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101-642: The design is one of the tallest in the world at 240 m (787 ft), and will generate power by utilizing 12 turbines , each with a generating capacity of 850 MW , totalling the generating capacity to 10,200 MW . Construction began in 2015, the first generator was scheduled to be commissioned in 2018 and the entire project completed in 2021. The power station is owned by China Three Gorges Corporation . The first two turbines went online in July 2020. The station became fully operational in June 2021. This article about

202-441: A Cédula Real (Royal Permit) converting the chapel into a parish, and in so doing officially recognizing the small settlement as a hamlet. It is believed that Juan Ponce de León y Loayza, Juan Ponce de León's great-grandson, was instrumental in obtaining the royal permit to formalize the founding of the hamlet . Captains Enrique Salazar and Miguel del Toro were also instrumental. The city is named after Juan Ponce de León y Loayza,

303-458: A Francis turbine . Johann Segner developed a reactive water turbine ( Segner wheel ) in the mid-18th century in Kingdom of Hungary . It had a horizontal axis and was a precursor to modern water turbines. It is a very simple machine that is still produced today for use in small hydro sites. Segner worked with Euler on some of the early mathematical theories of turbine design. In the 18th century,

404-597: A hydroelectric power plant is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article about a dam or floodgate in Asia is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article about a power station in the People's Republic of China is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Water turbines A water turbine is a rotary machine that converts kinetic energy and potential energy of water into mechanical work. Water turbines were developed in

505-518: A pump to fill a high reservoir during off-peak electrical hours, and then revert to a water turbine for power generation during peak electrical demand. This type of turbine is usually a Deriaz or Francis turbine in design. This type of system is used in El Hierro, one of the Canary Islands: "When wind production exceeds demand, excess energy will pump water from a lower reservoir at the bottom of

606-424: A tropical savanna climate ( Koppen Aw/As ). Ponce has summer highs averaging 92 °F (33 °C) and winter highs, 87 °F (31 °C). It has lows averaging 67 °F (19 °C) in the winter and 74 °F (23 °C) in the summer. It has a record high of 100 °F (38 °C), which occurred on 21 August 2003, and a record low of 51 °F (11 °C) which occurred on 28 February 2004, tying

707-467: A Dr. Robert Barker invented a similar reaction hydraulic turbine that became popular as a lecture-hall demonstration. The only known surviving example of this type of engine used in power production, dating from 1851, is found at Hacienda Buena Vista in Ponce, Puerto Rico . In 1820, Jean-Victor Poncelet developed an inward-flow turbine. In 1826, Benoît Fourneyron developed an outward-flow turbine. This

808-449: A Knight Wheel, developed a Pelton wheel (double bucket design), which exhausted the water to the side, eliminating some energy loss of the Knight wheel which exhausted some water back against the center of the wheel. In about 1895, William Doble improved on Pelton's half-cylindrical bucket form with an elliptical bucket that included a cut in it to allow the jet a cleaner bucket entry. This is

909-679: A bloody event when the Insular Police, a force somewhat resembling the National Guard of the typical U.S. state and which answered to U.S.-appointed governor Blanton Winship , opened fire on unarmed and defenseless members of the Cadets of the Republic and bystanders. When the shooting stopped, nineteen civilians had been killed or mortally wounded. Over two hundred others were badly wounded. Many were shot in their backs while running away, including

1010-556: A factor of 2. Along with corrosion resistance and strength, weld-ability and density are important criteria for turbine blade material selection. Greater weld-ability allows for easier and high quality repairs. Low density allows higher efficiency through easier rotation. The most common material used in Kaplan Turbine blades are stainless steel alloys (SS). The martensitic stainless steel alloys have high strength that allow thinner sections than standard carbon steel; reduced mass enhances

1111-406: A force on the blades. Since the runner is spinning, the force acts through a distance (force acting through a distance is the definition of work ). In this way, energy is transferred from the water flow to the turbine. Water turbines are divided into two groups: reaction turbines and impulse turbines. The precise shape of water turbine blades is a function of the supply pressure of water, and

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1212-450: A great number of exquisite residences that reflected the high standing of its bourgeoisie. On July 27, American troops, aboard the Cincinnati , Dixie , Wasp , and Gloucester , disembarked at Playa de Ponce. General Nelson Miles arrived the next day with reinforcements from Guánica and took possession of the city. There were some minor skirmishes in the city, but no major battle

1313-536: A hub of political activity on the island, and is the founding site of several major political parties. It has also been the birthplace of several important political figures of the island, including Luis A. Ferré and Rafael Hernández Colón , both former governors of Puerto Rico , as well as the childhood town of governor Roberto Sanchez Vilella . Statistics taken from the 2010 census show that 82.0% of Ponceños are white and 9.0% are African-American , with Taínos , Asians , people of mixed race and others making up

