times. One chapter of the Han Feizi criticizes "the doctrine of calmness and stillness", another "abstruse and subtle language". Despite appropriative usages, the Daoistic early Han Huainanzi does not endorse Shen Buhai, glossing him as penal alongside Shang Yang and Han Fei. Nonetheless, before
1936-599: A newly coined phono-semantic compound : Removing radicals Only retaining single radicals Replacing with ancient forms or variants : Adopting ancient vulgar variants : Readopting abandoned phonetic-loan characters : Copying and modifying another traditional character : Based on 132 characters and 14 components listed in Chart 2 of the Complete List , the 1,753 derived characters found in Chart 3 can be created by systematically simplifying components using Chart 2 as
2057-568: A part of the Chinese writing system. The official name tends to refer to the specific, systematic set published by the Chinese government, which includes not only simplifications of individual characters, but also a substantial reduction in the total number of characters through the merger of formerly distinct forms. According to Chinese palaeographer Qiu Xigui , the broadest trend in the evolution of Chinese characters over their history has been simplification, both in graphical shape ( 字形 ; zìxíng ),
2178-488: A particular quotation from the Han Feizi as example: An enlightened ruler employs fa (standards) to pick his men; he does not select them himself. He employs fa to weigh their merit; he does not fathom it himself. Thus ability cannot be obscured nor failure prettified. If those who are [falsely] glorified cannot advance, and likewise those who are maligned cannot be set back, then there will be clear distinctions between lord and subject, and order will be easily [attained]. Thus
2299-571: A predominantly penal legal reception by Han Fei and the Han dynasty, the early work of Sinologist Herrlee G. Creel accepted Shang Yang as Legalist, arguing Shen Buhai to be more administrative. But Shang Yang's program was broader than law; Han Fei elementalizes him under it. Penal law aside, Benjamin I. Schwartz argued Shang Yang's primary program to be agriculture and war. Per Michael Loewe early ministerial recruitment occurred amidst Warring States period mobilization . Developing towards such offices as diplomats, early mobilization and recruitment
2420-513: A school, the Han Feizi also contains some of the earliest commentaries on the Daodejing . Sun Tzu 's Art of War recommends Han Fei's concepts of power, technique, inaction, and impartiality, punishment and reward. One of Sima Tan 's (165–110 BCE) six schools of thought discussing approaches to governance, Fajia ("fa family") emphasizes administrative protocols that ignore kinship and social status, treating everyone equally and thereby elevating
2541-428: A self-conscious current, it would have been more of a tendency than a unified doctrine, with early "Huang-Lao" Han dynasty administrators named by Sima Qian, like Cao Shen , taking a more "hands off" approach after the fall of the Qin dynasty. More political than a typical reading of the Daodejing (Laozi), rather than "using" the work for politics, 'Han Fei' may be reading from an older, more political version. With
SECTION 20
#17328763733692662-614: A well known philosopher in his time from the Jixia Academy , the Mohists and Shen Dao are placed by the Outer Zhuangzi as preceding Zhuang Zhou and Laozi . Although likely not entirely accurate chronologically, Shen Dao does arguably bare resemblance to the earlier, Inner Zhuangzi. Early taking him as the Beginning of Daoist Theory , or Mature Daoism, Hansen still discusses him as part of
2783-440: Is actually more complex than eliminated ones. An example is the character 搾 which is eliminated in favor of the variant form 榨 . The 扌 'HAND' with three strokes on the left of the eliminated 搾 is now seen as more complex, appearing as the ⽊ 'TREE' radical 木 , with four strokes, in the chosen variant 榨 . Not all characters standardised in the simplified set consist of fewer strokes. For instance,
2904-467: Is calm and unmoving: And you can maintain the One and discard the myriad disturbances. You will see profit and not be enticed by it, You will see harm and not be frightened by it. Relaxed and unwound, yet acutely sensitive, In solitude you delight in your own person. This is called "revolving the vital breath": Your thoughts and deeds seem heavenly. (24, tr. Roth 1999:92) Several chapters of
3025-454: Is derived. Merging homophonous characters: Adapting cursive shapes ( 草書楷化 ): Replacing a component with a simple arbitrary symbol (such as 又 and 乂 ): Omitting entire components : Omitting components, then applying further alterations : Structural changes that preserve the basic shape Replacing the phonetic component of phono-semantic compounds : Replacing an uncommon phonetic component : Replacing entirely with
3146-405: Is named for and traditionally attributed to the 7th century BCE philosopher and statesman Guan Zhong , who served as Prime Minister to Duke Huan of Qi . It was, however, written by several anonymous authors. The precise date of creation remains subject to historical debate. It contains a wide variety of material from many different authors over several successive centuries, largely associated with
3267-432: Is not accidental, and is at least indirectly intended to benefit the people, insomuch as the state is benefited by way of order. It can (or has, by a law expert rather than Sinologist ) be compared to a legislative rule of law inasmuch as it develops beyond purposes serving those of simply the ruler, operating separately from him once established. Han Fei says: "The enlightened ruler governs his officials; he does not govern
3388-424: Is not all that clear. Covering a wide variety of subjects, ranging from detailed economic discussions to overviews of local soil topography, many chapters include Confucian values as a necessity for the state, expressing a blend of what may be considered Legalistic, Confucian, and Daoistic philosophy that has been termed " Huang-Lao ". The first reference to the collection appears in the more Daostic Huainanzi , of
