Wu Youji ( Chinese : 武攸暨 ) (died July 17, 712), posthumous name Prince Zhongjian of Ding (定忠簡王), was an imperial prince of the Wu Zhou dynasty and an official of the Tang dynasty . He is best known as the second husband of Wu Zetian 's powerful daughter Princess Taiping .
143-534: It is not known when Wu Youji was born. What is known is that his grandfather Wu Shirang (武士讓) was an uncle of Emperor Gaozong 's second wife Empress Wu (later known as Wu Zetian), and that he, like Wu Zetian's father Wu Shihuo (武士彠), had supported the Tang dynasty 's founder Emperor Gaozu and had been, for his accomplishments, created the Duke of Xuancheng and buried with honor near Emperor Gaozu's tomb. As of 690, Empress Wu
286-403: A campaign against Goguryeo , he took Li Zhi with him to Ding Prefecture (定州, roughly modern Baoding , Hebei) and then left Li Zhi there to be in charge of logistics, before heading to the front himself. He also left senior officials Gao Shilian , Liu Ji, Ma Zhou, Zhang Xingcheng , and Gao Jifu to assist Li Zhi. After the campaign ended in failure later that year, as Emperor Taizong was leading
429-527: A Tang vassal state , the Tuyuhun . Tuyuhun's Ledou Khan Murong Nuohebo , unable to withstand the Tibetan attack, took his people and fled into Tang territory to seek protection, thus ending Tuyuhun's existence as a state. Meanwhile, also in 663, Liu Rengui and Liu Renyuan, in conjunction with Munmu of Silla and the former Baekje crown prince Buyeo Yung , defeated Buyeo Pung and Japanese forces sent to assist him, at
572-580: A campaign of reprisal on her behalf. Empress Wu, on the other hand, persuaded Emperor Gaozong to work with the removal of the chancellors appointed by Emperor Taizong to consolidate the emperor's power. In 657, they accused Han Yuan and Lai Ji of plotting treason with Chu Suiliang, who was then serving as the commandant at Gui Prefecture (桂州, roughly modern Guilin , Guangxi). Emperor Gaozong demoted Han and Lai to be prefects of distant prefectures, and demoted Chu and Liu Shi to even more distant prefectures—in Chu's case, to
715-482: A cohabiting male may also be called a concubine. In the 21st century, concubinage is used in some Western countries as a gender-neutral legal term to refer to cohabitation (including cohabitation between same-sex partners). The English terms "concubine" and "concubinage" appeared in the 14th century, deriving from Latin terms in Roman society and law . The term concubine ( c. 1300 ), meaning "a paramour,
858-529: A commandant at Tan Prefecture (roughly modern Changsha , Hunan), and then deposed both Empress Wang and Consort Xiao, putting them under arrest and creating Consort Wu, as empress (皇后, huánghòu) and the most powerful woman in the empire (天下母, Tiānxià Mǔ) instead to replace Empress Wang. (Later that year, Empress Wang and Consort Xiao were killed on orders by the new Empress Wu after Emperor Gaozong showed signs of considering their release.) Then, at Xu's suggestion, in spring 656, Emperor Gaozong demoted Li Zhong to be
1001-410: A concubine to wife, if the original wife had died and the concubine was the mother of the only surviving sons. Moreover, the prohibition against forcing a widow to remarry was extended to widowed concubines. During this period tablets for concubine-mothers seem to have been more commonly placed in family ancestral altars, and genealogies of some lineages listed concubine-mothers. Many of the concubines of
1144-494: A daughter that died shortly after birth. Evidence implicated Empress Wang as the killer, although some historians believe Consort Wu killed her own daughter in order to frame Empress Wang, but no concrete evidence of this exists. In anger, Emperor Gaozong considered deposing Empress Wang and replacing her with Consort Wu, but wanted to make sure that the chancellors would support this, and so visited Zhangsun's house with Consort Wu, awarding him with much treasure, but when he brought up
1287-583: A long-term sexual relationship between a man and a woman who are not legally married. In pre-modern to modern law, concubinage has been used in certain jurisdictions to describe cohabitation, and in France, was formalized in 1999 as the French equivalent of a civil union . The US legal system also used to use the term in reference to cohabitation, but the term never evolved further and is now considered outdated. Forms of concubinage have existed in all cultures, though
1430-451: A man and were expected to bear children for him. Unofficial concubines ( Chinese : 婢妾 ; pinyin : bì qiè ) were of lower status, and their children were considered illegitimate. The English term concubine is also used for what the Chinese refer to as pínfēi ( Chinese : 嬪妃 ), or "consorts of emperors", an official position often carrying a very high rank. In premodern China it
1573-455: A man could kill another man caught attempting a relationship with his concubine. By the mid fourth century, concubines could inherit property, but, like wives, they were treated as sexual property. While references to the sexual exploitation of maidservants appear in literature, it was considered disgraceful for a man to keep such women under the same roof as his wife. Apollodorus of Acharnae said that hetaera were concubines when they had
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#17329018633471716-655: A monogamous relationship that was an alternative to marriage, usually because of the woman's lesser social status. Widowed or divorced men often took a concubina , the Latin term from which the English "concubine" is derived, rather than remarrying, so as to avoid complications of inheritance. After the Christianization of the Roman Empire , Christian emperors improved the status of the concubine by granting concubines and their children
1859-429: A more direct presence with more legitimacy in the exercise of power. Her three sons were created princes, and her mansion was the size of a palace and even more magnificent. By 711, a power struggle between Princess Taiping and Li Longji (who was created crown prince) had become intense, and at the suggestion of the chancellors Song Jing and Yao Yuanzhi , Emperor Ruizong briefly sent Princess Taiping and Wu Youji out of