1414-425: A major downturn. Sugar cane had until 1976 been grown and refined at Ponce's Central Mercedita , but in that year agricultural production of sugar cane was halted in the lands of the municipality of Ponce and adjacent towns. Also, the headquarters of Banco de Ponce and Banco Crédito y Ahorro Ponceño were moved to San Juan. Unemployment of Ponce jumped to 25% as a result of these changes. On October 7, 1985, Ponce

1515-632: A mixture of Art Nouveau and neoclassic styles to give the city a unique look. This can be seen in the various structures located in the center of the city like the Teatro La Perla . To showcase its rich architectural heritage, the city has opened the Museum of Puerto Rican Architecture at the Wiechers-Villaronga residence. Many of the city's features (from house façades to chamfered street corners) are modeled on Barcelona 's architecture, given

1616-582: A mob. They harshly criticized Winship's actions as governor and said he had numerous abuses of civil rights. The event has since been known as the Ponce massacre . It was the largest massacre in Puerto Rican history. As a result of this report and other charges against Winship, he was dismissed from his position in 1937 and replaced as governor. The history of this event can be viewed at the Ponce Massacre Museum on Marina Street. An open-air park in

1717-626: A new community built on stable ground. In 2005, the National Science and Technology Council's Subcommittee on Disaster Reduction of the United States reported that the Mameyes landslide held the record for having inflicted "the greatest loss of life by a single landslide" up to that year. The municipality of Ponce became the first in Puerto Rico to obtain its autonomy on October 27, 1992, under

1818-534: A new era of American turbine engineering. Water turbines, particularly in the Americas, would largely become standardized with the establishment of the Holyoke Testing Flume , described as the first modern hydraulic laboratory in the United States by Robert E. Horton and Clemens Herschel , the latter of which would serve as its chief engineer for a time. Initially created in 1872 by James B. Emerson from

1919-487: A new law ( The Autonomous Municipalities Act of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ) enacted by the Puerto Rican legislature. Ponce's mayor for 15 years, Rafael Cordero Santiago ("Churumba"), credited for leading the municipal government to that accomplishment, died in office on the morning of January 17, 2004, after suffering three consecutive strokes. Vice-mayor Delis Castillo Rivera de Santiago finished his term. Cordero

2020-540: A population of 278,477 and 333,426 respectively. The municipality of Ponce , officially the Autonomous Municipality of Ponce , is located in the southern coastal plain region of the island, south of Adjuntas , Utuado , and Jayuya ; east of Peñuelas ; west of Juana Díaz ; and bordered on the south by the Caribbean Sea . The municipality has 31 barrios , including 19 outside the city's urban area and 12 in

2121-472: A seven-year-old girl named Georgina Maldonado who was "killed through the back while running to a nearby church." The US commissioned an independent investigation headed by Arthur Garfield Hays, general counsel of the American Civil Liberties Union , together with prominent citizens of Puerto Rico. The members concluded in their report that the event was a massacre, with the police acting as

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2222-622: A significant amount of stainless steel added this way by the end of their lifetime. Elaborate welding procedures may be used to achieve the highest quality repairs. Other elements requiring inspection and repair during overhauls include bearings , packing box and shaft sleeves, servomotors, cooling systems for the bearings and generator coils, seal rings, wicket gate linkage elements and all surfaces. Ponce, Puerto Rico Ponce ( US : / ˈ p ɔː n s eɪ , ˈ p oʊ n -/ PAWN -say, POHN - , UK : / ˈ p ɒ n -/ PON - , Spanish: [ˈponse] )

2323-460: A spring acted directly to the valve of the turbine or the wicket gate to control the amount of water that enters the turbines. Newer systems with mechanical governors started around 1880. An early mechanical governor is a servomechanism that comprises a series of gears that use the turbine's speed to drive the flyball and turbine's power to drive the control mechanism. The mechanical governors were continued to be enhanced in power amplification through

2424-419: A surface area of 116.0 square miles (300 km ). The main physiographic features of the municipality of Ponce are: (1) the mountainous interior containing the headwaters of the main river systems, (2) an upper plain, (3) a range of predominantly east-west trending limestone hills, (4) a coastal plain, and (5) a coastal flat. The northern two-thirds of the municipality consists of the mountainous interior, with

2525-406: A turbine characterizes the turbine's shape in a way that is not related to its size. This allows a new turbine design to be scaled from an existing design of known performance. The specific speed is also the main criteria for matching a specific hydro site with the correct turbine type. The specific speed is the speed with which the turbine turns for a particular discharge Q, with unit head and thereby

2626-478: A volcanic cone to an upper reservoir at the top of the volcano 700 meters above sea level. The lower reservoir stores 150,000 cubic meters of water. The stored water acts as a battery. The maximum storage capacity is 270 MWh. When demand rises and there is not enough wind power, the water will be released to four hydroelectric turbines with a total capacity of 11 MW." Large modern water turbines operate at mechanical efficiencies greater than 90%. Turbine selection