3509-809: Is now discouraged. A State Language Commission official cited "oversimplification" as the reason for restoring some characters. The language authority declared an open comment period until 31 August 2009, for feedback from the public. In 2013, the List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters was published as a revision of the 1988 lists; it included a total of 8105 characters. It included 45 newly recognized standard characters that were previously considered variant forms, as well as official approval of 226 characters that had been simplified by analogy and had seen wide use but were not explicitly given in previous lists or documents. Singapore underwent three successive rounds of character simplification , eventually arriving at
3630-474: Is one of the longest early Chinese philosophical texts. It covers broad subject matter, notably including price regulation of commodities via the concept of "light and heavy" (轻重). Despite its later dating, it is arguably one of the most representative texts of the concepts of political economy that developed during the Spring and Autumn period . Ming dynasty agricultural scientist Xu Guangqi still frequently cited
3751-563: Is referred to as the " big seal script ". The traditional narrative, as also attested in the Shuowen Jiezi dictionary ( c. 100 AD ), is that the Qin small seal script that would later be imposed across China was originally derived from the Zhou big seal script with few modifications. However, the body of epigraphic evidence comparing the character forms used by scribes gives no indication of any real consolidation in character forms prior to
Legalism (Chinese philosophy) - Misplaced Pages Continue
3872-513: Is spoken in Chapter 40 of the Han Feizi and incorporated into The Art of War . He only uses the term twice in his fragments. Before Sima Tan , doctrines were only identified by texts named after Masters (Zi), with Daojia narrowed down to basic examples of Laozi and Zhuangzi in the Han dynasty . Not forming large scale, organized schools in the sense of the Mohists and Confucians , their traditions formed loose networks of master and disciple in
3993-439: Is still built into the Han Feizi's Xing-ming administrative method. Its current is opposed with later, or otherwise more spiritual forms of Daoism as a practical state philosophy, not accepting a 'permanent way of statecraft', and applying the practice of wu wei or non-action more to the ruler than anyone else. Although there is no evidence that any follower of Zhuangzi called himself Huang-Lao , it contains three stories about
4114-485: Is to misunderstand the facts of the universe. In contrast to Xun Kuang as the classically purported teacher of Han Fei and Li Si, Han Fei does not believe that a tendency to disorder demonstrates that people are evil or unruly. In what A.C. Graham took to be a "highly literary fiction", as Pines recalls, the Book of Lord Shang's chapter 1, “Revising the laws,” opens with a debate held by Duke Xiao of Qin , seeking to "consider
4235-478: Is traditionally included under it. The term "Huang-Lao" might be retrospective, and the Han Feizi's Daodejing commentaries chapters may be late additions. But the latter would seem to accurately describe the syncretism that became dominant by the Qin dynasty . As a view still espoused by Sinologist Hansen of the Stanford Encyclopedia of Daoism, a "Legalism" and Huang-Lao "Yellow Emperor Daoism" dominant by
4356-540: Is used instead of 叠 in regions using traditional characters. The Chinese government stated that it wished to keep Chinese orthography stable. The Chart of Generally Utilized Characters of Modern Chinese was published in 1988 and included 7000 simplified and unsimplified characters. Of these, half were also included in the revised List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese , which specified 2500 common characters and 1000 less common characters. In 2009,
4477-587: The Book of Han 's Journal of Literature Chapter 30, which lists texts like Shen Buhai , Shen Dao and Han Feizi as 'Legalist'. The Guanzi was not listed as ' Legalist ' until the Book of Sui 's Journal of Writings. Guo Moruo proposed that the chapters were written by school of names thinkers, but evidence for this is lacking. Most chapters of the text deal with government and the art of rulership. Although prominent in Taiwan , translator W. Allyn Rickett dissented from
4598-426: The Guanzi address what modern language would call economic and monetary issues. It is a core text on the matter of price stabilization from the ancient Chinese perspective. The economic policies discussed focus on insulating peasants from fluctuations in the context of then-recently developed market forces and to increase commercialization while benefitting the state. “[T]his approach to economic policy suggested that
4719-603: The Guanzi and the Xunzi . Along with the Daoistic Neiye , the Guanzi contains chapters like "Straight Thinking" and "Pure Heart" (chuan 13, essays 36-38; "Xin Shu" parts one and two, and "Pai Xin"), which K. C. Hsiao took as "clarifications of Huang-Lao ("Yellow Emperor Daoist") tenets." Although Liu Xin viewed the work as "Legalist" ( Fajia ), the Guanzi was still listed as Daoist in
4840-424: The Qin state to power. But central China was likely not familiar with him or the Qin state's Book of Lord Shang 's until just before imperial unification, and similar ideas on power only develop late in the work. The late Xun Kuang was familiar with Shen Buhai , Shen Dao , and the Qin, but still seems unaware of Shang Yang. With evidence of direct influence lacking, Shen Buhai can speculatively be compared with
4961-465: The Shangjunshu 's so-called "Attention to law" advocates "strict reliance on law" (fa) mainly as "norms of promotion and demotion" to judge officials and thwart ministerial cliques, but not yet apparently having absorbed more complex methods of selection and appointment, still fell back on agriculture and war as the standard for promotion. With the Book of Lord Shang emphasizing fa standards as law, and
Legalism (Chinese philosophy) - Misplaced Pages Continue
