Wyszków ( [ˈvɨʂkuf] ; Yiddish : ווישקאָוו Vishkov ) is a town in eastern Poland with 26,500 inhabitants (2018). It is the capital of Wyszków County in Masovian Voivodeship .
139-719: The village of Wyszków was first documented in 1203. Wyszków was located on a trade route connecting Toruń with Brześć . It was granted town rights in 1502. It was administratively located in the Kamieniec County in the Masovian Voivodeship in the Greater Poland Province of the Kingdom of Poland . It was destroyed during the Swedish invasion of Poland ( Second Northern War ) in 1655–1660, and it lost its significance in
278-708: A Soviet -installed communist regime, which remained in power until the Fall of Communism in the 1980s. The communists destroyed pre-war memorials dedicated to Poles killed during the Polish–Soviet War in 1920. In post-war Poland, the town was administratively part of the Warsaw Voivodeship until 1975, and the Ostrołęka Voivodeship from 1975 to 1998. In 1961, Rybienko Leśne was included within Wyszków's town limits as
417-601: A stele of c. 375–400 BCE in the National Archaeological Museum of Athens appears on the UEFA European Championship trophy. Athenaeus , writing in 228 CE, mentions the Roman ball game harpastum . Phaininda, episkyros and harpastum were played involving hands and violence. They all appear to have resembled rugby football , wrestling , and volleyball more than what
556-488: A French XI team in 1920, and also made up most of the England team against a Scottish Ladies XI in the same year, winning 22–0. Despite being more popular than some men's football events, with one match seeing a 53,000 strong crowd in 1920, women's football in England suffered a blow in 1921 when The Football Association outlawed the playing of the game on association members' pitches, stating that "the game of football
695-424: A beautiful urban landscape. The extensive roadworks have also drawn attention to the declining population numbers, casting doubt that the city might over-delivered for the future number of road users, as the demographic trends forecast from Statistics Poland predicts a reduction of population by almost 1/4 by year 2050. The city's public transport system comprises five tram lines and about 40 bus routes, covering
834-442: A caution ( yellow card ) or dismissal ( red card ). A second yellow card in the same game leads to a red card, which results in a dismissal. A player given a yellow card is said to have been "booked", the referee writing the player's name in their official notebook. If a player has been dismissed, no substitute can be brought on in their place and the player may not participate in further play. Misconduct may occur at any time, and while
973-564: A competitive game, and involved the kicking of a mari , a ball made of animal skin. In North America, pasuckuakohowog was a ball game played by the Algonquians ; it was described as "almost identical to the kind of folk football being played in Europe at the same time, in which the ball was kicked through goals". Phaininda and episkyros were Greek ball games. An image of an episkyros player depicted in low relief on
1112-497: A deadlock; some competitions may invoke replays . A game tied at the end of regulation time may go into extra time, which consists of two further 15-minute periods. If the score is still tied after extra time, some competitions allow the use of penalty shoot-outs (known officially in the Laws of the Game as "kicks from the penalty mark") to determine which team will progress to the next stage of
1251-459: A few years' time "BiT City" will be integrated with local transportation systems of Toruń and Bydgoszcz, thus creating a uniform metropolitan transportation network – with all necessary funds having been secured in 2008. Since September 2008, the "one-ticket" solution has been introduced also as regards a rail connection with Włocławek , as a "regional ticket". The same is planned for connection with Grudziądz . Two bus depots serve to connect
1390-400: A goal has been scored or not; this was brought in to prevent controversy. Video assistant referees (VAR) have also been increasingly introduced in high-level matches to assist officials through video replays to correct clear and obvious mistakes. There are four types of calls that can be reviewed: mistaken identity in awarding a red or yellow card, goals and whether there was a violation during
1529-628: A latex bladder for pressurisation, but modern balls at all levels of the game are now synthetic. As the Laws were formulated in England, and were initially administered solely by the four British football associations within IFAB , the standard dimensions of a football pitch were originally expressed in imperial units . The Laws now express dimensions with approximate metric equivalents (followed by traditional units in brackets), though use of imperial units remains popular in English-speaking countries with
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#17330855120261668-706: A major Polish institution in the Prussian Partition of Poland, founded in 1875. After World War I , Poland declared independence and regained control over the city. In interwar Poland , Toruń was the capital of the Pomeranian Voivodeship . During World War II , Germany occupied the city from 7 September 1939 to 1 February 1945. Einsatzkommando 16 entered the city to commit various crimes against Poles . Under German occupation, local people were subjected to arrests, expulsions , slave labor , deportations to concentration camps and executions, especially
1807-519: A meeting attended by representatives from Eton , Harrow , Rugby , Winchester and Shrewsbury schools. They were not universally adopted. During the 1850s, many clubs unconnected to schools or universities were formed throughout the English-speaking world to play various forms of football. Some came up with their own distinct codes of rules, most notably the Sheffield Football Club , formed by former public school pupils in 1857, which led to
1946-444: A new district. On 14 September 1997 a memorial to Holocaust victims was unveiled in Wyszków. It is made of reclaimed Jewish gravestones that had been removed from the site in 1939 by German forces, who used them as paving stones and to build the local Gestapo headquarters. Scores of these desecrated tombstones were recovered and incorporated as part of the monument. A monument of Polish mathematician and cryptologist Jerzy Różycki
2085-417: A newly created special economic zone. As a result of cooperation of the companies mentioned above, a vast high-tech complex is to be constructed in the next few years, providing as many as 10,000 jobs (a prediction for ) at the cost of about 450 million euros. As of 2008 , the creation of another special economic zone is being considered, this time inside city limits. Thanks to its architectural heritage Toruń
2224-576: A number of regular flights to European cities. Although a medium-sized city, Toruń is the site of the headquarters of some of the largest companies in Poland, or at least of their subsidiaries. The official unemployment rate, as of September 2008 , is 5.4%. In 2006, construction of new plants owned by Sharp Corporation and other companies of mainly Japanese origin has started in the neighboring community of Łysomice - about 10 kilometres (6 miles) from city centre. The facilities under construction are located in
2363-426: A penalty kick. Other markings define the position of the ball or players at kick-offs , goal kicks, penalty kicks and corner kicks. A standard adult football match consists of two halves of 45 minutes each. Each half runs continuously, meaning that the clock is not stopped when the ball is out of play. There is usually a 15-minute half-time break between halves. The end of the match is known as full-time. The referee