2727-507: Is Puerto Rico's fourth highest peak. Nineteen barrios comprise the rural areas of the municipality, and the topology of their lands varies from flatlands to hills to steep mountain slopes. The hilly barrios of the municipality (moving clockwise around the outskirts of the city) are these seven: Quebrada Limón , Marueño , Magueyes , Tibes , Portugués Rural , Machuelo Arriba , and Cerrillos . The barrios of Canas , Coto Laurel , Capitanejo , Sabanetas , Vayas , and Bucaná also surround

2828-585: Is a city and a municipality on the southern coast of Puerto Rico . The most populated city outside the San Juan metropolitan area, Ponce was founded on August 12, 1692 and is named after Juan Ponce de León y Loayza , the great-grandson of Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León . Ponce is often referred to as La Perla del Sur (The Pearl of the South), La Ciudad Señorial (The Manorial City ), and La Ciudad de las Quenepas ( Genip City). The city serves as

2929-579: Is a swirl component of the water which passes energy to a spinning rotor. This additional component of motion allowed the turbine to be smaller than a water wheel of the same power. They could process more water by spinning faster and could harness much greater heads. (Later, impulse turbines were developed which didn't use swirl.) The earliest known water turbines date to the Roman Empire . Two helix-turbine mill sites of almost identical design were found at Chemtou and Testour , modern-day Tunisia , dating to

3030-407: Is able to produce unit power. Affinity laws allow the output of a turbine to be predicted based on model tests. A miniature replica of a proposed design, about one foot (0.3 m) in diameter, can be tested and the laboratory measurements applied to the final application with high confidence. Affinity laws are derived by requiring similitude between the test model and the application. Flow through

3131-618: Is based on the available water head , and less so on the available flow rate. In general, impulse turbines are used for high head sites, and reaction turbines are used for low head sites. Kaplan turbines with adjustable blade pitch are well-adapted to wide ranges of flow or head conditions, since their peak efficiency can be achieved over a wide range of flows. Small turbines (mostly under 10 MW) may have horizontal shafts, and even fairly large bulb-type turbines up to 100 MW or so may be horizontal. Very large Francis and Kaplan machines usually have vertical shafts because this makes best use of

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3232-726: Is called the historic district. There is a seismic detector that the University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez Campus, has placed in Barrio Cerrillos. Elevations include Cerro de Punta at 4,390 feet (1,340 m), the highest in Puerto Rico, located in Barrio Anón in the territory of the municipality of Ponce. Mount Jayuya, at 4,314 feet (1,315 m) is located on the boundary between Barrio Anón and Barrio Saliente in Jayuya. Cerro Maravilla , at nearly 3,970 feet (1,210 m) above sea level,

3333-422: Is largely used in dam and large power plants. Impulse turbines change the velocity of a water jet. The jet pushes on the turbine's curved blades which changes the direction of the flow. The resulting change in momentum ( impulse ) causes a force on the turbine blades. Since the turbine is spinning, the force acts through a distance (work) and the diverted water flow is left with diminished energy. An impulse turbine

3434-596: Is located to the east of Barrio Anón. There are many other mountains at lower elevations in the municipality, such as the Montes Llanos ridge and Mount Diablo, at 2,231 feet (680 m) and Mount Marueño, at 2,100 feet (640 m), and Pinto Peak, among others. Part of the Toro Negro Forest is located in Barrio Anón. Coastal promontories include Cuchara, Peñoncillo, Carnero, and Cabullón points. Fifty-six percent of

3535-452: Is one in which the pressure of the fluid flowing over the rotor blades is constant and all the work output is due to the change in kinetic energy of the fluid. Prior to hitting the turbine blades, the water's pressure ( potential energy ) is converted to kinetic energy by a nozzle and focused on the turbine. No pressure change occurs at the turbine blades, and the turbine doesn't require a housing for operation. Newton's second law describes

3636-431: Is the first modern water turbine. It is still the most widely used water turbine in the world today. The Francis turbine is also called a radial flow turbine, since water flows from the outer circumference towards the centre of runner. Inward flow water turbines have a better mechanical arrangement and all modern reaction water turbines are of this design. As the water swirls inward, it accelerates, and transfers energy to

3737-430: Is within these original six core city barrios. These eleven barrios composed what is known as the urban zone of the municipality. The remaining eight barrios ( Magueyes , Tibes , Montes Llanos , Maragüez , Portugués , Machuelo Arriba , Cerrillos , Sabanetas ) are located in the interior of the municipality. These last eight are outside the city limits and are neither coastal nor bordering barrios. A summary of all

3838-568: The Industrial Revolution , using scientific principles and methods. They also made extensive use of new materials and manufacturing methods developed at the time. The word turbine was introduced by the French engineer Claude Burdin in the early 19th century and is derived from the Greek word "τύρβη" for "whirling" or a " vortex ". The main difference between early water turbines and water wheels