2002-537: A number of her associates, he forced her to commit suicide. After her death, Wu Youji's grand tomb was destroyed. Emperor Gaozong of Tang Emperor Gaozong of Tang (21 July 628 – 27 December 683 ), personal name Li Zhi , was the third emperor of the Chinese Tang dynasty , ruling from 649 to 683; after January 665, he handed power over the empire to his second wife Empress Wu (the future Wu Zetian ), and her decrees were carried out with greater force than
2145-400: A pearl screen behind him to hear the reports, and before the emperor can decide, he must ask the empress: therefore she got involved in everything pertaining to the empire and discussed and helped decide all "great and small" military and state affairs; her power is no different from that of the emperor. Since Empress Wu began to listen to politics in court, she established herself and Gaozong in
2288-470: A permanent relationship with a single man, but nonetheless used the two terms interchangeably. Concubinatus was a monogamous union recognized socially and to some extent legally as an alternative to marriage in the Roman Empire . Concubinage was practiced most often in couples when one partner, almost always the man, belonged to a higher social rank, especially the senatorial order , who were penalized for marrying below their class. The female partner
2431-583: A plea on Duman's behalf—that he had promised Duman life before Duman surrendered—and Emperor Gaozong stated that while under the law, Duman should die, he would honor Su's promise, and so he spared Duman. On the other end of the Tang atmosphere of influence, on the Korean Peninsula , Baekje had been attacking the Tang ally Silla . Once Su returned from the Esegel campaign, Emperor Gaozong commissioned him to head over
2574-508: A plot element, the children of concubines are depicted with a status much inferior to that in actual history. The zhai dou ( Chinese : 宅斗 ，residential intrigue) and gong dou ( Chinese : 宫斗 ，harem intrigue) genres show concubines and wives, as well as their children, scheming secretly to gain power. Empresses in the Palace , a gong dou type novel and TV drama, has had great success in 21st-century China. Hong Kong officially abolished
2717-499: A relief force, and Liu Rengui and Liu Renyuan were able to fight off the Baekje resistance forces' attacks, but were themselves not strong enough to quell the rebellion, and so for some time the armies were in stalemate. Meanwhile, Su advanced on the Goguryeo capital Pyongyang and put it under siege, but was unable to capture it quickly. In spring 662, after the general Pang Xiaotai ( 龐孝泰 )
2860-660: A son, the son could inherit his father's social status. Concubines sometimes wielded significant influence. Nene , wife of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, was known to overrule her husband's decisions at times and Yodo-dono , his concubine, became the de facto master of Osaka castle and the Toyotomi clan after Hideyoshi's death. Joseon monarchs had a harem which contained concubines of different ranks. Empress Myeongseong managed to have sons, preventing sons of concubines from getting power. Children of concubines often had lower value in account of marriage. A daughter of concubine could not marry
3003-419: A surprise attack on Duman. When he arrived at Duman's headquarters, Duman was surprised, and after Su initially defeated Duman, Duman was forced to withdraw within the city. Su put the city under siege, and Duman surrendered. In spring 660, Su took Duman back to the eastern capital Luoyang , where Emperor Gaozong was at the time, to present Duman to him. Some officials requested that Duman be executed, but Su made
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#17329018633473146-518: A treasonous plot by Zhangsun. Emperor Gaozong, without meeting with Zhangsun, believed Xu, and put Zhangsun under house arrest in exile at Qian Prefecture (黔州, roughly modern southeastern Chongqing ). Xu further implicated Chu, Liu, Han, and Yu Zhining in the plot as well. Yu was removed from his post. Chu, who had died in 658, was posthumously stripped of all titles, and his sons Chu Yanfu ( 褚彥甫 ) and Chu Yanchong ( 褚彥沖 ) were executed. Orders were also issued to execute Liu and Han, although Han died before
3289-466: A viable alternative to marriage. In polygynous situations, the number of concubines there were permitted within an individual concubinage arrangement has varied greatly. In Roman law , where monogamy was expected, the relationship was identical (and alternative) to marriage except for the lack of marital affection from both or one of the parties, which conferred rights related to property, inheritance and social rank. By contrast, in parts of Asia and
3432-420: A wife-born son of the same class. For example, Jang Nok-su was a concubine-born daughter of a mayor, who was initially married to a slave-servant, and later became a high-ranking concubine of Yeonsangun . The Joseon dynasty established in 1392 debated whether the children of a free parent and a slave parent should be considered free or slave. The child of a scholar-official father and a slave-concubine mother
3575-488: A woman who cohabits with a man without being married to him", comes from the Latin concubina ( f. ) and concubinus ( m. ), terms that in Roman law meant "one who lives unmarried with a married man or woman". The Latin terms are derived from the verb from concumbere "to lie with, to lie together, to cohabit," an assimilation of " com ", a prefix meaning "with, together" and " cubare ", meaning "to lie down". Concubine
3718-401: Is a term used widely in historical and academic literature, and which varies considerably depending on the context. In the twenty-first century, it typically refers explicitly to extramarital affection, "either to a mistress or to a sex slave ", without the same emphasis on the cohabiting aspect of the original meaning. Concubinage emerged as an English term in the late 14th century to mean