5082-500: The Stanford Encyclopedia of Daoism's theoretical model, under "Pre-Laozi Daoist Theory". For the Han Feizi too, Zhuangzi influences only exists as traces, but one noteable example from chapter 40 incorporates a parable of a shield and spear salesman, which can also be found in a lost chapter from the Zhuangzi, quoted in the Tang dynasty . Although the Zhuangzi probably had a different argument,
5203-594: The Stratagems of the Warring States , although not the primary focus of his administrative treatise, Shen Buhai was also a military reformer, at least for defense, and is said to have maintained the security of his state. Although Xun Kuang is probably accurate in considering Shen Dao to be focused on fa administrative standards, as introduced by Feng Youlan he would most remembered in early scholarship for his secondary subject of shi or "situational authority", of which he
5324-623: The Warring States period . A.C. Graham takes the Zhuangzi as preferring a private life, while the Daodejing (Laozi) contains an art of rule. Xun Kuang does not perceive them as belonging to one school in his time, and lists their texts separately. Shen Dao and Laozi are adopted into the same history of thought in the Outer Zhuangzi. Jia Yi uses them together in poetry, but with the Huainanzi
5445-477: The Warring States period . The later Han historians simply classify the text as Zajia ("Syncretist") rather than Daojia or Fajia . With an example from the chapter "Ren shu": Simplified Chinese characters Simplified Chinese characters are one of two standardized character sets widely used to write the Chinese language , with the other being traditional characters . Their mass standardization during
5566-465: The Waseda University edition divides it in half. Correlating ministerial proposals and achievements as contracts, Xing-Ming is amongst be the work's most philosophically sophisticated arguments. Although not a required component, Xing-Ming can also be considered its most detailed application of reward and punishment in connection with Chapter 7's The Two Handles. The work's choice to include law
5687-526: The Yellow Emperor , one identifying him as a Master. But early "Daoists" were likely not aware of their whole field. With the Mawangdui silk texts lacking Zhuangzi influences, the main evidence of Zhuangzi influence in the Han dynasty is the Huainanzi . Professor Tao Jiang more simply refers to Han Fei's Laozi influences as Laoist, only theorizing "Zhuangist"-type influences. He theorizes these as wariness by
5808-505: The biographies of Shen Buhai and Han Fei alongside Laozi and Zhuangzi , along with founding Han figures, Sima Qian earlier claimed Han Fei , Shen Buhai and Shen Dao as students of his same Huang-Lao philosophy, or " Yellow Emperor and Laozi Daoism ", which is traditionally included under Daojia. Shang Yang is simply given his own chapter, while Shen Dao is listed under the Jixia Academy . Sima Tan appears to have described Daojia with "Huang-Lao" content in mind, incorporating
5929-413: The "Dot" stroke : The traditional components ⺥ and 爫 become ⺈ : The traditional component 奐 becomes 奂 : Guanzi (text) The Guanzi ( Chinese : 管子 ) is an anonymously written, foundational Chinese political and philosophical text. Compiled in the early Han dynasty , earlier versions potentially date back to the late Warring states period . At over 135,000 characters, it
6050-411: The "external appearances of individual graphs", and in graphical form ( 字体 ; 字體 ; zìtǐ ), "overall changes in the distinguishing features of graphic[al] shape and calligraphic style, [...] in most cases refer[ring] to rather obvious and rather substantial changes". The initiatives following the founding of the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) to universalize the use of their small seal script across
6171-468: The '"actual" course of history'. Stressing timeliness, Sima Tan says: "It (the dao or way) shifts with the times and changes in response to things", a view earlier found in Han Fei and Xun Kuang . Hong Kong professor Xiaogan Liu takes the Zhuangzi and Laozi ( Tao te Ching ) as more focused on "according with nature" than timeliness; followers of " Huang-Lao " can be theorized as defining the former according to
SECTION 50
#17328763733696292-476: The 1986 General List of Simplified Chinese Characters , hereafter the General List . All characters simplified this way are enumerated in Chart 1 and Chart 2 in the 1986 Complete List . Characters in both charts are structurally simplified based on similar set of principles. They are separated into two charts to clearly mark those in Chart 2 as 'usable as simplified character components', based on which Chart 3
6413-508: The 1986 mainland China revisions. Unlike in mainland China, Singapore parents have the option of registering their children's names in traditional characters. Malaysia also promulgated a set of simplified characters in 1981, though completely identical to the mainland Chinese set. They are used in Chinese-language schools. All characters simplified this way are enumerated in Charts 1 and 2 of
6534-502: The 20th century was part of an initiative by the People's Republic of China (PRC) to promote literacy, and their use in ordinary circumstances on the mainland has been encouraged by the Chinese government since the 1950s. They are the official forms used in mainland China and Singapore , while traditional characters are officially used in Hong Kong , Macau , and Taiwan . Simplification of
6655-448: The 4th century BCE Jixia Academy in the Qi capital of Linzi . But the Han dynasty scholar Liu Xiang did not edit the received Guanzi text until circa 26 BCE. The present text is "arguably a much later expression of ideas in the direction of the Han Feizi ". None of its existing chapters would appear to predate the first century BCE, so that much of it would have been compiled after
6776-516: The Book of Lord Shang would seem more that of seeking a rich, total state, with a dominating focus on agriculture and a powerful army, all geared for conquest. Acknowledging their bureaucratic contributions, Pine's work in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy prefaces a Shang Yang-Han Fei more along these lines. Shang Yang's institutional reforms can be considered unprecedented, and his economic and political reforms were "unqestionably" more important than his own personal military achievements. But he