2502-416: A relatively recent history of metrication (or only partial metrication), such as Britain. The length of the pitch, or field, for international adult matches is in the range of 100–110 m (110–120 yd) and the width is in the range of 64–75 m (70–80 yd). Fields for non-international matches may be 90–120 m (100–130 yd) in length and 45–90 m (50–100 yd) in width, provided
2641-567: A similar ancient game ( cuju , or tsu chu ) was played by women during the Han dynasty (25–220 CE), as female figures are depicted in frescoes of the period playing tsu chu . There are also reports of annual football matches played by women in Midlothian , Scotland, during the 1790s. Association football, the modern game, has documented early involvement of women. In 1863, football governing bodies introduced standardised rules to prohibit violence on
2780-559: A site of intense building construction investments, mainly residential and in its transportation network. The latter has been possible partly due to the use of European Union funds assigned for new member states. Toruń city county generates by far the highest number of new dwellings built each year among all Kuyavian-Pomeranian counties, both relative to its population as well as in absolute values. It has led to almost complete rebuilding of some districts. As of 2008 , many major constructions are either under development or are to be launched soon -
2919-554: A truce to the nation's civil war in 2006 and it helped further reduce tensions between government and rebel forces in 2007 by playing a match in the rebel capital of Bouaké , an occasion that brought both armies together peacefully for the first time. By contrast, football is widely considered to have been the final proximate cause for the Football War in June 1969 between El Salvador and Honduras . The sport also exacerbated tensions at
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#17330855120263058-432: A variety of positions in which the outfield (non-goalkeeper) players are strategically placed by a coach, these positions are not defined or required by the Laws. The basic equipment or kit players are required to wear includes a shirt, shorts, socks, footwear and adequate shin guards . An athletic supporter and protective cup is highly recommended for male players by medical experts and professionals. Headgear
3197-603: Is twinned with: Toru%C5%84 Toruń is a city on the Vistula River in north-central Poland and a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Its population was 196,935 as of December 2021. Previously, it was the capital of the Toruń Voivodeship (1975–1998) and the Pomeranian Voivodeship (1921–1945). Since 1999, Toruń has been a seat of the local government of the Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship and
3336-618: Is influenced by the geographical location of the city – the Toruń Basin to the south, and the Vistula Valley to the north. The most recent statistics show a decrease in the population of the city, from 211,169 in 2001 (highest) to 202,562 in 2018. Among the demographic trends influencing this decline, are: suburbanisation, migration to larger urban centres, and wider trends observed in the whole of Poland such as general population decline, slowed down by immigration in 2017. The birth rate in
3475-410: Is marked by the goal line, two lines starting on the goal line 16.5 m (18 yd) from the goalposts and extending 16.5 m (18 yd) into the pitch perpendicular to the goal line, and a line joining them. This area has a number of functions, the most prominent being to mark where the goalkeeper may handle the ball and where a penalty foul by a member of the defending team becomes punishable by
3614-438: Is not a required piece of basic equipment, but players today may choose to wear it to protect themselves from head injury. Players are forbidden to wear or use anything that is dangerous to themselves or another player, such as jewellery or watches. The goalkeeper must wear clothing that is easily distinguishable from that worn by the other players and the match officials. A number of players may be replaced by substitutes during
3753-515: Is one of its two capitals, together with Bydgoszcz . The cities and neighboring counties form the Bydgoszcz–Toruń twin city metropolitan area. Toruń is one of the oldest cities in Poland; it was first settled in the 8th century and in 1233 was expanded by the Teutonic Knights . For centuries it was home to people of diverse backgrounds and religions. From 1264 until 1411, Toruń was part of
3892-405: Is positioned on each goal line, midway between the two touchlines. The inner edges of the vertical goal posts must be 7.32 m (24 ft) apart, and the lower edge of the horizontal crossbar supported by the goal posts must be 2.44 m (8 ft) above the ground. Nets are usually placed behind the goal, but are not required by the Laws. In front of the goal is the penalty area. This area
4031-800: Is quite unsuitable for females and should not be encouraged." Players and football writers have argued that this ban was, in fact, due to envy of the large crowds that women's matches attracted, and because the FA had no control over the money made from the women's game. The FA ban led to the formation of the short-lived English Ladies Football Association and play moved to rugby grounds. Women's football also faced bans in several other countries , notably in Brazil from 1941 to 1979, in France from 1941 to 1970, and in Germany from 1955 to 1970. Restrictions began to be reduced in
4170-506: Is recognisable as modern football. As with pre-codified mob football , the antecedent of all modern football codes , these three games involved more handling the ball than kicking it. Association football in itself does not have a classical history. Notwithstanding any similarities to other ball games played around the world, FIFA has described that no historical connection exists with any game played in antiquity outside Europe. The history of football in England dates back to at least
4309-625: Is the dominant region in women's football, with the United States winning the most FIFA Women's World Cups and Olympic tournaments. Europe and Asia come second and third in terms of international success, and the women's game has been improving in South America. Association football is played in accordance with a set of rules known as the Laws of the Game . The game is played using a spherical ball of 68–70 cm (27–28 in) circumference, known as
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4448-451: Is the official timekeeper for the match, and may make an allowance for time lost through substitutions, injured players requiring attention, or other stoppages. This added time is called "additional time" in FIFA documents, but is most commonly referred to as stoppage time or injury time , while lost time can also be used as a synonym. The duration of stoppage time is at the sole discretion of
4587-435: Is thought to have been borrowed from the slang of Rugby School . Initially spelt assoccer (a shortening of "association"), it was later reduced to the modern spelling. This form of slang also gave rise to rugger for rugby football, fiver and tenner for five pound and ten pound notes , and the now-archaic footer that was also a name for association football. The word soccer arrived at its current form in 1895 and
4726-404: Is to score goals; defenders , who specialise in preventing their opponents from scoring; and midfielders , who dispossess the opposition and keep possession of the ball to pass it to the forwards on their team. Players in these positions are referred to as outfield players, to distinguish them from the goalkeeper. These positions are further subdivided according to the area of the field in which