3861-402: Is forty of silver. Therefore, send very beautiful concubines without blemish." – (Lewis, 146) Concubines would be kept in the pharaoh's harem . Amenhotep III kept his concubines in his palace at Malkata , which was one of the most opulent in the history of Egypt. The king was considered to be deserving of many women as long as he cared for his Great Royal Wife as well. In Ancient Greece ,
4004-478: The Battle of Baekgang . Buyeo Pung fled to Goguryeo, ending the Baekje resistance movement. Emperor Gaozong recalled Liu Renyuan, leading Liu Rengui in charge of former Baekje territory, but in 664 sent Liu Renyuan back to Baekje and tried to recall Liu Rengui. Liu Rengui petitioned to remain to prepare for another attack on Goguryeo, and Emperor Gaozong agreed to let him remain. By 664, Empress Wu, who felt that her power
4147-530: The Eastern Han period (AD 25–220) onward, the number of concubines a man could have was limited by law. The higher rank and the more noble identity a man possessed, the more concubines he was permitted to have. A concubine's treatment and situation was variable and was influenced by the social status of the male to whom she was attached, as well as the attitude of his wife. In the Book of Rites chapter on "The Pattern of
4290-790: The Great Qing Legal Code in 1971, thereby making concubinage illegal. Casino magnate Stanley Ho of Macau took his "second wife" as his official concubine in 1957, while his "third and fourth wives" retain no official status. Polygyny and concubinage were very common in Mongol society, especially for powerful Mongol men. Genghis Khan , Ögedei Khan , Jochi , Tolui , and Kublai Khan (among others) all had many wives and concubines. Genghis Khan frequently acquired wives and concubines from empires and societies that he had conquered, these women were often princesses or queens that were taken captive or gifted to him. Genghis Khan's most famous concubine
4433-673: The Göktürks and the Western Turkic Khaganate were subjected to repeated rebellions. Li Zhi was born in 628. He was the ninth son of his father, Emperor Taizong , and the third son of his mother, Emperor Taizong's wife Empress Zhangsun . In 631, he was created the Prince of Jin. In 633, he was made commandant of Bing Prefecture (并州, roughly modern Taiyuan , Shanxi), but remained at the capital Chang'an rather than reporting to Bing Prefecture. When Empress Zhangsun died in 636, Emperor Taizong
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4576-574: The Mongol conquests , both foreign royals and captured women were taken as concubines. Concubinage was also common in Meiji Japan as a status symbol . Many Middle Eastern societies used concubinage for reproduction. The practice of a barren wife giving her husband a slave as a concubine is recorded in the Code of Hammurabi . The children of such relationships would be regarded as legitimate . Such concubinage
4719-510: The New Book of Tang : Whenever the emperor was ill, the affairs of the state were left to the empress to decide. The court and the country called them "Two Saints" ( 二聖 , Er Sheng ). Each time the emperor personally addressed court matters, a curtain hung in the hall ( 垂簾聽政 , Chuílián tīngzhèng ), and both the emperor and empress presided over the court together. It is up to empress's to decide who will be promoted and demoted, die and survive, and
4862-470: The legal personhood to marry under Roman law or to contract concubinatus , but the heterosexual union of two slaves, or a freedperson and a slave, might be recognized as an intention to marry when both partners gained the legal status that permitted them to do so. In this quasi-marital union, called contubernium , children seem often to have been desired, in contrast to concubinatus , in which children more often were viewed as complications and there
5005-411: The "state of being a concubine; act or practice of cohabiting in intimacy without legal marriage", and was derived from Latin by means of Old French, where the term may in turn have been derived from the Latin concubinatus , an institution in ancient Rome that meant "a permanent cohabitation between persons to whose marriage there were no legal obstacles". It has also been described more plainly as
5148-566: The Buddhist monk Dochim ( 道琛 ) and the former Baekje general Gwisil Boksin rose to try to revive Baekje. They welcomed the Baekje prince Buyeo Pung back from Japan to serve as king, with Juryu (주류, 周留, now Seocheon County , South Chungcheong ) as their headquarters. They put the Tang general Liu Renyuan ( 劉仁願 ) under siege in Sabi. Emperor Gaozong sent the general Liu Rengui , who had previously been demoted to commoner rank for offending Li Yifu, with
5291-661: The Court" ( 二聖臨朝 , Er Sheng Lín cháo ). The first book: the Later Jin historian Liu Xu , in Old Book of Tang , commented: The Empress of Heaven was at the helm of the country for long years, her power is no different from that of the emperor. When emperor's could not listen to the court issues, all affairs were decided by the Empress of Heaven. Since the execution of the Shangguan Yi , whenever
5434-554: The Family" ( Chinese : 內則 ) it says, "If there were betrothal rites, she became a wife; and if she went without these, a concubine." Wives brought a dowry to a relationship, but concubines did not. A concubinage relationship could be entered into without the ceremonies used in marriages, and neither remarriage nor a return to her natal home in widowhood were allowed to a concubine. There are early records of concubines allegedly being buried alive with their masters to "keep them company in
5577-496: The Jia family are supported by one notable concubine of the emperor, Jia Yuanchun , the full elder sister of the male protagonist Jia Baoyu . In contrast, their younger half-siblings by concubine Zhao, Jia Tanchun and Jia Huan, develop distorted personalities because they are the children of a concubine. Emperors' concubines and harems are emphasized in 21st-century romantic novels written for female readers and set in ancient times. As