3939-700: The La Guancha and El Tuque beaches. There is also a beach at Caja de Muertos Island . Lake Cerrillos is located within the limits of the municipality, as will be the future lake resulting from the Portugués Dam . The Cerrillos State Forest is also located in the municipality of Ponce. Coastal geographic features in Ponce include Bahía de Ponce , Caleta de Cabullones (Cabullones Cove), and five cays: Jueyes , Ratones , Cardona , Gatas , and Isla del Frio . Caja de Muertos Island and Morrillito islet are located at

4040-517: The Museo de la Historia de Ponce , which opened in the city in 1992. It depicts the history of the city from its early settlement days until the end of the 20th century. On September 20, 2017 Hurricane Maria struck the island of Puerto Rico. In Ponce, $ 1,000 million in damages were the initial estimates. An estimated 3,500 homes were completely or partially destroyed. The hurricane triggered numerous landslides in Ponce. The Municipality of Ponce sits on

4141-565: The Ponce Cement , Puerto Rico Iron Works , Vassallo Industries , and Destilería Serrallés . El Dia was also founded in Ponce in 1911. On March 21, 1937, a peaceful march was organized by the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party to celebrate the 64th anniversary of the abolition of slavery and protest the incarceration of their leader, Dr. Pedro Albizu Campos , in a federal prison on charges of sedition . The march turned into

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4242-616: The Spanish–American War , Ponce was the largest city in the island with a population of 22,000. Ponce had the best road in Puerto Rico, running from Ponce to San Juan , which had been built by the Spaniards for military purposes. The taking of Ponce by American troops "was a critical turning point in the Puerto Rican campaign. For the first time the Americans held a major port to funnel large numbers of men and quantities of war material into

4343-523: The 19th century and were widely used for industrial power prior to electrical grids . Now, they are mostly used for electric power generation. Water turbines are mostly found in dams to generate electric power from water potential energy. Water wheels have been used for hundreds of years for industrial power. Their main shortcoming is size, which limits the flow rate and head that can be harnessed. The migration from water wheels to modern turbines took about one hundred years. Development occurred during

4444-512: The Caribbean coast. The historic district is characterized for its Art Deco , Neoclásico Isabelino and Ponce Creole architectures . The region of what is now Ponce belonged to the Taíno Guaynia region, which stretched along the southern coast of Puerto Rico. Agüeybaná , a cacique who led the region, was among those who greeted Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León when he came to

4545-632: The Caribbean sea at Ponce Playa ward. The Matilde River, also known as the Pastillo River, runs for 12 mi (19 km); its tributaries are the Cañas River and the Limón and del Agua brooks. Lakes in Ponce include Bronce and Ponceña as well as lakes bearing numbers: Uno, Dos, Tres, and Cinco; and the Salinas Lagoon, which is considered a restricted lagoon. Other water bodies are the springs at Quintana and

4646-678: The Southern Coastal Plain region of the Puerto Rico, on the shores of the Caribbean Sea. It is bordered by the municipalities of Adjuntas, Utuado, Jayuya, Peñuelas, and Juana Díaz. Ponce is a large municipality, with only Arecibo larger in land area in Puerto Rico. In terms of physical features, the municipality occupies a roughly rectangular area in south-central portion of the Island of approximately 10 miles (16 km) wide (east-to-west) by 13 miles (21 km) long (north-to-south). It has

4747-748: The U.S. Census Bureau provides detailed demographics statistics for each of Ponce's barrios. The 2000 Census showed that Montes Llanos is the least populated barrio in the municipality. Thanks to its larger area, barrio Canas was by far the most populated ward of the municipality. At 68 persons per square mile, San Patricio was the least populated, while Cuarto was the most densely populated at 18,819 persons per square mile. Ponce has nine barrios that border neighboring municipalities. These are Canas , Quebrada Limón , Marueño , Guaraguao , San Patricio , Anón , Real , Coto Laurel , and Capitanejo . Canas and Capitanejo are also coastal barrios, and together with three others ( Playa , Bucaná , and Vayas ) make up

4848-575: The United States. The design effectively combined the inward flow principles of the Francis design with the downward discharge of the Jonval turbine , with flow inward at the inlet, axial through the wheel's body, and slightly outward at the outlet. Initially performing optimally at 90% efficiency at lower speeds, this design would see many improvements in the subsequent decades in derivatives under names like "Victor", "Risdon", "Samson" and "New American," ushering in

4949-823: The available head, and makes installation of a generator more economical. Pelton wheels may be either vertical or horizontal shaft machines because the size of the machine is so much less than the available head. Some impulse turbines use multiple jets per runner to balance shaft thrust. This also allows for the use of a smaller turbine runner, which can decrease costs and mechanical losses. • Water wheel • Screw turbine • VLH turbine • Kaplan turbine • Francis turbine • Pelton wheel • Turgo turbine 0.2 < H < 4   ( H = head in m) 1 < H < 10 1.5 < H < 4.5 2 < H < 70 10 < H < 300 80 < H < 1600 50 < H < 250 The specific speed n s {\displaystyle n_{s}} of