4865-562: Is visited by more than 1.5 million tourists a year (1.6 million in 2007). This makes tourism an important branch of the local economy, although time spent in the city by individual tourists or the number of hotels, which can serve them, are still not considered satisfactory. Major investments in renovation of the city's monuments, building new hotels (including high-standard ones), improvement in promotion, as well as launching new cultural and scientific events and facilities, give very good prospects for Toruń's tourism. In recent years Toruń has been
5004-421: The football (or soccer ball ). Two teams of eleven players each compete to get the ball into the other team's goal (between the posts and under the bar), thereby scoring a goal. The team that has scored more goals at the end of the game is the winner; if both teams have scored an equal number of goals then the game is a draw. Each team is led by a captain who has only one official responsibility as mandated by
5143-633: The 32nd International Film Festival of the Art of Cinematography Camerimage screened Steve McQueen 's historical war drama Blitz , the first half of Jon M. Chu 's two-part musical fantasy film Wicked , and the world premiere of Joel Souza 's western film Rust . Toruń has two drama theatres ( Teatr im. Wilama Horzycy with three stages and Teatr Wiczy ), two children's theatres ( Baj Pomorski and Zaczarowany Świat ), two music theatres ( Mała Rewia , Studencki Teatr Tańca ), and numerous other theatre groups. The city hosts, among others events,
5282-591: The Camerimage International Film Festival of the Art of Cinematography . Toruń is noted for its very high standard of living and quality of life. In 1997 the medieval part of the city was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site . In 2007 the Old Town of Toruń was added to the list of Seven Wonders of Poland . The first settlement in the vicinity of Toruń is dated by archaeologists to 1100 BC ( Lusatian culture ). During early medieval times, in
5421-515: The Caribbean and Oceania regions (except Australia ) have yet to make a mark in international football. When it comes to men's national teams, Europeans and South Americans continue to dominate the FIFA World Cup, as no team from any other region has managed to even reach the final. These regional trends do not hold true for the women's game, as the United States women's national team has won
5560-761: The First Peace of Thorn was signed in the city in February 1411, the city fell back to the Teutonic Order. In 1411, the city left the Hanseatic League. In the 1420s, Polish King Władysław II Jagiełło built the Dybów Castle , located in present-day left-bank Toruń, which he visited numerous times. During the next big Polish–Teutonic War , Dybów Castle was occupied by the Teutonic Knights from 1431 to 1435. In 1440,
5699-513: The General Government . Before the war 45% of Wyszków's population of 12,000 were Jewish; after the war there were none. The Germans killed over 7,000 inhabitants of Wyszków, including 5,000 Jews, and operated a forced labour camp for Soviet prisoners of war . Nevertheless, the Polish resistance movement was active in the area. After the occupation, the town was restored to Poland, although with
Wyszków, Wyszków County - Misplaced Pages Continue
5838-538: The Hanseatic League and by the 17th century a leading trading point, which greatly affected the city's architecture, ranging from Brick Gothic to Mannerist and Baroque . In the Early Modern period, Toruń was a royal city of Poland and one of Poland's four largest cities. With the partitions of Poland in the late 18th century, it became part of Prussia , then of the short-lived Duchy of Warsaw , serving as
5977-567: The Laws of the Game , a set of rules that has been in effect since 1863 and maintained by the IFAB since 1886. The game is played with a football that is 68–70 cm (27–28 in) in circumference . The two teams compete to score goals by getting the ball into the other team's goal (between the posts, under the bar, and fully across the goal line). When the ball is in play, the players mainly use their feet, but may also use any other part of their body, such as their head, chest and thighs, except for their hands or arms, to control, strike, or pass
6116-686: The Pilawa - Tłuszcz - Ostrołęka railway was built. In 1918 Poland regained independence and control of Wyszków, and in 1919 town rights were restored. During the Polish–Soviet War , on August 17, 1920, the Russian Cheka murdered seven Poles in the present-day district of Rybienko Leśne [ pl ] . Poles led by Mikołaj Bołtuć defeated the invading Russians in the Battle of Wyszków [ pl ] on August 18, 1920. Fierce fights between
6255-536: The Sachsenhausen-Oranienburg , Mauthausen and Dachau concentration camps. Nonetheless, the Polish resistance movement was active in the city, and Toruń was the seat of one of the six main commands of the Union of Armed Struggle in occupied Poland (alongside Warsaw , Kraków , Poznań , Białystok and Lwów ). During the occupation, Germany established and operated Stalag XX-A prisoner-of-war camp in
6394-456: The 16th to the 18th centuries. Toruń, unlike many other historic cities in Poland, escaped substantial destruction in World War II. Particularly left intact was the Old Town, all of whose important architectural monuments are originals, not reconstructions. Major renovation projects have been undertaken in recent years to improve the condition and external presentation of the Old Town. Besides
6533-620: The 1960s and 1970s. The Italian women's football league was established in 1968. In December 1969, the Women's Football Association was formed in England, with the sport eventually becoming the most prominent team sport for women in the United Kingdom. Two unofficial women's World Cups were organised by the FIEFF in 1970 and in 1971 . Also in 1971, UEFA members voted to officially recognise women's football, while The Football Association rescinded
6672-497: The 1970s and 1980s, located between the central and easternmost districts; their total population is about 70,000. The Bydgoszcz–Toruń metro area of Toruń and Bydgoszcz , their counties, and a number of smaller towns, may in total have a population of as much as 800,000. Thus the area contains about one third of the population of the Kuyavia-Pomerania region (which has about 2.1 million inhabitants). The transport network in
6811-570: The 7th through 13th centuries, it was the location of an old Slavonic settlement, at a ford of the Vistula . In the 10th century it became part of the emerging Polish state ruled by the Piast dynasty . In spring 1231 the Teutonic Knights crossed the river Vistula near Nieszawa and established a fortress. On 28 December 1233, the Teutonic Knights Hermann von Salza and Hermann Balk , signed
6950-570: The FIFA Women's World Cup four times, more than any other women's team. Football is played at a professional level all over the world. Millions of people regularly go to football stadiums to follow their favourite teams, while billions more watch the game on television or on the internet. A very large number of people also play football at an amateur level. According to a survey conducted by FIFA published in 2001, over 240 million people from more than 200 countries regularly play football. Football has
7089-861: The Football Association, the Scottish Football Association , the Football Association of Wales , and the Irish Football Association . FIFA , the international football body, was formed in Paris in 1904 and declared that they would adhere to the Laws of the Game of the Football Association. The growing popularity of the international game led to the admittance of FIFA representatives to the IFAB in 1913. The board consists of four representatives from FIFA and one representative from each of