5720-570: The Middle East, powerful men kept as many concubines as they could financially support. Some royal households had thousands of concubines. In such cases concubinage served as a status symbol and for the production of sons. In societies that accepted polygyny, there were advantages to having a concubine over a mistress, as children from a concubine were legitimate, while children from a mistress would be considered "bastards". Scholars have made attempts to categorize patterns of concubinage practiced in
5863-511: The Prince of Chu, she created Wu Youji the Prince of Qiancheng. In 691, she created him the greater title of Prince of Ding. At a later point, however, his title was reduced to Prince of Anding. Wu Youji was known for being unambitious and peaceful in his character, and, unlike Princess Taiping, who was very much involved in her mother's reign and often gave her mother advice, appeared to be largely uninvolved in Wu Zetian's governance. An exception
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6006-475: The Prince of Jing to make Li Yuanjing emperor. Fang, knowing that Zhangsun had long been apprehensive of Li Ke, falsely implicated Li Ke in the plot as well, hoping to ingratiate Zhangsun sufficiently that he would be spared. nevertheless, in spring 653, at the suggestion of Zhangsun and Cui Dunli – despite Emperor Gaozong's initial inclination to spare Li Yuanjing and Li Ke—Emperor Gaozong ordered that Fang, Xue, and Chai be executed, and that Li Yuanjing, Li Ke, and
6149-467: The Prince of Liang and created Empress Wu's oldest son Li Hong the Prince of Dai crown prince instead. In 655 as well, Emperor Gaozong commissioned the general Cheng Zhijie ( 程知節 ) to attack Ashina Helu, but while the campaign saw some victories over Western Turkic Khaganate's substituent tribes Geluolu ( 歌邏祿 ) and Chuyue ( 處月 ), it was hindered by Cheng's inability to restrain his assistant Wang Wendu ( 王文度 ) from pillaging and inappropriately halting
6292-424: The Prince of Shu, as well as Fang's brother Fang Yizhi ( 房遺直 ) and Xue's brother Xue Wanbei ( 薛萬備 ). By 654, both Empress Wang and Consort Xiao had lost favor with Emperor Gaozong, and the former romantic rivals joined forces against Consort Wu, but to no avail, and as a sign of his love to Consort Wu, in 654 he conferred posthumous honors on her father Wu Shihuo ( 武士彠 ). Later that year, Consort Wu gave birth to
6435-448: The Prince of Wei, were locked in an intense rivalry, as Li Tai was favored by Emperor Taizong for his talent and was trying to displace Li Chengqian. Li Chengqian, in fear, entered into a conspiracy with the general Hou Junji , his uncle Li Yuanchang ( 李元昌 ) the Prince of Han, the imperial guard commander Li Anyan ( 李安儼 ), and his brothers-in-law Zhao Jie (趙節, who was also his cousin) and Du He ( 杜荷 ) to overthrow Emperor Taizong. The plot
6578-449: The Prince of Wen was installed as emperor, but Empress Wei retained power as empress dowager. Less than a month later, a coup led by Princess Taiping and Li Dan's son Li Longji the Prince of Linzi killed Empress Wei and Li Guo'er. At the urging of Princess Taiping, Li Longji, and Li Longji's brother Li Chengqi the Prince of Song, Li Dan retook the throne. After the coup, many Wu clan members who had supported Empress Wei were killed, and
6721-492: The Princesses Gaoyang and Baling (Chai's wife) be forced to commit suicide. Zhangsun took this opportunity to accuse several other officials friendly with Fang or hostile to him—the chancellor Yuwen Jie , Li Daozong the Prince of Jiangxia, and the general Zhishi Sili ( 執失思力 ) – of being friendly with Fang and had them exiled. He also deposed and exiled Li Ke's mother Consort Yang and Consort Yang's other son Li Yin ( 李愔 )
6864-462: The Shangguan Yi! Do you really want to abolish me when you talk about abolishing the empress in your ear? I'll go to court with you in the future to prevent such mistakes, and I will assist you in addressing government issues and analyzing suggestions from the officials and others." Therefore, after this step, every day that Emperor Gaozong presided over imperial meetings, Empress Wu would sit behind
7007-492: The Tibetan Empire instead, and when Ashina Buzhen died later that year, Tang influence in the region was greatly reduced. During these years, Li Yifu had been, due to favors from Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu, exceedingly powerful, and he grew particularly corrupt. In 663, after reports of Li Yifu's corruption were made to Emperor Gaozong, Emperor Gaozong had Liu Xiangdao and Li Ji investigate, finding Li Yifu guilty. Li Yifu
7150-447: The Western Turkic Khaganate prince Ashina Helu , who had sought and received protection from Emperor Taizong, broke away from Tang and defeated the Western Turkic Khaganate's Yipishekui Khan , taking over the Western Turkic Khaganate himself and no longer subordinate under Tang. In fall 651, Ashina Helu attacked Tang's Ting Prefecture (庭州, roughly Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture , Xinjiang), and Emperor Gaozong responded by commissioning
7293-445: The Western Turkic Khaganate's subject kingdoms Shule ( 疏勒 ), Zhujupo ( 朱俱波 ), and Yebantuo ( 謁般陀 ) (all in modern Kashgar , Xinjiang). The joint forces commanded by Duman quickly defeated the Tang vassal Yutian (于田, in modern Hotan , Xinjiang). In winter 659, Emperor Gaozong sent Su Dingfang against Duman, and once he arrived in the vicinity of Duman's army, he selected 10,000 infantry soldiers and 3,000 cavalry soldiers and made
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#17329018633477436-413: The afterlife". The position of the concubine was generally inferior to that of the wife. Although a concubine could produce heirs, her children would be inferior in social status to a wife's children, although they were of higher status than illegitimate children. The child of a concubine had to show filial duty to two women, their biological mother and their legal mother—the wife of their father. After