6897-470: The Chinese government published a major revision to the list which included a total of 8300 characters. No new simplifications were introduced. In addition, slight modifications to the orthography of 44 characters to fit traditional calligraphic rules were initially proposed, but were not implemented due to negative public response. Also, the practice of unrestricted simplification of rare and archaic characters by analogy using simplified radicals or components
7018-545: The Fajia. Its more Legalistic figures include ministers Li Kui and Shang Yang , and more Daoistic figures Shen Buhai and philosopher Shen Dao , with the late Han Feizi drawing on both. Later centuries took Xun Kuang as a teacher of Han Fei and Li Si . Succeeding emperors and reformers often followed the templates set by Han Fei, Shen Buhai and Shang Yang, but the Qin to Tang were more characterized by their traditions. Though Chinese administration had no single origin, with
7139-492: The Guanzi holds that fa models control affairs, models find their origins in the exercise of power, and the exercise of power finds its origins in Dao . The early work of Feng Youlan took the statesmen as fully understanding that needs change with the times and material circumstances; admitting that people may have been more virtuous anciently, Han Fei believes that new problems require new solutions. Earlier thought to be rare, in fact,
7260-428: The Han Feizi has Daoistic conceptions of objective viewpoints ("mystical states"), if his sources had them, he lacks a conclusive belief in universal moralities or natural laws, sharing with Shang Yang and Shen Dao a view of man as self-interested. Advocating against manipulation of the mechanisms of government, despite an advocacy of passive mindfulness, noninterference, and quiescence, the ability to prescribe and command
7381-407: The Han Feizi likely contains more Zhuangzi than can be known. There was a man of Chu who sold shields and spears. He would hold them aloft saying, “My shields are so tough nothing can pierce them.” He would also hold up his spears and say, “My spears are so sharp, there is nothing they can't pierce.” Someone asked him, “What happens if I stab one of your shields with one of your spears ?" and he
SECTION 60
#17328763733697502-412: The Han Feizi. However, the Han Feizi is the first reference for both the Guanzi and the Book of Lord Shang . With Han Fei reputedly dying in 233 BC, a "proto-Guanzi" theoretically "took shape" in earlier form around 250 BCE, in the late Warring States period . Based on the Han Feizi, this earlier Guanzi might have already come into broad circulation at that time, along with the Book of Lord Shang. If
7623-767: The Han dynasty, but can still be seen in a fifth century work quoting Liu Xiang as a figure who advocated administrative technique, supervision, and accountability to abolish the punishment of ministers. Though often used together, the three were still individually influential in the Han dynasty . While the term Legalism has still seen some conventional usage in recent years, such as in Adventures in Chinese Realism , apart from its anachronism academia has avoided it for reasons which date back to Sinologist Herrlee G. Creel 's 1961 Legalists or Administrators? As Han Fei presents, while Shang Yang most commonly uses fa (standards) in
7744-611: The Hanshu, Liu Xin adds additional strengths and weaknesses to the schools categories. Fajia are said to "make reward dependable and punishment inescapable, as a support to control by ceremony." Fajia are criticized as rejecting teaching and benevolence, concern for others, and aiming to perfect government relying only on punishment and law, inflicting corporal punishment even on closest kin, and demeaning mercy and generosity. Although Xun Kuang criticized Shen Dao as "obsessed with fa", and Sima Qian considered Shang Yang successful in "turning
7865-653: The Laozi of the early Mawangdui Silk Texts, and two of the three earlier Guodian Chu Slips , place political commentaries, or "ruling the state", first. The Han Feizi's political contemporaries likely read them in the same order. Arguably lacking in metaphysics, associated content instead possesses mythologies. Nonetheless, in contrast to all prior Ways, the Daodejing emphasizes quietude and lack as wu wei . A central concept of Daoism , together especially with their early Laozi, Shen Buhai, Han Fei, and so-called Huang-Lao Daoism emphasize
7986-486: The Mawangdui found from a member of the political class, Hansen argued these version should not be simply assumed as 'originals', interpreting Huang-Lao as an early, politically partisan variety of what would later, if not entirely accurately be termed Daoism. If the authors of the Han Feizi were not all sincere in their Laoist beliefs, the work would still have served as a suitable critique of Confucianism and Mohism, i.e. for
8107-608: The Monarch of manipulation, retreating into wu wei isolation rather than Confucian-style moral education and cultivation. Hermits in the Zhuangzi retreat into isolation to avoid the chaos of the age. However, Benjamin I. Schwartz describes Shen Dao in terms of equanimity and a spirit of wu wei held in common with Zhuang Zhou and his own fellow academicians, with early Daoistic ideas found among later eclectics like Han Fei and Xun Kuang . A representative figure of Han Fei's Chapter 40 on Shi 'situational authority' or Power, and likely
8228-516: The Qin dynasty. But a souring association of them with the Qin only developed over the course of the Han dynasty. Jia Yi criticized Shang Yang In the reign of Emperor Wen , but along with propriety and righteousness, himself advocates fa laws (models), ranks and the execution of usurpers. Sima Qian associated their several figures with the Qin dynasty , arguing for Daoism in the reign of Emperor Wu . Dong Zhongshu glosses over them, himself advocating law, punishment and meritocratic appointment. By