5050-422: The boundary between Ponce and Juana Díaz. There is a mangrove covering an area of approximately 100 acres (40 ha) at Cabullón promontory and Isla del Frio. The Salinas Lagoon, part of Reserva Natural Punta Cucharas , has a mangrove that expands about 37 acres (15 ha). The lagoon itself consists of 698 cuerdas (678 acres; 274 ha). The Rita cave is located in Barrio Cerrillos. Ponce features

5151-477: The capital, neglecting the south and thus starting a period of socio- economic stagnation for Ponce. This was worsened by several factors: At least one author has also blamed the stagnation on "the strife between the U.S. and the local Nationalist Party ." The 20th century financial stagnation prompted residents to initiate measures to attract economic activity back into the city. Also, a solid manufacturing industry surged that still remains. Examples of this are

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5252-416: The city of Ponce is the second largest in Puerto Rico outside of the San Juan metropolitan area. Its nicknames include: La Perla del Sur (The Pearl of the South) and La Ciudad Señorial (The Noble or Lordly City). The city is also known as La Ciudad de las Quenepas ( Genip City), from the abundant amount of this fruit that grows within its borders. The complete history of Ponce can be appreciated at

5353-698: The city's strong Catalan heritage. In 2020, the National Trust for Historic Preservation named the Ponce Historic Zone as one of America's most endangered historic places. With 31 barrios , Ponce is Puerto Rico's municipality with the largest number of barrios. Ponce's barrios consist of 12 located in the urban area of the city plus 19 outside the urban zone. Of these nineteen, seven were considered suburban in 1999. The suburban barrios were: Canas , Magueyes , Portugués , Machuelo Arriba , Sabanetas , Coto Laurel , and Cerrillos . A 2000 report by

5454-630: The city, the Pedro Albizu Campos Park , is dedicated to the memory of the president of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party. As a result of this event, Ponce has been identified as "the birthplace of Puerto Rican national identity." Ponce history in general is expressed at the Ponce History Museum , on the block bordered by Isabel, Mayor, Cristina, and Salud streets in the historic downtown area. Ponce has continued to be

5555-407: The controls were still done through analog systems. In the modern systems, also known as third-generation governors, the controls are performed digitally by algorithms that are programmed to the computer of the governor. A wicket gate , or guide vane , is a ring of gates (or vanes) surrounding a water turbine which control the flow of water entering it; varying the aperture between them manages

5656-410: The early 19th century, Ponce continued to be one of dozens of hamlets that dotted the Island. Its inhabitants survived by subsistence agriculture , cattle raising , and maritime contraband with foreigners. Mayor José Benítez categorized the jurisdiction into cotos , hatos , criaderos , monterías , and terrenos realengos . Cotos were lands awarded to residents as reward for their services to

5757-638: The electric grid of the city of Ponce was inaugurated on the first day of the Ponce Fair. In this occasion the Plaza Las Delicias and various other buildings, including the Mercantile Union Building, the Ponce Casino , and some of Ponce's homes were illuminated with the incandescent light bulb for the first time". At the time of the U.S. invasion and occupation of Puerto Rico in 1898 during

5858-439: The film which improves aqueous corrosion resistance. The chromium content in these steel alloys exceed the minimum of 12% chromium required to exhibit some atmospheric corrosion resistance. Having a higher chromium concentration in the steel alloys allows for a much longer lifespan of the turbine blades. Currently, the blades are made of martensitic stainless steels which have high strength compared to austenitic stainless steels by

5959-446: The gold fields, Knight developed a bucketed wheel which captured the energy of a free jet, which had converted a high head (hundreds of vertical feet in a pipe or penstock ) of water to kinetic energy. This is called an impulse or tangential turbine. The water's velocity, roughly twice the velocity of the bucket periphery, does a U-turn in the bucket and drops out of the runner at low velocity. In 1879, Lester Pelton , experimenting with

6060-624: The governmental seat of the autonomous municipality as well as the regional hub for various Government of Puerto Rico entities, such as the Judiciary of Puerto Rico . It is also the regional center for various U.S. Federal Government agencies. Ponce is a principal city of both the Ponce Metropolitan Statistical Area and the Ponce-Yauco-Coamo Combined Statistical Area with, as of the 2020 US Census,

6161-432: The great-grandson of Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León. In the early 18th century Don Antonio Abad Rodriguez Berrios built a small chapel under the name of San Antonio Abad. The area would later receive the name of San Antón , a historically important part of modern Ponce. In 1712 the village was chartered as El Poblado de Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe de Ponce (The Village of Our Lady of Guadalupe of Ponce). In

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6262-470: The hydrodynamic flow conditions and efficiency of the water turbine. The SS(13Cr-4Ni) has been shown to have improved erosion resistance at all angles of attack through the process of laser peening . It is important to minimize erosion in order to maintain high efficiencies because erosion negatively impacts the hydraulic profile of the blades which reduces the relative ease of rotation. Turbines are designed to run for decades with very little maintenance of