7579-429: The army back from the front, Li Zhi went to meet him at Linyu Pass (臨渝關, now Shanhai Pass ). Emperor Taizong suffered an injury during the campaign, and Li Zhi was said to have, as Emperor Taizong's conditions were getting worse, sucked the pus out of his wound, until Emperor Taizong recovered somewhat. In 646, with Emperor Taizong still recovering, he transferred some of the imperial authorities to Li Zhi. Li Zhi stayed at
7722-589: The army. After the campaign ended in early 657, both Cheng and Wang were deposed from their offices. In 657, Emperor Gaozong commissioned the general Su Dingfang , who had served under Cheng Zhijie in the earlier failed campaign, to command a campaign against Ashina Helu, assisted by Ren Yaxiang and Xiao Siye ( 蕭嗣業 ). They were joined by the Western Turkic Khaganate's leaders Ashina Mishe and Ashina Buzhen , who had submitted to Tang during Emperor Taizong's reign. The campaign caught Ashina Helu by surprise, and Su defeated him in several battles, causing him to flee to
7865-538: The capital Chang'an , to live in Pu Prefecture (蒲州, roughly modern Yuncheng , Shanxi ) to try to defuse the situation. Subsequently, when Princess Taiping complained, Song and Yao were demoted, and Princess Taiping and Wu Youji were recalled to Chang'an. Later that year, in order to please Wu Youji, Princess Taiping requested that Wu Shihuo's and Lady Yang's tombs be again returned to imperial tomb status. (They had been again stripped of their imperial tomb status after
8008-493: The concubine of a king could achieve power, especially if her son also became a monarch. In China, successful men often had concubines until the practice was outlawed when the Chinese Communist Party came to power in 1949. The standard Chinese term translated as "concubine" was qiè 妾 , a term that has been used since ancient times. Concubinage resembled marriage in that concubines were recognized sexual partners of
8151-518: The coup against Empress Wei.) In 712, Wu Youji died. Emperor Ruizong posthumously honored him and created him the Prince of Ding, with the posthumous name Zhongjian (literally meaning "faithful and approachable"). In 713, after Emperor Ruizong had passed the throne to Li Longji, who took the throne as Emperor Xuanzong, Emperor Xuanzong and Princess Taiping's conflict came to a head. Emperor Xuanzong, suspecting Princess Taiping to be plotting to overthrow him, acted against her first, and, after he killed
8294-425: The couple does not want to, or cannot, enter into a full marriage. Concubinage and marriage are often regarded as similar, but mutually exclusive. In China , until the 20th century, concubinage was a formal and institutionalized practice that upheld concubines' rights and obligations. A concubine could be freeborn or of slave origin, and her experience could vary tremendously according to her master's whim. During
8437-471: The court alone and decide. As a result, she increasingly took control of great and small decisions made throughout Emperor Gaozong's reign. She and Emperor Gaozong were thereafter referred to as the "Two Saints." The extent of Empress Wu's authority from 665 until the end of Emperor Gaozong, all historians and historical yearbooks state: Hanging the curtain from behind and listening and speaking in government ( 垂簾聽政 , Chuílián tīngzhèng ); "Two Saints came to
8580-573: The court as a concubine to Xianfeng Emperor and gave birth to his only surviving son, who later became Tongzhi Emperor . She eventually became the de facto ruler of Qing China for 47 years after her husband's death. An examination of concubinage features in one of the Four Great Classical Novels , Dream of the Red Chamber (believed to be a semi-autobiographical account of author Cao Xueqin 's family life). Three generations of
8723-581: The daughters of allies, as was the custom of ancient kings. Concubinage was a common occupation for women in ancient Egypt, especially for talented women. A request for forty concubines by Amenhotep III (c. 1386–1353 BC) to a man named Milkilu , Prince of Gezer states: "Behold, I have sent you Hanya, the commissioner of the archers, with merchandise in order to have beautiful concubines, i.e. weavers. Silver, gold, garments, all sort of precious stones, chairs of ebony, as well as all good things, worth 160 deben. In total: forty concubines—the price of every concubine
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#17329018633478866-513: The death of a concubine, her sons would make an offering to her, but these offerings were not continued by the concubine's grandsons, who only made offerings to their grandfather's wife. Until the Song dynasty (960–1276), it was considered a serious breach of social ethics to promote a concubine to a wife. During the Qing dynasty (1644–1911), the status of concubines improved. It became permissible to promote
9009-544: The decrees of Emperor Gaozong's. Emperor Gaozong was the youngest son of Emperor Taizong and Empress Zhangsun ; his elder brothers were Li Chengqian and Li Tai . Emperor Gaozong's reign saw the primacy of Empress Wu, who became the effective power behind the Tang rule. Emperor Gaozong was aided in his rule by Empress Wu during the later years of his reign after a series of strokes left him incapacitated. Emperor Gaozong effectively after January 665 delegated all matters of state to his strong wife; after that Empress Wu acted as
9152-431: The edict. However, during his years as crown prince, he was said to have favored his concubine Pure Consort Xiao , having two daughters (the later Princesses Yiyang and Xuan Cheng) and one son ( Li Sujie ) with her, much to the chagrin of his wife Crown Princess Wang, who was childless and jealous of Consort Xiao. Three other concubines of his bore his other sons Li Zhong , Li Xiao ( 李孝 ), and Li Shangjin ( 李上金 ). Around