8349-468: The Qin people into law-abiding subjects" (Pines), the term Fajia or "fa family" itself likely only meant "law abiding families" in Mencius 's time. No one had used it as an ideological term for himself or his opponent. Its rare term might have meant something like "methods expert in economic affairs" in the context of the Guanzi before Tan. Early a remote backwater to the west, Shang Yang 's reforms propelled
8470-533: The Qin to early Han, would theoretically be borne out by the Huang-lao typified Mawangdui silk texts . Although It remains a question how much of it might have been extant in Shen Buhai's time, the Mawangdui and Guanzi regard fa administrative standards as generated by the Dao , theoretically placing it and some of the 'Fajia' within a "loosely Daoist" context; The Mawagndui texts can be argued to have been written in
8591-583: The changes in the affairs of the age, inquire into the basis for correcting standards, and seek the Way to employ the people." Gongsun attempts to persuade the Duke to change with the times, with the Shangjunshu citing him as saying: "Orderly generations did not [follow] a single way; to benefit the state, one need not imitate antiquity." Graham compares Han Fei in particular with the Malthusians , as "unique in seeking
8712-428: The character set are altered. Some simplifications were based on popular cursive forms that embody graphic or phonetic simplifications of the traditional forms. In addition, variant characters with identical pronunciation and meaning were reduced to a single standardized character, usually the simplest among all variants in form. Finally, many characters were left untouched by simplification and are thus identical between
8833-407: The chosen variants, those that appear in the "Complete List of Simplified Characters" are also simplified in character structure accordingly. Some examples follow: Sample reduction of equivalent variants : Ancient variants with simple structure are preferred : Simpler vulgar forms are also chosen : The chosen variant was already simplified in Chart 1 : In some instances, the chosen variant
8954-515: The context of the late Hann state that the work claims needs more law, inheriting Shang Yang's current at the end Warring States period , the Han Feizi aspires to a state with law, wealth and a powerful military at the end of the Warring States period . That the Han Feizi is not legislative suggests that component was still more theoretical and advocative. With one core originating in Shen Buhai, Han Fei's chapter 5 on Xing-Ming administration does include specific practical recommendations, such that
9075-465: The country's writing system as a serious impediment to its modernization. In 1916, a multi-part English-language article entitled "The Problem of the Chinese Language" co-authored by the Chinese linguist Yuen Ren Chao (1892–1982) and poet Hu Shih (1891–1962) has been identified as a turning point in the history of the Chinese script—as it was one of the first clear calls for China to move away from
9196-448: The early Han dynasty , and Han bibliographies listed the text as Daoist. Yin-yang and five phase ideas play a more important role in later chapters. Its Neiye ("Inner Enterprise/Training") has a potential influence for the Zhuangzi , and has the oldest recorded descriptions of Daoist meditation techniques. When you enlarge your mind and let go of it, When you relax your [ qi 氣] vital breath and expand it, When your body
9317-472: The early 20th century. In 1909, the educator and linguist Lufei Kui formally proposed the use of simplified characters in education for the first time. Over the following years—marked by the 1911 Xinhai Revolution that toppled the Qing dynasty , followed by growing social and political discontent that further erupted into the 1919 May Fourth Movement —many anti-imperialist intellectuals throughout China began to see
9438-475: The early Han, evidentially, its basic idea intersect with Qin by the time late pre-imperial Lushi Chunqiu , from around 240 b.c., containing a "Daoist-Legalist" fusion comparable to Shen Buhai, Shen Dao, Han Fei, Guanzi and the Mawangdui Huangdi sijing . Typically termed "Daoist" for the early Han , the work demonstrates that a philosophy promoting the wu wei reduced activity of the ruler goes back to
9559-631: The early Han, when their political positions might have been more appealing, but Michael Loewe still placed its Jingfa text before Qin unification, and most scholars still took the others as having been at least Pre-han. The Yellow Emperor is a major figure in one of its texts. Amongst other strains of thought, the more metaphysical, but still politically oriented Boshu text more broadly includes contents bearing resemblance to Shen Buhai, Shen Dao and Han Fei, developing arguments more comparable to natural law than an old interpretation of legal positivism for Shang Yang and Han Fei. If Huang-Lao did describe
9680-517: The fact that worthiness and the power of position are incompatible should be abundantly clear. (Sahleen trans., in Ivanhoe & Van Norden eds. 2001, 314) Though espousing Laozi, Hansen theorized Han Fei's conception of the Dao to be based on that of Shen Dao 's situational authority, with the Guanzi as similarly relevant. Shendao develops "the concept of the natural dao", or "actual course of events." "Abandoning knowledge" or conventional guidance, whatever
9801-519: The feudal system, unifying the empire, law, language, thought and belief, presenting a memorial to the throne in which he condemns all those who "refused to study the present and believed only in the ancients on whose authority they dared to criticize". With a quotation from Xun Kuang: You glorify Nature and meditate on her: Why not domesticate and regulate her? You follow Nature and sing her praise: Why not control her course and use it? ... Therefore, I say: To neglect man's effort and speculate about Nature,