6363-699: The importing of industrial machinery, iron foundries and other enterprises. At the time of the American invasion of the Island in 1898, Ponce was a thriving city, boasting the Island's main financial center, the Island's first communications link to another country, the best capitalized financial institutions, and even its own currency. It had consular offices for England, Germany, the Netherlands, and other nations. Following trends set in Europe and elsewhere, in 1877, Don Miguel Rosich conceived an exposition for Ponce. This

6464-565: The island in 1508. Archaeological findings have identified four sites within the municipality of Ponce with archaeological significance: Canas , Tibes , Caracoles , and El Bronce . During the first years of the colonization , Spanish families started settling around the Jacaguas River , in the south of the island. For security reasons, these families moved to the banks of the Rio Portugués , then called Baramaya. Starting around 1646

6565-505: The island." Ponce also had underwater telegraph cable connections with Jamaica and the West Indies , putting the U.S. forces on the island in direct communication with Washington, D.C. , for the first time since the beginning of the campaign. Just prior to the United States occupation of the island, Ponce was a flourishing and dynamic city with a significant number of public facilities, a large number of industries and commercial firms, and

6666-544: The king. They were developed into estancias or lands apt to be cultivated for agricultural use. Hatos were lands not granted to anyone in particular, but available for communal use where cattle could roam at will. Monterías were hilly areas located next to hatos were cattle could be reigned in or gathered together with the help of trained dogs. Criaderos were lands were cows could be herded for milk production. Goats, sheep, pigs, asses, and mares were also herded in criaderos . Terrenos realengos were lands that belonged to

6767-404: The late 19th century (including water wheels ) were basically reaction machines; water pressure head acted on the machine and produced work. A reaction turbine needs to fully contain the water during energy transfer. In 1866, California millwright Samuel Knight invented a machine that took the impulse system to a new level. Inspired by the high pressure jet systems used in hydraulic mining in

6868-422: The late 3rd or early 4th century AD. The horizontal water wheel with angled blades was installed at the bottom of a water-filled, circular shaft. The water from the mill race entered the pit tangentially, creating a swirling water column which made the fully submerged wheel act like a true turbine. Fausto Veranzio in his book Machinae Novae (1595) described a vertical axis mill with a rotor similar to that of

6969-528: The main elements; overhaul intervals are on the order of several years. Maintenance of the runners and parts exposed to water include removal, inspection, and repair of worn parts. Normal wear and tear includes pitting corrosion from cavitation , fatigue cracking , and abrasion from suspended solids in the water. Steel elements are repaired by welding, usually with stainless steel rods. Damaged areas are cut or ground out, then welded back up to their original or an improved profile. Old turbine runners may have

7070-407: The mechanical forces of this speed. The manufacturer will supply the runaway speed rating. Different designs of governors have been used since the mid-18th century to control the speeds of the water turbines. A variety of flyball systems, or first-generation governors, were used during the first 100 years of water turbine speed controls. In early flyball systems, the flyball component countered by

7171-477: The modern fluid bearing was invented, now universally used to support heavy water turbine spindles. As of 2002, fluid bearings appear to have a mean time between failures of more than 1300 years. Around 1913, Viktor Kaplan created the Kaplan turbine , a propeller-type machine. It was an evolution of the Francis turbine and revolutionized the ability to develop low-head hydro sites. All common water machines until

7272-449: The modern form of the Pelton turbine which today achieves up to 92% efficiency. Pelton had been quite an effective promoter of his design and although Doble took over the Pelton company he did not change the name to Doble because it had brand name recognition. Turgo and cross-flow turbines were later impulse designs. Flowing water is directed on to the blades of a turbine runner, creating

7373-427: The municipality consists of slopes 10 degrees or greater. The 14 rivers comprising the hydrographic system of Ponce are Matilde , Inabón , Bucaná , Jacaguas , Portugués , Cañas , Pastillo , Cerrillos , Chiquito , Bayagan , Blanco , Prieto , Anón and San Patricio The Jacaguas River runs for a brief stretch on the southeast area of the municipality. The Inabón River springs from Anón ward and runs through

7474-777: The municipality for some 18 mi (29.0 km); the tributaries of the Inabón are the Anón and Guayo rivers and the Emajagua Brook. The Bucaná River springs from Machuelo Arriba ward and runs for 18.5 mi (29.8 km) into the Caribbean Sea. The tributaries of the Bucaná are the San Patricio, Bayagán , and Prieto Rivers and Ausubo brook. The Portugués River springs from the ward of that name in Adjuntas, and runs for 17.3 mi (27.8 km) into

7575-401: The municipality's five coastal barrios. There are also five barrios within the city limits ( Canas Urbano , Machuelo Abajo , Magueyes Urbano , Portugués Urbano , and San Antón ) that in addition to the original six city core barrios — named Primero , Segundo , Tercero , Cuarto , Quinto , and Sexto — make up the 11 urban zone barrios of the municipality. The historic zone of the city