9295-543: The emperor of the Qing dynasty were freeborn women from prominent families. Concubines of men of lower social status could be either freeborn or slave. Imperial concubines, kept by emperors in the Forbidden City , had different ranks and were traditionally guarded by eunuchs to ensure that they could not be impregnated by anyone but the emperor. In Ming China (1368–1644) there was an official system to select concubines for
9438-539: The emperor went to court, the Empress of Heaven hung a curtain behind the throne ( 垂簾聽政 , Chuílián tīngzhèng ), and there was matter of government, great or small, were settled by her, and they were called "Two Saints" ( 二聖 , Er Sheng ) inside and outside. The emperor wanted to issue an edict to make the Empress of Heaven would formally take over the throne of the empire, and Hao Chujun , persuaded him to stop this issue (appoint of regent). The second book: according to Song dynasty historians Ouyang Xiu and Song Qi , in
9581-474: The emperor will carry it out. Due to the empress's order, her literary scholars could secretly participate in decisions, and this led to the division of power of the Chancellors. In the last years of the emperor's life, he was unable to do anything due to illness and everything was managed by the empress. Concubine Concubinage is an interpersonal and sexual relationship between two people in which
9724-460: The emperor. The age of the candidates ranged mainly from 14 to 16. Virtues, behavior, character, appearance and body condition were the selection criteria. Despite the limitations imposed on Chinese concubines, there are several examples in history and literature of concubines who achieved great power and influence. Lady Yehenara, otherwise known as Empress Dowager Cixi , was one of the most successful concubines in Chinese history. Cixi first entered
9867-440: The empress. In the same year when the eunuch Wang Fusheng ( 王伏勝 ) reported to Emperor Gaozong that she had engaged the sorcerer Guo Xingzhen ( 郭行真 ) – an act that was strictly forbidden—Emperor Gaozong, in anger, summoned the chancellor Shangguan Yi to consult Shangguan. Shangguan suggested that he depose Empress Wu. He agreed, and had Shangguan draft an edict to that effect. However, Empress Wu had received information that that
10010-512: The execution order reached his location. Meanwhile, Zhangsun, once he reached his place of exile, was forced to commit suicide. It was said that after Han's and Lai's deaths, no official dared to criticize the emperor any further. Also in 659, a vassal of Western Turkic Khaganate (Pin. Tujue ), Duman ( 都曼 ), the commander of the Esegels (aka Izgil , Old Turkic : 𐰔𐰏𐰠 , Ch. Asijie , Sijie 思結) Tribe, rebelled against Tang occupation , along with
10153-571: The extremely distant Ai Prefecture (愛州, roughly modern Thanh Hóa Province , Vietnam ), and Chu's subsequent petition, sent from Ai Prefecture, pleading with Emperor Gaozong, fell on deaf ears. Empress Wu's reprisals did not end there. In 659, Zhangsun Wuji became the next target. At that time, two low level officials, Wei Jifang ( 韋季方 ) and Li Chao ( 李巢 ) had been accused of improper associations, and when Emperor Gaozong put Xu and Xin Maojiang of investigating, Xu falsely accused Wei and Li to be part of
10296-421: The family name. A samurai could take concubines but their backgrounds were checked by higher-ranked samurai. In many cases, taking a concubine was akin to a marriage. Kidnapping a concubine, although common in fiction, would have been shameful, if not criminal. If the concubine was a commoner, a messenger was sent with betrothal money or a note for exemption of tax to ask for her parents' acceptance. Even though
10439-450: The five were falsely accused of crimes by Wu Sansi and exiled, and then died or were executed in exile.) In 707, during a drought, Emperor Zhongzong sent Wu Sansi and Wu Youji to the tomb of Emperor Gaozong and Wu Zetian (who had died later than Gaozong, in 705) to pray for rain. When rain came, Emperor Zhongzong used this as the reason to restore the ancestral temple of the Wu ancestors and restore
10582-511: The former crown prince Li Zhong, Empress Wu had Xu Jingzong falsely accuse Shangguan, Wang, and Li Zhong of conspiring against Emperor Gaozong's life. Around the new year 665, Shangguan and Wang were executed, and Li Zhong was forced to commit suicide. After the events ended, Empress Wu told Emperor Gaozong: "Your Majesty, you are a wise man who manages the country in an orderly manner, but you are soft-hearted. Who do you think we are? We are husband and wife! Does our issue have anything to do with
10725-456: The freedwoman and secretary of Antonia Minor , was Vespasian 's wife "in all but name", according to Suetonius , until her death in AD 74. Roman manumission law also allowed a slave-owner to free the slave and enter into concubinatus or a regular marriage . Epitaphs indicate that both partners in concubinatus might also be freedpersons, for reasons that are not entirely clear. A slave lacked
10868-504: The general Zheng Rentai ( 鄭仁泰 ) to attack the Tiele, but while Zheng was initially victorious, his officers became bogged down in pillaging and eventually suffered great losses after being caught in poor weather. Emperor Gaozong instead sent Qibi, who was ethnically Tiele, assisted by Jiang Ke , to Tiele to try to persuade them to surrender. Qibi was able to do so, and rebel leaders were arrested and turned over to Tang. Qibi executed them and ended
11011-409: The generals Liang Jianfang ( 梁建方 ) and Qibi Heli ( 契苾何力 ) to attack Ashina Helu. Liang and Qibi achieved some victories against Ashina Helu's general Zhuxie Guzhu ( 朱邪孤注 ), but then withdrew without engaging Ashina Helu. Meanwhile, as Empress Wang was sonless, her uncle, the chancellor Liu Shi , suggested to her that she ask Emperor Gaozong to create his oldest son Li Zhong, whose mother Consort Liu