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#17330855120267228-464: The Game while the ball is in play. The offences that constitute a foul are listed in Law 12. Handling the ball deliberately, tripping an opponent, or pushing an opponent, are examples of "penal fouls", punishable by a direct free kick or penalty kick depending on where the offence occurred. Other fouls are punishable by an indirect free kick . The referee may punish a player's or substitute's misconduct by
7367-798: The Germans imprisoned Poles in Fort VII of the Toruń Fortress . On 17–19 October 1939 alone, the German police and the Selbstschutz arrested 1,200 Poles in Toruń and Toruń County. In early November 1939, the Germans carried out further mass arrests of Polish teachers, farmers and priests in Toruń and the county, who were then imprisoned in Fort VII. Imprisoned Poles were then either deported to concentration camps or murdered onsite. Large massacres of over 1,100 Poles from
7506-470: The IFAB Laws. Each team consists of a maximum of eleven players (excluding substitutes ), one of whom must be the goalkeeper . Competition rules may state a minimum number of players required to constitute a team, which is usually seven. Goalkeepers are the only players allowed to play the ball with their hands or arms, provided they do so within the penalty area in front of their own goal. Though there are
7645-430: The Laws of the Game in connection with the match to which he has been appointed" (Law 5), and whose decisions are final. The referee is assisted by two assistant referees . In many high-level games there is also a fourth official who assists the referee and may replace another official should the need arise. Goal line technology is used to measure if the whole ball has crossed the goal-line thereby determining whether
7784-713: The Laws of the Game. The most prestigious senior international competitions are the FIFA World Cup and the FIFA Women's World Cup . The men's World Cup is the most-viewed sporting event in the world, surpassing the Olympic Games . The two most prestigious competitions in club football are the UEFA Champions League and the UEFA Women's Champions League , which attract an extensive television audience worldwide. The final of
7923-475: The Laws of the Game: to represent their team in the coin toss before kick-off or penalty kicks . The primary law is that players other than goalkeepers may not deliberately handle the ball with their hands or arms during play, though they must use both their hands during a throw-in restart. Although players usually use their feet to move the ball around, they may use any part of their body (notably, "heading" with
8062-571: The Poles and the invading Germans took place in the area on September 8–10, 1939 at the beginning of World War II . On September 9, 1939, the Germans committed a massacre of 65 Jews in Wyszków, and a massacre of a dozen or so Poles from Wyszków near the village of Pniewo (see Nazi crimes against the Polish nation ). The town was then occupied by Germany , which made it part of the Warsaw District of
8201-629: The Polish elites as part of the Intelligenzaktion . A group of Polish railwaymen and policemen from Toruń were murdered by the German gendarmerie and Wehrmacht in Gąbin on 19–21 September 1939. Local Poles, including activists, teachers and priests, arrested in Toruń and Toruń County beginning in September 1939, were initially held in the pre-war prison, and after it became overcrowded in October 1939,
8340-406: The Toruń Chamber Orchestra) is well-rooted in the Toruń cultural landscape. Association football Association football , more commonly known as football or soccer , is a team sport played between two teams of 11 players each, who almost exclusively use their feet to propel a ball around a rectangular field called a pitch . The objective of the game is to score more goals than
8479-461: The UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites since 1997, Toruń has many monuments of architecture dating back to the Middle Ages . The city is famous for having preserved almost intact its medieval spatial layout and many Gothic buildings, all built from brick , including monumental churches, the Town Hall and many burgher houses. Toruń has the largest number of preserved Gothic houses in Poland , many with Gothic wall paintings or wood-beam ceilings from
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#17330855120268618-422: The United States. A notable exception is New Zealand, where in the first two decades of the 21st century, under the influence of international television, "football" has been gaining prevalence, despite the dominance of other codes of football, namely rugby union and rugby league . The term soccer comes from Oxford "-er" slang, which was prevalent at the University of Oxford in England from about 1875, and
8757-449: The ball. Only the goalkeepers may use their hands and arms, and that only within the penalty area . The team that has scored more goals at the end of the game is the winner. There are situations where a goal can be disallowed, such as an offside call or a foul in the build-up to the goal. Depending on the format of the competition, an equal number of goals scored may result in a draw being declared with 1 point awarded to each team, or
8896-408: The ban that prohibited women from playing on association members' pitches in England. Women's football still faces many struggles, but its worldwide growth has seen major competitions being launched at both the national and international levels, mirroring the men's competitions. The FIFA Women's World Cup was inaugurated in 1991: the first tournament was held in China, featuring 12 teams from
9035-410: The beginning of each playing period with a kick-off until the end of the playing period, the ball is in play at all times, except when either the ball leaves the field of play, or play is stopped by the referee. When the ball becomes out of play, play is restarted by one of eight restart methods depending on how it went out of play: A foul occurs when a player commits an offence listed in the Laws of
9174-425: The beginning of the Croatian War of Independence of the 1990s, when a match between Dinamo Zagreb and Red Star Belgrade degenerated into rioting in May 1990. Women's association football has historically seen opposition, with national associations severely curbing its development and several outlawing it completely. Women may have been playing football for as long as the game has existed. Evidence shows that
9313-404: The buildup, direct red card decisions, and penalty decisions. The ball is spherical with a circumference of between 68 and 70 cm (27 and 28 in), a weight in the range of 410 to 450 g (14 to 16 oz), and a pressure between 0.6 and 1.1 standard atmospheres (8.5 and 15.6 pounds per square inch ) at sea level. In the past the ball was made up of leather panels sewn together, with
9452-559: The camp, and around 1,000 died there, including about 400 children. From 1941 to 1945, a German forced labour camp was located in the city. In the spring of 1942, the Germans murdered 30 Polish scouts aged 13–16 in Fort VII. While the city's population suffered many atrocities, as described, there were no battles or bombings that damaged its buildings. Thus, the city avoided damage during both World Wars, and retained its historic architecture, ranging from Gothic through Renaissance and Baroque to 19th and 20th century styles. Listed on
9591-572: The champions of these two club competitions would contest the Intercontinental Cup to prove which team was the best in the world. In the 21st century, South America has continued to produce some of the best footballers in the world, but its clubs have fallen behind the still dominant European clubs, which often sign the best players from Latin America and elsewhere. Meanwhile, football has improved in Africa , Asia and North America , and nowadays, these regions are at least on equal grounds with South America in club football, although countries in