9922-616: The first official list of simplified forms was published, consisting of 324 characters collated by Peking University professor Qian Xuantong . However, fierce opposition within the KMT resulted in the list being rescinded in 1936. Work throughout the 1950s resulted in the 1956 promulgation of the Chinese Character Simplification Scheme , a draft of 515 simplified characters and 54 simplified components, whose simplifications would be present in most compound characters. Over
10043-463: The first round—but was massively unpopular and never saw consistent use. The second round of simplifications was ultimately retracted officially in 1986, well after they had largely ceased to be used due to their unpopularity and the confusion they caused. In August 2009, China began collecting public comments for a revised list of simplified characters; the resulting List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters lists 8,105 characters, including
10164-465: The following decade, the Script Reform Committee deliberated on characters in the 1956 scheme, collecting public input regarding the recognizability of variants, and often approving forms in small batches. Parallel to simplification, there were also initiatives aimed at eliminating the use of characters entirely and replacing them with pinyin as an official Chinese alphabet, but this possibility
10285-503: The founding of the Qin. The Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) that inherited the Qin administration coincided with the perfection of clerical script through the process of libian . Eastward spread of Western learning Though most closely associated with the People's Republic, the idea of a mass simplification of character forms first gained traction in China during
10406-466: The increased usage of 朙 was followed by proliferation of a third variant: 眀 , with 目 'eye' on the left—likely derived as a contraction of 朙 . Ultimately, 明 became the character's standard form. The Book of Han (111 AD) describes an earlier attempt made by King Xuan of Zhou ( d. 782 BC ) to unify character forms across the states of ancient China , with his chief chronicler having "[written] fifteen chapters describing" what
10527-479: The indolence and subservience of the Second Emperor . Although earlier Sinologists might treat them as belonging to the same "Legalism" category, Sima Qian, for his part, does not treat Han Fei the same as Li Si; framing the two as opponents, Han Fei is treated as a 'tragic figure'. Han texts Shiji , Gongyang Zhuan , Yan tie lun , and Huainanzi instead depict Confucius as a Legalist, probably partly alluding to
10648-499: The later Han the figures were not yet divided into two different schools. With a royal practice of wu wei reduced activity prominent in the early Han, a key to Sima Qian's narrative would seem to be an identification of Han Fei with what he termed "Huang-Lao". Sima Qian blames Li Si as purportedly combining Shen Buhai and Han Fei's doctrine, identified as Technique, with Shang Yang's doctrine of law, depicting Li Si as inflicting heavy taxes and abusing Shen Buha's doctrine to encourage
10769-647: The later Han, scholars less knowledgeable than Liu Xiang were not always aware that Shen Buhai and Shang Yang were different, losing the ability to interpret him. Potentially influential for the founding of the Imperial Examination , according to Han Fei and the Huainanzi , Shen Buhai had disorganized law in the newly formed Hann state . No Han or earlier text individually connects him with penal law, but only with control of bureaucracy, and by contrast appears to have opposed penal punishment. His administrative ideas would be relevant for penal records and practice by
10890-464: The latter. Taking Shang Yang as inheriting from Li Kui and Wu Qi , despite anti-Confucianism in the Shangjunshu , professor Ch'ien Mu still considered that that "People say merely that Legalist origins are in Dao and De (power/virtue) [i.e., Daoist principles], apparently not aware that their origins in fact are in Confucianism. Their observance of law and sense of public justice are wholly in
11011-459: The left, with the 月 'Moon' component on the right. Li Si ( d. 208 BC ), the Chancellor of Qin, attempted to universalize the Qin small seal script across China following the wars that had politically unified the country for the first time. Li prescribed the 朙 form of the word for 'bright', but some scribes ignored this and continued to write the character as 明 . However,
11132-402: The most prominent Chinese authors of the 20th century, stated that "if Chinese characters are not destroyed, then China will die" ( 漢字不滅，中國必亡 ). During the 1930s and 1940s, discussions regarding simplification took place within the ruling Kuomintang (KMT) party. Many members of the Chinese intelligentsia maintained that simplification would increase literacy rates throughout the country. In 1935,
11253-806: The older neighboring Li Kui , or the even older Confucian Zichan as all seeking more meritocratic government. As chancellors of neighboring states, Shang Yang’s and Shen Buhai’s doctrines would have intersected by the Qin dynasty, and the late Han Feizi is Shang Yang's first reference outside the Book of Lord Shang . The Han Feizi , associated with Han Fei , would suggest that the laws and methods of Shang Yang and Guan Zhong , with their associated works, may have circulated at that late time. Presenting their ideas together, Chapter 43 likely led to an association of Shang Yang and Shen Buhai. Taking Shang Yang as representative, Han Fei considered fa (standards) necessary, as including law, decrees, reward and punishment, as well as fa administrative standards as controlled by
11374-547: The people's disposition." Pines takes Shang Yang's primary doctrine to be that of connecting people's inborn nature or dispositions (xing 性) with names (ming 名). The work recommends enacting laws that allow people to "pursue the desire for a name", namely fame and high social status, or just wealth if acceptable. Ensuring that these "names" are connected with actual benefits, it was hoped that if people are able to pursue these, they will be less likely to commit crimes, and more likely to engage in hard work or fight in wars. A figure in