7676-469: The offices of Ponce's island-wide El Dia newspaper that he owned, as well as the headquarters of his Empresas Ferré , to San Juan. In 1976, CORCO —southern Puerto Rico's main source of economic vitality—shut down its industrial operations in Guayanilla leaving thousands of area residents without work; its impact on indirect sources of employment was even greater. Also, the sugar cane industry, also suffered

7777-492: The outskirts of the city but these are mostly flat. The remaining six other barrios are further away from the city and their topology is rugged mountain terrain. These are (clockwise): Guaraguao , San Patricio , Monte Llano , Maragüez , Anón , and Real . The ruggedness of these barrios is because through these areas of the municipality runs the Central Mountain Range of the Island. The remaining barrios are part of

7878-411: The rate of the turbine's spin, and thereby the amount of electricity generated. Given that the turbine blades in a water turbine are constantly exposed to water and dynamic forces, they need to have high corrosion resistance and strength. The most common material used in overlays on carbon steel runners in water turbines are austenitic steel alloys that have 17% to 20% chromium to increase stability of

7979-508: The record low of 51 °F (11 °C) from 25 January 1993. The mean annual temperature in the municipality is 79 °F (26 °C). During the 19th century, the city was witness to a flourishing architectural development, including the birth of a new architectural style later dubbed Ponce Creole . Architects like Francisco Valls, Manuel Víctor Domenech , Eduardo Salich, Blas Silva Boucher , Agustín Camilo González, Alfredo Wiechers, Francisco Porrata Doria and Francisco Gardón Vega used

8080-501: The regional hub for various commonwealth entities. For example, it serves as the southern hub for the Judiciary of Puerto Rico. It is also the regional center for various other commonwealth and federal government agencies. Ponce has improved its economy in the last years. In recent years, Ponce has solidified its position as the second most important city of Puerto Rico based on its economic progress and increasing population. Today,

8181-480: The rest. The 1970s brought significant commercial, industrial and banking changes to Ponce that dramatically altered its financial stability and outlook of the city, the municipality and, to an extent, the entire southern Puerto Rico region. After Luis A. Ferre concluded his term as governor of Puerto Rico on January 1, 1973, he closed the Puerto Rico Iron Works foundry on Avenida Hostos , and transferred

8282-469: The rest. At 82.0% vs. 76.2% for the island as a whole, Ponce has the highest concentration of white population of any municipality in Puerto Rico. However, the US Census Bureau changed the definitions of its racial makeup categories for the 2020 Census resulting in 19.0% of Ponceños being classified as white and 13.3% as Black/Afro Puerto Rican' , 0.3% as Asian , and people of mixed race making up

8383-559: The revolutions and disruption of societies as nations gained independence from Spain in the 1810s-1820s. Third, the Spanish Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 attracted numerous European immigrants to Puerto Rico. It encouraged any citizen of a country politically friendly to Spain to settle in Puerto Rico as long as they converted to the Catholic faith and agreed to work in the agricultural business. With such mass migrations, not only

8484-589: The runner. Water pressure decreases to atmospheric, or in some cases subatmospheric, as the water passes through the turbine blades and loses energy. In 1876, John B. McCormick , building on Francis's designs, demonstrated the first modern mixed-flow turbine with the development of the Hercules turbine, initially manufactured by the Holyoke Machine Company and subsequently improved upon by engineers in Germany and

8585-503: The size of the town was changed, but the character of its population was changed as well. Europeans, including many Protestants , immigrated from a variety of nations. On July 29, 1848, and as a result of this explosive growth, the Ponce hamlet was declared a villa (village) by Queen Isabella II , and in 1877 the village obtained its city charter. Some of these immigrants made considerable fortunes in coffee , corn and sugarcane harvesting, rum production, banking and finance ,

8686-451: The southern side of the central mountain range and the Cayey mountain range. The central area of the municipality is part of the semi-arid southern hills. These two regions are classified as being the driest on the island. The northern part of the municipality is considered to be within the rainy western mountains. Barrio Anón is home to Cerro Maravilla , a peak that at 4,085 feet (1,245 m)

8787-458: The southern third divided between hills, coastal plains, and the coastal flat. Ponce's municipal territory reaches the central mountain range to the north and the Caribbean Sea to the south. Geographically speaking, the southern area of the territory is part of the Ponce-Patillas alluvial plain subsector and the southern coastal plain, which were created by the consolidation of the valleys of

8888-784: The state (to the king). However, in the 1820s, three events dramatically changed the size of the town. The first of these events was the arrival of a significant number of white Francophones , fleeing the Haitian Revolution of 1791–1804. The effect of this mass migration was not felt significantly until the 1820s. These French Creole entrepreneurs were attracted to the area because of its large flatlands, and they came with enough capital, slaves , and commercial connections to stimulate Ponce's sugarcane production and sales. Secondly, landlords and merchants migrated from various Latin American countries. They had migrated for better conditions, as they were leaving economic decline following