9730-409: The churches, leaving only St Mary's for Protestant citizens. In 1645, at a time when religious conflicts occurred in many other European countries and the disastrous Thirty Years' War was fought west of Poland, in Toruń, on the initiative of King Władysław IV Vasa , a three-month congress of European Catholics, Lutherans and Calvinists was held, known as Colloquium Charitativum; an important event in
9869-403: The city (or as it was then, both cities) joined the mercantile Hanseatic League , and thus became an important medieval trade centre. In the 14th century, papal verdicts ordered the restoration of the area to Poland, however, the Teutonic Knights did not comply and continued to occupy the region. The city was recaptured by Poland in 1410 during the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War however, after
10008-484: The city adopted Protestantism . Under Mayor Henryk Stroband (1586–1609), the city became centralized. Administrative power passed into the hands of the city council. In 1595, Jesuits arrived to promote the Counter-Reformation , taking control of St John's Church. Protestant city officials tried to limit the influx of Catholics into the city, as Catholics (Jesuits and Dominican friars) already controlled most of
10147-467: The city and region, including teachers, school principals, local officials, restaurateurs, shop owners, merchants, farmers, railwaymen, policemen, craftsmen, students, priests, workers, doctors, were carried out in the present-day district of Barbarka . Six mass graves were discovered after the war, in five of which the bodies of the victims were burned, as the Germans had tried to cover up the crime. Local teachers were also among Polish teachers murdered in
10286-466: The city and some of the neighboring communities. Toruń is situated at a major road junction, one of the most important in Poland. The A1 highway reaches Toruń, and a southern beltway surrounds the city. Besides these, the European route E75 and a number of domestic roads (numbered 10, 15, and 80) run through the city. With three main railway stations ( Toruń Główny , Toruń Miasto and Toruń Wschodni),
10425-508: The city charters for Toruń ( Thorn ) and Chełmno ( Kulm ). The original document was lost in 1244. The set of rights in general is known as Kulm law . In 1236, due to frequent flooding, it was relocated to the present site of the Old Town. In 1239 Franciscan friars settled in the city, followed in 1263 by Dominicans . In 1264 the adjacent New Town was founded, predominantly to house Torun's growing population of craftsmen and artisans, who predominantly came from German-speaking lands. In 1280,
10564-644: The city has been authorized by King Casimir IV to mint Polish coins. During the war, Casimir IV often stayed at the Dybów Castle and Toruń financially supported the Polish Army. The New Town and Old Town amalgamated in 1454. The Thirteen Years' War ended in 1466, with the Second Peace of Thorn , in which the Teutonic Order renounced any claims to the city and recognised it as part of Poland. The Polish king granted
10703-421: The city has undergone major development in recent years. The partial completion of ring road (East and South), the completion of the second bridge (2013) and various road, and cycling lane improvements, including construction of Trasa Średnicowa , have decidedly improved the traffic in the city. However, noise barriers that have been erected along the new or refurbished roads have been criticised as not conducive to
10842-506: The city in 2017 was 0.75. Low birthrates have been consistent in the city for the first two decades of 21st Century. The official forecasts from Statistics Poland state that by 2050 the city population will have declined to 157,949. Inside the city itself, most of the population is concentrated on the right (northern) bank of the Vistula river. Two of the most densely populated areas are Rubinkowo and Na Skarpie, housing projects built mostly in
10981-443: The city is a major rail junction, with two important lines crossing there ( Warsaw – Bydgoszcz and Wrocław – Olsztyn ). Two other lines stem from Toruń, toward Malbork and Sierpc . The rail connection with Bydgoszcz is run under a name "BiT City" as a "metropolitan rail". Its main purpose is to allow traveling between and within these cities using one ticket. A joint venture of Toruń, Bydgoszcz , Solec Kujawski and
11120-401: The city with other towns and cities in Poland. As of 2008 , a small sport airfield exists in Toruń; however, a modernization of the airport is seriously considered with a number of investors interested in it. Independently of this, Bydgoszcz Ignacy Jan Paderewski Airport , located about 50 kilometres (31 miles) from Toruń city centre, serves the whole Bydgoszcz-Toruń metropolitan area, with
11259-399: The city, with multiple forced labour subcamps in the region, in which Polish, British, French , Australian and Soviet POWs were held. From 1940 to 1943, in the northern part of the city the German transit camp Umsiedlungslager Thorn [ pl ] for Poles expelled from Toruń and the surrounding area, became infamous for inhuman sanitary conditions. Over 12,000 Poles passed through
11398-425: The course of the game. The maximum number of substitutions permitted in most competitive international and domestic league games is five in 90 minutes, with each team being allowed one more if the game should go into extra-time; the permitted number may vary in other competitions or in friendly matches . Common reasons for a substitution include injury, tiredness, ineffectiveness, a tactical switch, or timewasting at
11537-486: The death of her husband, famous explorer and writer, Toruń native, Tony Halik . It is managed by the District Museum in Toruń . The Centre of Contemporary Art ( Centrum Sztuki Współczesnej - CSW ) opened in June 2008 and is one of the most important cultural facilities of this kind in Poland. The modern building is located in the very centre of the city, adjacent to the Old Town. The Toruń Symphonic Orchestra (formerly
11676-505: The eighth century. The modern rules of association football are based on the mid-19th century efforts to standardise the widely varying forms of football played in the public schools of England. The Cambridge rules , first drawn up at the University of Cambridge in 1848, were particularly influential in the development of subsequent codes, including association football. The Cambridge rules were written at Trinity College, Cambridge , at
11815-420: The end of a finely poised game. In standard adult matches, a player who has been substituted may not take further part in a match. IFAB recommends "that a match should not continue if there are fewer than seven players in either team". Any decision regarding points awarded for abandoned games is left to the individual football associations. A game is officiated by a referee , who has "full authority to enforce
11954-420: The forehead) other than their hands or arms. Within normal play, all players are free to play the ball in any direction and move throughout the pitch, though players may not pass to teammates who are in an offside position. During gameplay, players attempt to create goal-scoring opportunities through individual control of the ball, such as by dribbling , passing the ball to a teammate, and by taking shots at
12093-514: The formation of a Sheffield FA in 1867. In 1862, John Charles Thring of Uppingham School also devised an influential set of rules. These ongoing efforts contributed to the formation of The Football Association (The FA) in 1863, which first met on the morning of 26 October 1863 at the Freemasons' Tavern in Great Queen Street , London. The only school to be represented on this occasion