11495-442: The people." The ruler cannot jointly govern the people in a large state. Nor can his direct subordinates themselves do it. The ruler wields methods to control officials. The Book of Lord Shang itself addresses statutes mainly from an administrative standpoint, and addresses many administrative questions, including an agricultural mobilization, collective responsibility, and statist meritocracy. Turning towards management, Chapter 25 of
11616-514: The political usages and advantages of wu wei reduced activity as a method of control for survival, social stability, long life, and rule, refraining from action in-order to take advantage of favorable developments in affairs. The Han Feizi's late Daodejing commentaries are comparable with the Daoism of the Guanzi Neiye , but otherwise utilizes the Laozi more as a theme for methods of rule. Although
11737-487: The principle of “names and substance.” Master Han (Fei) drew on ink line, penetrated the nature of matters, and was clear about right and wrong, but was extremely cruel and had little compassion. All these originated in the Way and its virtue (power, de), but Laozi was the most profound of them. Shiji 63: 2156 Dividing Shang Yang from the others categorically, Sima Qian probably intends that they not be combined. The Daodejing (Laozi), Zhuangzi and Sima Qian generally hold
11858-430: The public and quickly fell out of official use. It was ultimately formally rescinded in 1986. The second-round simplifications were unpopular in large part because most of the forms were completely new, in contrast to the familiar variants comprising the majority of the first round. With the rescission of the second round, work toward further character simplification largely came to an end. In 1986, authorities retracted
11979-465: The recently conquered parts of the empire is generally seen as being the first real attempt at script reform in Chinese history. Before the 20th century, variation in character shape on the part of scribes, which would continue with the later invention of woodblock printing , was ubiquitous. For example, prior to the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) the character meaning 'bright' was written as either 明 or 朙 —with either 日 'Sun' or 囧 'window' on
12100-529: The ruler above humanity. Sima Tan praises Fajia for “honoring rulers and derogating subjects, and clearly distinguishing offices so that no one can overstep [his responsibilities]." He criticizes Fajia as strict with little kindness, as a one-time policy that could not be constantly applied. Sima Tan clearly understood fa standards in the sense of both law, in the case of Shang Yang , and administrative method, like Shen Buhai . Imperial Archivists Liu Xiang (77–6BCE) and Liu Xin (c.46bce–23ce) would use Fajia as
12221-519: The ruler can only use fa. With Shang Yang said to be executed after the death of Duke Xiao of Qin . Although not abandoning his reforms, the Qin would abandon his harsh punishments, and ultimately his dominating focus on agriculture, and the Book of Lord Shang would seek to innovate broader means of "empowering the state", including standards (fa) for promotion. It contains some pre-imperial ideas about what an order based on law and bureaucracy might look like once established. Often presenting it's ideas in
12342-569: The ruler, representative of his own state's Shen Buhai. The latter he terms (shu) administrative Method or Technique, defined as examining the abilities of ministers, appointing candidates in accordance with their capabilities, and holding ministerial achievements (xing "forms") accountable to their proposals (ming "names"). Following the Han Feizi , Shang Yang, Shen Buhai and Han Fei were often identified under it's administrative practice of Xing-Ming ("form and name"), explained under Shu technique. Their combined figures might have had an influenced on
12463-476: The same set of simplified characters as mainland China. The first round was promulgated by the Ministry of Education in 1969, consisting of 498 simplified characters derived from 502 traditional characters. A second round of 2287 simplified characters was promulgated in 1974. The second set contained 49 differences from the mainland China system; these were removed in the final round in 1976. In 1993, Singapore adopted
12584-573: The school of names and Shen Buhai as Method , the term sometimes refers to a combination of Shang Yang and Han Fei by the Han . Despite it's contributions, the meaning of the term would ultimately be confused and lost in conflation with punishment (Xing 刑) by the time of the Western Qin , sometimes as early as the third century's Eastern Han . Sima Qian asserts the First Emperor as proclaiming its practice. With Shen Buhai (and Han Fei still) extent in
12705-461: The second round completely, though they had been largely fallen out of use within a year of their initial introduction. That year, the authorities also promulgated a final version of the General List of Simplified Chinese Characters . It was identical to the 1964 list save for 6 changes—including the restoration of 3 characters that had been simplified in the first round: 叠 , 覆 , 像 ; the form 疊
12826-429: The sense of law, Shen Buhai had fa (standards) in the administration, which Creel translated as method . Han Fei and Shen Dao make some use of fa (standards) as akin to law, and some use of reward and punishment, but often use fa standards similarly to Shen Buhai: as an administrative technique. Shen Buhai uses fa (standards) to compare official's duties and performances, and Han Fei often emphasizes fa in this sense. With
12947-409: The situation brings is the Dao (way), guiding human affairs, conventions, prescriptions and knowledge. Han Fei and Shen Dao's Dao might guide might good or evil kings, but emphasizing institutionalism (fa), the Han Feizi does not endorse the evil king, whose governance may be more complicated. If some authors of the Han Feizi were familiar with the proto- Guanzi , as its references would at least suggest,