8989-652: The testing flumes of Lowell , after 1880 the Holyoke, Massachusetts hydraulic laboratory was standardized by Herschel, who used it to develop the Venturi meter , the first accurate means of measuring large flows, to properly measure water power efficiency by different turbine models. While skepticism of certain weir calculations were held by European hydrologists, the facility allowed for standard efficiency testing among major manufacturers through 1932, by which time more modern facilities and methods had proliferated. Around 1890,

9090-510: The transfer of energy for impulse turbines. Impulse turbines are often used in very high (>300m/1000 ft) head applications. The power available in a stream is; P = η ⋅ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h ⋅ q ˙ {\displaystyle P=\eta \cdot \rho \cdot g\cdot h\cdot {\dot {q}}} where: Some water turbines are designed for pumped-storage hydroelectricity. They can reverse flow and operate as

9191-430: The turbine is controlled either by a large valve or by wicket gates arranged around the outside of the turbine runner. Differential head and flow can be plotted for a number of different values of gate opening, producing a hill diagram used to show the efficiency of the turbine at varying conditions. The runaway speed of a water turbine is its speed at full flow, and no shaft load. The turbine will be designed to survive

9292-595: The type of impeller selected. Reaction turbines are acted on by water, which changes pressure as it moves through the turbine and gives up its energy. They must be encased to contain the water pressure (or suction), or they must be fully submerged in the water flow. Newton's third law describes the transfer of energy for reaction turbines. Most water turbines in use are reaction turbines and are used in low (<30 m or 100 ft) and medium (30–300 m or 100–1,000 ft) head applications. In reaction turbine, pressure drop occurs in both fixed and moving blades. It

9393-401: The urban area of the city. It is the second largest in Puerto Rico by land area, and it was the first in Puerto Rico to obtain its autonomy , becoming the Autonomous Municipality of Ponce in 1992. The historic Ponce Pueblo district, located in the downtown area of the city, is composed by several of the downtown barrios , and is located approximately three miles (4.8 km) inland from

9494-507: The urban zone of the city. There are six barrios in the core urban zone of the municipality named Primero , Segundo , Tercero , Cuarto , Quinto , and Sexto . They are delimetered by streets, rivers, or major highways. For example, Barrio Tercero is bounded in the north by Isabel Street, in the east by the Rio Portugués, in the south by Comercio Street, and the west by Plaza Las Delicias . Barrio Tercero includes much of what

9595-419: The use of gears and the dynamic behavior. By 1930, the mechanical governors had many parameters that could be set on the feedback system for precise controls. In the later part of the twentieth century, electronic governors and digital systems started to replace the mechanical governors. In the electronic governors, also known as second-generation governors, the flyball was replaced by rotational speed sensor but

9696-632: The whole area from the Rio Portugués to the Bay of Guayanilla was called Ponce. In 1670, a small chapel was raised in the middle of the small settlement and dedicated in honor of Our Lady of Guadalupe . Among its earliest settlers were Juan Ponce de León y Loayza , and the Portuguese Don Pedro Rodríguez de Guzmán, from nearby San Germán . On September 17, 1692, the King of Spain Carlos II issued

9797-617: Was an efficient machine (~80%) that sent water through a runner with blades curved in one dimension. The stationary outlet also had curved guides. In 1844, Uriah A. Boyden developed an outward flow turbine that improved on the performance of the Fourneyron turbine. Its runner shape was similar to that of a Francis turbine . In 1849, James B. Francis improved the inward flow reaction turbine to over 90% efficiency. He also conducted sophisticated tests and developed engineering methods for water turbine design. The Francis turbine , named for him,

9898-605: Was approved in 1880, and the Ponce Fair was held in the city in 1882. It showed several industrial and agricultural advancements. "It is important to establish a relationship between the European exhibitions that I have mentioned and the Ponce Fair, as the Fair was meant as a showcase of the advancements of the day: Agriculture, Trade, Industry, and the Arts. Just as with the 1878 World's Fair in Paris,

9999-520: Was fought. Three men were killed and 13 wounded on the Spanish side, while the Americans suffered four wounded. The American flag was raised in the town center that same day and most of the Spanish troops retreated into the surrounding mountains. The U.S. Army then established its headquarters in Ponce. After the U.S. invasion , the Americans chose to centralize the administration of the island in San Juan ,

10100-475: Was succeeded by Francisco Zayas Seijo . In the 2008 general elections María "Mayita" Meléndez was elected mayor of the city of Ponce and served three terms. The current (2021) mayor is Luis Irizarry Pabón who became the first mayoral candidate in the modern history of Ponce to win with more than 60% of votes cast. The city is also the governmental seat of the Autonomous Municipality of Ponce, and

10201-425: Was the scene of a major tragedy, when at least 129 people lost their lives to a mudslide in a sector of Barrio Portugués Urbano called Mameyes . International help was needed to rescue people and recover corpses. The United States and many other countries, including Mexico, France, and Venezuela , sent economic, human, and machinery relief. The commonwealth government, subsequently, relocated hundreds of people to

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