12232-517: The four British associations. For most of the 20th century, Europe and South America were the dominant regions in association football. The FIFA World Cup , inaugurated in 1930 , became the main stage for players of both continents to show their worth and the strength of their national teams. In the second half of the century, the European Cup and the Copa Libertadores were created, and
12371-562: The game goes into extra time or a penalty shoot-out . Internationally, association football is governed by FIFA . Under FIFA, there are six continental confederations: AFC , CAF , CONCACAF , CONMEBOL , OFC , and UEFA . Of these confederations, CONMEBOL is the oldest one, being founded in 1916. National associations (e.g. The FA in England) are responsible for managing the game in their own countries both professionally and at an amateur level, and coordinating competitions in accordance with
12510-695: The game in a specific position, there are few restrictions on player movement, and players can switch positions at any time. The layout of a team's players is known as a formation . Defining the team's formation and tactics is usually the prerogative of the team's manager . There are 17 laws in the official Laws of the Game, each containing a collection of stipulations and guidelines. The same laws are designed to apply to all levels of football for both sexes, although certain modifications for groups such as juniors, seniors and people with physical disabilities are permitted. The laws are often framed in broad terms, which allow flexibility in their application depending on
12649-640: The gentry of Toruń co-founded the Prussian Confederation to further oppose the Knights' policies. From 1452, talks between Polish King Casimir IV Jagiellon and the burghers of the Confederation were held at Dybów Castle. The Confederation rose against the Monastic state of the Teutonic Knights in 1454 and its delegation submitted a petition to Polish King Casimir IV Jagiellon asking him to regain power over
12788-425: The goal, which is guarded by the opposing goalkeeper. Opposing players may try to regain control of the ball by intercepting a pass or through tackling the opponent in possession of the ball; however, physical contact between opponents is restricted. Football is generally a free-flowing game, with play stopping only when the ball has left the field of play or when play is stopped by the referee for an infringement of
12927-404: The highest global television audience in sport. In many parts of the world, football evokes great passions and plays an important role in the life of individual fans , local communities, and even nations. Ryszard Kapuściński says that Europeans who are polite, modest, or humble fall easily into rage when playing or watching football games. The Ivory Coast national football team helped secure
13066-461: The history of Toruń and the region. Among others, the "House of Kopernik" and the accompanying museum commemorate Nicolaus Copernicus and his revolutionary work, the university museum reveals the history of the city's academic past. The Tony Halik Travelers' Museum ( Muzeum Podróżników im. Tony Halika ) was established in 2003 after Elżbieta Dzikowska donated to citizens of Toruń a collection of objects from various countries and cultures following
13205-674: The history of interreligious dialogue. During the Great Northern War (1700–21), the city was besieged by Swedish troops. The restoration of Augustus II the Strong as King of Poland was prepared in the city in the Treaty of Thorn (1709) by the Russian tsar Peter the Great . In the second half of the 17th century, tensions between Catholics and Protestants grew. In the early 18th century about 50 percent of
13344-452: The horizontal arrangement, white top, blue bottom, equal in size. The flag of the city of Toruń is a bipartite sheet. The upper field is white, the lower field is blue. If the flag is hung vertically, the upper edge of the flag must be on the left. The flag with the coat of arms is also in use. The ratio of the height of the coat of arms to the width of the flag is 1:2. The climate can be described as humid continental ( Köppen : Dfb ) if
13483-654: The instigation of Alcock. England is also home to the world's first football league , which was founded in Birmingham in 1888 by Aston Villa director William McGregor . The original format contained 12 clubs from the Midlands and Northern England . Laws of the Game are determined by the International Football Association Board (IFAB). The board was formed in 1886 after a meeting in Manchester of
13622-489: The international theatre festival, "Kontakt", annually in May. A building called Baj Pomorski has recently been completely reconstructed. It is now one of the most modern cultural facilities in the city, with its front elevation in the shape of a gigantic chest of drawers. It is located at the south-east edge of the Old Town. Toruń has two cinemas including a Cinema City , which has over 2,000 seats. Over ten major museums document
13761-457: The isotherm of 0 °C (32 °F) is used or an oceanic climate ( Cfb ) if the −3 °C (27 °F) isotherm is adopted. Back in 1930s, the city passed close to the original boundary and dividing line of climates C and D groups in the north–south direction proposed by climatologist Wladimir Köppen . Toruń is in the transition between the milder climates of the west and north of the Poland and
13900-745: The lack of a crossbar, rules which made it remarkably similar to Victorian rules football being developed at that time in Australia. The Sheffield FA played by its own rules until the 1870s, with the FA absorbing some of its rules until there was little difference between the games. The world's oldest football competition is the FA Cup , which was founded by the footballer and cricketer Charles W. Alcock , and has been contested by English teams since 1872. The first official international football match also took place in 1872, between Scotland and England in Glasgow , again at
14039-553: The leading schools of northern Poland for centuries to come. Also in 1594, the Toruń's first museum ( Musaeum ) was established at the school, beginning the city's museal traditions. A city of great wealth and influence, it enjoyed voting rights during the royal election period. Sejms of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth were held in Toruń in 1576 and 1626. In 1557, during the Protestant Reformation ,
14178-607: The men's tournament is the most-watched annual sporting event in the world. Association football is one of a family of football codes that emerged from various ball games played worldwide since antiquity. Within the English-speaking world, the sport is now usually called "football" in Great Britain and most of Ulster in the north of Ireland, whereas people usually call it "soccer" in regions and countries where other codes of football are prevalent, such as Australia, Canada, South Africa, most of Ireland (excluding Ulster), and
14317-409: The more extreme ones like the south (warmer summer) and the east (colder winter). It is not much different from the climates of more southerly Kraków and easterly Warsaw , though it has slightly milder winters and more moderate summers. Being close to definitely continental climates , it has a high variability caused by the contact of eastern continental air masses and western oceanic ones. This
14456-581: The nature of the game. The Laws of the Game are published by FIFA, but are maintained by the IFAB. In addition to the seventeen laws, numerous IFAB decisions and other directives contribute to the regulation of association football. Within the United States, Major League Soccer used a distinct ruleset during the 1990s and the National Federation of State High School Associations and NCAA still use rulesets that are comparable to, but different from,