11154-407: The government was organized well and the people were comforted, much like during the reign of Emperor Taizong, although in winter 650, Chu was accused of forcibly purchasing private land and paying below-market price, and was demoted to be a prefectural prefect. (Chu eventually returned to power in 653.) Also in 650, the general Gao Kan ( 高侃 ) – whose army had been launched by Emperor Taizong against
11297-521: The head of Li Zhi's household. At the advice of another key official, Liu Ji , who pointed out that the crown prince needed to have a group of well-learned scholars that he was close to, Emperor Taizong appointed Liu, as well as Cen Wenben , Chu Suiliang , and Ma Zhou , to serve as Li Zhi's friends and advisors. Late in 643, Emperor Taizong issued an edict to select beautiful women among good households to serve as Li Zhi's concubines . However, after Li Zhi declined such treatment, Emperor Taizong cancelled
11440-472: The imperial palace and attended to Emperor Taizong in his illness. That year, when Emperor Taizong was due to visit Ling Prefecture (靈州, roughly modern Yinchuan , Ningxia) to meet with a number of tribal chiefs who were formerly vassals of Xueyantuo —which had collapsed under Tang and Huige attacks earlier that year—he was set to take Li Zhi with him, but at Zhang's suggestion left Li Zhi in charge at Chang'an instead, to allow Li Zhi to become more familiar with
11583-422: The important affairs of state in his absence. After Emperor Taizong returned from Ling Prefecture, he retained for himself the authorities over imperial worship, state guests, military, the commissioning of officers of higher than the fifth rank, and executions, and transferred all other authorities to Li Zhi. In 647, a commoner named Duan Zhichong ( 段志沖 ) submitted a petition to Emperor Taizong, asking him to pass
11726-639: The important examination bureau of the government)] and trust him after I die. If he hesitates, execute him. He then demoted Li Shiji to the post of the commandant of Die Prefecture (疊州, roughly modern Gannan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture , Gansu). Li Shiji, realizing what was happening, after receiving the order, departed without hesitation. As Emperor Taizong's illness was getting more serious, Li Zhi continuously attended to him and wept constantly, often going without food, which touched Emperor Taizong greatly. Emperor Taizong entrusted Li Zhi to Zhangsun and Chu Suiliang, and then died on 10 July 649. Initially, Li Zhi
11869-501: The kingdom Shi (石國, centering modern Tashkent , Uzbekistan ), which arrested him and delivered him to Su, thus largely ending the Western Turkic Khaganate as an organized state. (Emperor Gaozong would try to continue the Western Turkic Khaganate's existence as a vassal stage by dividing it in half and creating Ashina Mishe and Ashina Buzhen as khans of the two halves.) Meanwhile, Xu Jingzong and Li Yifu, aligned with Empress Wu, and became strong enough to fight for power, began to carry out
12012-431: The legal and financial complications of marriage. Practical impediments or social disincentives for a couple to marry could include differences in social rank status, an existing marriage and laws against bigamy , religious or professional prohibitions, or a lack of recognition by the appropriate authorities. The concubine in a concubinage tended to have a lower social status than the married party or home owner, and this
12155-484: The matter of changing the empress. Li Ji claimed an illness and refused to attend. At the meeting, Chu vehemently opposed deposing Empress Wang, while Zhangsun and Yu showed their disapproval by silence. Meanwhile, other chancellors Han Yuan and Lai Ji also opposed the move, but when Emperor Gaozong asked Li Ji again, Li Ji's response was, "This is your family matter, Your Imperial Majesty. Why ask anyone else?" Emperor Gaozong therefore became resolved. He demoted Chu to be
12298-637: The newly reconstituted Göktürk state under Chebi Khan Ashina Hubo prior to Emperor Taizong's death—captured Ashina Hubo and brought him back to Chang'an. Emperor Gaozong spared Ashina Hubo and made him a general, putting his people directly under Tang rule. Meanwhile, with two of the states of the Western Regions previously conquered by Tang and governed by Tang-installed kings, Kucha and Karasahr in disturbance, Emperor Taizong returned their previously captured kings, Bai Helibushibi ( 白訶黎布失畢 ) and Long Tuqizhi ( 龍突騎支 ) respectively, to their thrones. In 651,
12441-438: The oaths to the gods. The oaths were then carved on iron and kept in the imperial archives. In 705, a coup led by the officials Zhang Jianzhi , Cui Xuanwei , Jing Hui , Huan Yanfan , and Yuan Shuji killed Wu Zetian's lovers Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong , overthrew Wu Zetian, and restored Li Xian to the throne (as Emperor Zhongzong). Princess Taiping participated in the coup as well, and after Emperor Zhongzong assumed
12584-437: The opinions of both. At that time, Emperor Ruizong would firmly support it. The promotion and descending of the military and civil officials are all under the control of Princess Taiping, and whenever Emperor Ruizong convened the court, Princess Taiping listened behind a beaded curtain to the courtiers' conversations with the emperor about administration and was allowed to interfere in the all conversation, therefore, she could have
12727-411: The opportunity to invite her old neighbors and relatives to a feast. Later that year, Emperor Gaozong began to suffer from an illness that carried the symptoms of painful headaches, persistent dizziness, occasional seizures and loss of vision, generally thought to be hypertension-related or stroke, and Emperor Gaozong began to have Empress Wu make rulings on petitions and suggestions made by officials. It
12870-430: The palace and demoted Liu Shi. Meanwhile, a faction of officials began to form around Consort Wu, including Li Yifu , Xu, Cui Yixuan ( 崔義玄 ), and Yuan Gongyu ( 袁公瑜 ). On an occasion in fall 655, Emperor Gaozong summoned the chancellors Zhangsun, Li Shiji (who by now was using the name Li Ji to observe naming taboo for Emperor Taizong's name Li Shimin), Yu Zhining , and Chu to the palace—which Chu deduced to be regarding