13068-443: The spirit of Confucius' rectification of names and return to propriety, but transformed in accordance with the conditions of the age." In the ancient society, punishment by law would typically only apply to the people, while the nobles are only punished by ritual. But needs change with the times. Hu Shih took Xun Kuang , Han Fei and Li Si as "champions of the idea of progress through conscious human effort", with Li Si abolishing
13189-420: The state should unleash and harness market forces in order to promote wealth for the state and the people.” The "state savings" (國蓄) chapter has been described as the first-ever exposition of the quantity theory of money , and the "light and heavy" (轻重) chapter as the first clear articulation of the law of supply and demand : Now, the price of grain is heavy in our state and light in the world at large. Then
13310-435: The statesmen, even if they may be willing to conform the government to them. As a counterpoint, the Han Feizi and Shen Dao do still employ argumentative reference to 'sage kings'; the Han Feizi claims the distinction between the ruler's interests and private interests as said to date back to Cangjie, while government by Fa (standards) is said to date back to time immemorial, considering the demarcation between public and private
13431-450: The term Naturalism for the two; but Han Fei's is very brief. Promoting "the ruler’s quiescence", Han Fei's Chapter 5 concerns a Way of the Ruler more than a Daoist way of life, and their figures are generally distinguished as politically focused. Although broader, this can describe "Huang-Lao" in general. Essentially 'interchangeable' with Daojia in the Shiji ; despite distinctions, Huang-Lao
13552-428: The text is taken as Huang-Lao , representative of the early Daoistic Han, then although controversial, it represents the kind of mileu that Sinologist Hansen ( Stanford Encyclopedia ) thinks was already becoming dominant by the Qin dynasty , based on the Mawangdui silk texts . As is typical of an ancient Chinese text, the organization of the Guanzi has been altered over time, the chronology and significance of which
13673-495: The traditional Confucian view of the text as Legalist, judging it to present a view much closer to that of the late Warring States period's "realistic" Confucian Xunzi than either the "highly idealistic Confucianism of Mencius " or the "Draconian Legalism" of Shang Yang . The Guanzi shares with other "Legalist" texts the view that power is independent of morality, emphasizing techniques (Shu) of government, but still advocates "law" ( Fa ) as an adjunct to Confucian Li . The Guanzi
13794-488: The traditional and simplified Chinese orthographies. The Chinese government has never officially announced the completion of the simplification process after the bulk of characters were introduced by the 1960s. In the wake of the Cultural Revolution , a second round of simplified characters was promulgated in 1977—largely composed of entirely new variants intended to artificially lower the stroke count, in contrast to
13915-817: The traditional character 強 , with 11 strokes is standardised as 强 , with 12 strokes, which is a variant character. Such characters do not constitute simplified characters. The new standardized character forms shown in the Characters for Publishing and revised through the Common Modern Characters list tend to adopt vulgar variant character forms. Since the new forms take vulgar variants, many characters now appear slightly simpler compared to old forms, and as such are often mistaken as structurally simplified characters. Some examples follow: The traditional component 釆 becomes 米 : The traditional component 囚 becomes 日 : The traditional "Break" stroke becomes
14036-516: The use of characters entirely. Instead, Chao proposed that the language be written with an alphabet, which he saw as more logical and efficient. The alphabetization and simplification campaigns would exist alongside one another among the Republican intelligentsia for the next several decades. Recent commentators have echoed some contemporary claims that Chinese characters were blamed for the economic problems in China during that time. Lu Xun , one of
14157-472: The work probably did not see two distinct schools. They probably saw works of rule; traditionally included under Daojia , Sima Qian and Ban Gu describe Huang-Lao in these terms, and Sima Qian earlier claimed them for it apart from Shang Yang. When the Confucians divided their texts out, it was probably not considered contradictory for them to be connected under multiple relatively fluid categories. Placing
14278-461: Was abandoned, confirmed by a speech given by Zhou Enlai in 1958. In 1965, the PRC published the List of Commonly Used Characters for Printing [ zh ] (hereafter Characters for Printing ), which included standard printed forms for 6196 characters, including all of the forms from the 1956 scheme. A second round of simplified characters was promulgated in 1977, but was poorly received by
14399-505: Was as much a military reformer in his own time, even if not as renowned a general, and the Han also recognized him as a military strategist. A work under his name, possibly the same sans a few chapters, is also categorized under the Han Imperial Library's Military Books, subjection Strategists. With Shang Yang said to have reformed Qin law, the Book of Lord Shang does not believe that fa laws will be successful without "investigating
14520-414: Was generally more focused simply on census and taxes, with the Book of Lord Shang 's programs a more extreme primary example of the trend; with Han Fei quite later, essentially, the only remaining early work of it's kind. Fa law can be considered a first principle of the Shangjunshu , but is aimed at general state power, and several chapter express anti-populist views. The actual perspective expressed by
14641-449: Was unable to answer. Worthiness is something that cannot be forbidden by the power of position, but when the power of position is used as a Way of governing, there is nothing that it cannot forbid. So if one says that achieving good order requires both worthiness, which cannot be forbidden, and the power of position, which has nothing it cannot forbid, this is just like saying one has both all-penetrating spears and impenetrable shields. Hence,
#368631