14595-426: The offences that constitute misconduct are listed, the definitions are broad. In particular, the offence of "unsporting behaviour" may be used to deal with most events that violate the spirit of the game, even if they are not listed as specific offences. A referee can show a yellow or red card to a player, substitute, substituted player, and to non-players such as managers and support staff. Rather than stopping play,
14734-412: The opposing team by moving the ball beyond the goal line into a rectangular-framed goal defended by the opposing team. Traditionally, the game has been played over two 45-minute halves, for a total match time of 90 minutes. With an estimated 250 million players active in over 200 countries and territories, it is the world's most popular sport. The game of association football is played in accordance with
14873-461: The original thirteen laws of the game. The sticking point was hacking, which a twelfth club at the meeting, Blackheath FC , had wanted to keep, resulting in them withdrawing from the FA. Other English rugby clubs followed this lead and did not join the FA, and instead in 1871, along with Blackheath, formed the Rugby Football Union . The FA rules included handling of the ball by "marks" and
15012-432: The pitch does not become square. In 2008, the IFAB initially approved a fixed size of 105 m (115 yd) long and 68 m (74 yd) wide as a standard pitch dimension for international matches; however, this decision was later put on hold and was never actually implemented. The longer boundary lines are touchlines , while the shorter boundaries (on which the goals are placed) are goal lines . A rectangular goal
15151-437: The pitch, making it more socially acceptable for women to play. The first match recorded by the Scottish Football Association took place in 1892 in Glasgow . In England, the first recorded game of football between women took place in 1895. Women's football has traditionally been associated with charity games and physical exercise, particularly in the United Kingdom. Association football continued to be played by women since
15290-437: The player spends the most time. For example, there are central defenders and left and right midfielders. The ten outfield players may be arranged in any combination. The number of players in each position determines the style of the team's play; more forwards and fewer defenders creates a more aggressive and offensive-minded game, while the reverse creates a slower, more defensive style of play. While players typically spend most of
15429-400: The players and spectators by holding up a board showing this number. The signalled stoppage time may be further extended by the referee. Added time was introduced because of an incident which happened in 1891 during a match between Stoke and Aston Villa . Trailing 1–0 with two minutes remaining, Stoke were awarded a penalty kick. Villa's goalkeeper deliberately kicked the ball out of play; by
15568-574: The populace, especially the gentry and middle class, were German-speaking Protestants, while the other 50 percent were Polish-speaking Roman Catholics. Protestant influence was subsequently pushed back after the Tumult of Thorn of 1724. After the Second Partition of Poland in 1793, the city was annexed by Prussia . It was briefly regained by Poles as part of the Duchy of Warsaw in 1807–1815, even serving as
15707-474: The possibility of a new bridge over the Vistula, and more. Construction of the A1 motorway and th e BiT City fast metropolitan railway also directly affects the city. About 25,000 local firms are registered in Toruń. The internationally renowned film festival Camerimage was founded in Toruń in 1993, and has been held annually in the city since 2019. In 2024, with Australian actress Cate Blanchett as jury president,
15846-416: The referee may allow play to continue if doing so will benefit the team against which an offence has been committed. This is known as "playing an advantage". The referee may "call back" play and penalise the original offence if the anticipated advantage does not ensue within "a few seconds". Even if an offence is not penalised due to advantage being played, the offender may still be sanctioned for misconduct at
15985-419: The referee. Stoppage time does not fully compensate for the time in which the ball is out of play , and a 90-minute game typically involves about an hour of "effective playing time". The referee alone signals the end of the match. In matches where a fourth official is appointed, towards the end of the half, the referee signals how many minutes of stoppage time they intend to add. The fourth official then informs
16124-716: The region as its rightful ruler. An act of incorporation was signed in Kraków 6 March 1454, recognizing the region (including Toruń), as part of the Polish Kingdom . These events led to the Thirteen Years' War . The citizens of the city, enraged by the Order's ruthless exploitation, conquered the Teutonic castle, and dismantled the fortifications brick by brick, except for the Gdanisko tower which
16263-533: The region. It was annexed by Prussia in the Third Partition of Poland in 1795. In 1807 it was regained by Poles and included within the short-lived Polish Duchy of Warsaw , and in 1815 it passed to Russian-controlled Congress Poland . In 1870 it was deprived of its town rights, as one of many Polish town punished by the Russians for the unsuccessful Polish January Uprising . Industry developed after 1897, when
16402-459: The renovation of various buildings, projects such as the reconstruction of the pavement of the streets and squares (reversing them to their historical appearance), and the introduction of new plants, trees and objects of 'small architecture', are underway. Numerous buildings and other constructions, including the city walls along the boulevard, are illuminated at night, creating an impressive effect - probably unique among Polish cities with respect to
16541-440: The respective six confederations. The World Cup has been held every four years since; by 2019 , it had expanded to 24 national teams, and 1.12 billion viewers watched the competition. Four years later , FIFA targeted the 32-team 2023 Women's World Cup at an audience of 2 billion, while about 1.4 million tickets were sold, setting a Women's World Cup record. Women's football has been an Olympic event since 1996 . North America
16680-534: The rules. After a stoppage, play recommences with a specified restart. At a professional level, most matches produce only a few goals. For example, the 2022–23 season of the English Premier League produced an average of 2.85 goals per match. The Laws of the Game do not specify any player positions other than goalkeeper, but a number of specialised roles have evolved. Broadly, these include three main categories: strikers , or forwards, whose main task
16819-543: The sexes are so widely divided are all on the side of emancipation , and I look forward to the time when ladies may sit in Parliament and have a voice in the direction of affairs, especially those which concern them most." Honeyball and those like her paved the way for women's football. However, the women's game was frowned upon by the British football associations and continued without their support. It has been suggested that this
16958-808: The size of Toruń's Old Town and the scale of the illumination project itself. Toruń is also home to the Zoo and Botanical Garden opened in 1965 and 1797 respectively and is one of the city's popular tourist attractions. Toruń is divided into 24 administrative districts (dzielnica) or boroughs, each with a degree of autonomy within its own municipal government. The Districts include: Barbarka , Bielany, Bielawy, Bydgoskie Przedmieście, Chełmińskie Przedmieście, Czerniewice, Glinki, Grębocin nad Strugą, Jakubskie Przedmieście, Kaszczorek, Katarzynka, Koniuchy, Mokre, Na Skarpie, Piaski , Podgórz , Rubinkowo, Rudak, Rybaki, Stare Miasto ( Old Town ), Starotoruńskie Przedmieście, Stawki, Winnica, Wrzosy. The colors of Toruń are white and blue in
17097-563: The temporary Polish capital in 1809, then again of Prussia, of the German Empire and, after World War I , of the reborn Polish Republic . During the Second World War , Toruń was spared bombing and destruction; its Old Town and iconic central marketplace have been entirely preserved. Toruń is renowned for its gingerbread – the gingerbread-baking tradition dates back nearly a millennium – as well as for its large Cathedral . It hosts
17236-616: The temporary capital in April and May 1809. During these years the city began to attract a growing Jewish community. In 1809, Toruń was successfully defended by the Poles against the Austrians. After being re-annexed by Prussia in 1815, Toruń was subjected to Germanisation and became a strong center of Polish resistance against such policies. The city's first synagogue was inaugurated in 1847. New Polish institutions were established, such as Towarzystwo Naukowe w Toruniu ( Toruń Scientific Society ),
17375-447: The time it was recovered, the clock had run out and the game was over, leaving Stoke unable to attempt the penalty. The same law also states that the duration of either half is extended until a penalty kick to be taken or retaken is completed; thus, no game can end with an uncompleted penalty. In league competitions, games may end in a draw. In knockout competitions where a winner is required, various methods may be employed to break such
17514-531: The time of the first recorded women's games in the late 19th century. The best-documented early European team was founded by activist Nettie Honeyball in England in 1894. It was named the British Ladies' Football Club . Honeyball is quoted as, "I founded the association late last year [1894], with the fixed resolve of proving to the world that women are not the 'ornamental and useless' creatures men have pictured. I must confess, my convictions on all matters where
17653-422: The tournament or be the champion. Goals scored during extra time periods count towards the final score of the game, but kicks from the penalty mark are only used to decide the team that progresses to the next part of the tournament, with goals scored in a penalty shoot-out not making up part of the final score. In competitions using two-legged matches , each team competes at home once, with an aggregate score from
17792-474: The town great privileges, similar to those of Gdańsk . Also in 1454 at Dybów Castle , the King issued the famous Statutes of Nieszawa , covering a set of privileges for the Polish nobility ; an event that is regarded as the birth of the noble democracy in Poland, which lasted until the country's demise in 1795. In 1473, Nicolaus Copernicus was born, and in 1501 Polish king John I Albert died in Toruń; his heart
17931-597: The transmission of cuju outside of China, especially the form of the game popular in the Tang dynasty , the period when the inflatable ball was invented and replaced the stuffed ball. Other East Asian games include kemari in Japan and chuk-guk in Korea, both influenced by cuju . Kemari originated after the year 600 during the Asuka period . It was a ceremonial rather than
18070-439: The two matches deciding which team progresses. Where aggregates are equal, the away goals rule may be used to determine the winners, in which case the winner is the team that scored the most goals in the leg they played away from home. If the result is still equal, extra time and potentially a penalty shoot-out are required. Under the Laws, the two basic states of play during a game are ball in play and ball out of play . From
18209-480: The value of some of them exceeding 100 million euros. They include a new speedway stadium, major shopping and entertainment centres, a commercial complex popularly called a "New Centre of Toruń", a music theater, a centre of contemporary art, hotels, office buildings, facilities for the Nicolaus Copernicus University , roads and tram routes, sewage and fresh water delivery systems, residential projects,
18348-414: The voivodeship, it is considered as important in integrating Bydgoszcz-Toruń metropolitan area. A major modernization of BiT City railroute, as well as a purchase of completely new vehicles to serve the line, is planned for 2008 and 2009. Technically, it will allow to travel between Toruń-East and Bydgoszcz-Airport stations at a speed of 120 km/h (75 mph) in a time of approximately half an hour. In
18487-510: Was Charterhouse . The Freemasons' Tavern was the setting for five more meetings of The FA between October and December 1863; the English FA eventually issued the first comprehensive set of rules named Laws of the Game , forming modern football. The laws included bans on running with the ball in hand and hacking (kicking an opponent in the shins), tripping and holding. Eleven clubs, under the charge of FA secretary Ebenezer Cobb Morley , ratified
18626-496: Was buried in St. John's Cathedral . In 1500, the Tuba Dei , the largest church bell in Poland at the time, was installed at Toruń Cathedral, and a bridge across the Vistula was built, the country's longest wooden bridge at the time. In 1506, Toruń became a royal city of Poland. In 1528, the royal mint started operating in Toruń. In 1568, a gymnasium was founded, which after 1594 became one of
18765-527: Was first recorded as in exercise in the Zhan Guo Ce , a military history from the Han dynasty . Cuju players would pass the ball around, having to avoid it touching the ground at any point. It was then passed to a designated player, who attempted to kick it through the fengliu yan , a circular goal atop 10–11 meter poles. During the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE), cuju games were standardised and rules were established. The Silk Road facilitated
18904-419: Was first recorded in 1889 in the earlier form of socca . Kicking ball games arose independently multiple times across multiple cultures. The Chinese competitive game cuju ( 蹴鞠 , literally "kickball"; also known as tsu chu ) resembles modern association football as well as a mix of basketball, and volleyball. This is the earliest form of a kicking game for which there is historical evidence. The game
19043-497: Was motivated by a perceived threat to the "masculinity" of the game. Women's football became popular on a large scale at the time of the First World War , when female employment in heavy industry spurred the growth of the game, much as it had done for men 50 years earlier. The most successful team of the era was Dick, Kerr Ladies F.C. of Preston, England . The team played in one of the first women's international matches against
19182-455: Was unveiled in 2018. The most notable local sport clubs are football team Bug Wyszków [ pl ] and volleyball team KS Camper Wyszków [ pl ] . Both compete in the lower leagues. Wyszków is the setting of the song Wyszków Tonie (lit. Wyszków is Sinking ) by Polish rock band Elektryczne Gitary , released in the 1993 album A Ty Co . It uses sinking as an extended metaphor for succumbing to alcoholism. Wyszków
19321-567: Was used until the 18th century to store gunpowder. The local mayor pledged allegiance to the Polish king during the incorporation in March 1454 in Kraków, and then in May 1454, an official ceremony was held in Toruń, in which the nobility, knights, landowners, mayors and local officials from Chełmno Land , including Toruń, again solemnly swore allegiance to the Polish king and the Kingdom of Poland. Since 1454,
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