13013-455: The palace, she acted humbly and flattered Empress Wang, who trusted her greatly and recommended her to Emperor Gaozong. Soon, Emperor Gaozong became enamored with Consort Wu. Meanwhile, Emperor Gaozong's sister Princess Gaoyang and her husband Fang Yi'ai (房遺愛, Fang Xuanling's son), were implicated in 652 of conspiring with another brother-in-law Chai Lingwu ( 柴令武 ), the general Xue Wanche ( 薛萬徹 ) and Emperor Gaozong's uncle Li Yuanjing ( 李元景 )
13156-400: The pejorative paelex referred to a concubine who was a sexual rival to a wife—in early Rome, most often a war captive and hence unwillingly—and by late antiquity was loosely equivalent to " prostitute ". However, in Latin literature concubinae are often disparaged as slaves kept as sexual luxuries in the literal sense of "bedmate". The distinction is that the use of an enslaved woman
13299-423: The plot and that he should be concerned for himself. When Emperor Taizong noticed Li Zhi worrying about this and was told by Li Zhi of Li Tai's intimidation, Emperor Taizong's mind became set. He exiled Li Tai, and on 30 April 643, he created Li Zhi the new crown prince. He made Zhangsun and two other senior chancellors, Fang Xuanling and Xiao Yu , senior advisors to Li Zhi, and made another chancellor, Li Shiji ,
13442-411: The power behind the emperor, "hanging the curtain and listening to politics" ( Chuílián tīngzhèng 垂簾聼政). Gaozong's personal illness, over-affection and trust of Wu led to her wielding a great deal of power in affairs of state until the end of his reign while exerting her influence on him. Empress Wu was partially in control of power from November 660 and then totally from January 665 to December 683; there
13585-440: The practice of keeping a concubine ( Ancient Greek : παλλακίς pallakís ) was common among the upper classes, and they were for the most part women who were slaves or foreigners, but occasional free born based on family arrangements (typically from poor families). Children produced by slaves remained slaves and those by non-slave concubines varied over time; sometimes they had the possibility of citizenship. The law prescribed that
13728-723: The prevalence of the practice and the rights and expectations of the persons involved have varied considerably, as have the rights of the offspring born from such relationships, a concubine's legal and social status, their role within a household and society's perceptions of the institution. A relationship of concubinage could take place voluntarily, with the parties involved agreeing not to enter into marriage, or involuntarily (i.e. through slavery ). In slave-owning societies, most concubines were slaves, also called "slave-concubines". This institutionalization of concubinage with female slaves dates back to Babylonian times, and has been practiced in patriarchal cultures throughout history. Whatever
13871-526: The rebellion. Meanwhile, for reasons unknown, also in 662 Emperor Gaozong sent the general Su Haizheng ( 蘇海政 ) to attack Qiuzi and ordered Ashina Mishe and Ashina Buzhen to assist him. Ashina Buzhen, who had a rivalry with Ashina Mishe, falsely informed Su that Ashina Mishe was set to rebel and would attack the Tang army, and Su responded by ambushing Ashina Mishe, killing him and his chief assistants. The Western Turkic Khaganate tribes, angry over Ashina Mishe's death, largely turned away from Tang and submitted to
14014-410: The same position in front of the civil and military ministers of the Tang dynasty. In fact, if anyone with a request to make at Court obtains an audience or is allowed to speak, the emperor hears him indeed, but will give no definite answer of "Yes or No", referring him promptly to empress. frequently Emperor Gaozong was unable to go to the court because of a headache, and Empress Wu was "obliged" to go to
14157-476: The same time, however, Emperor Taizong also became concerned that Li Zhi, who was considered kind but weak in character, would not be strong enough to be an emperor, and secretly discussed with Zhangsun Wuji the possibility of making another son by his concubine Consort Yang (daughter of Emperor Yang of Sui ), Li Ke the Prince of Wu, crown prince. Zhangsun repeatedly opposed the idea, and Emperor Taizong did not carry this out. In 645, when Emperor Taizong launched
14300-493: The sea to attack Baekje, in conjunction with Silla. Su quickly captured the Baekje capital Sabi , forcing Baekje's King Uija and his crown prince Buyeo Yung to surrender. Emperor Gaozong ordered that Baekje be annexed as Tang territory. Emperor Gaozong then followed up by commissioning Su, along with Qibi Heli, Liu Boying ( 劉伯英 ), and Cheng Mingzhen ( 程名振 ), to attack Goguryeo. In 660, Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu toured Bian Prefecture (modern-day Taiyuan), and Empress Wu had
14443-400: The slave of the wife. However, in the late Babylonian period, there are reports that concubines could be sold. In general, marriage was monogamous. "If after two or three years of marriage the wife had not given birth to any children, the husband was allowed to buy a slave (who could also be chosen by the wife) in order to produce heirs. This woman, however, remained a slave and never gained
14586-549: The sorts of property and inheritance rights usually reserved for wives. In European colonies and American slave plantations , single and married men entered into long-term sexual relationships with local women. In the Dutch East Indies , concubinage created mixed-race Indian-European communities . In the Judeo-Christian-Islamic world, the term concubine has almost exclusively been applied to women, although
14729-402: The status and rights of the persons involved, they were typically inferior to those of a legitimate spouse, often with the rights of inheritance being limited or excluded. Concubinage and marriage are often regarded as similar but mutually exclusive. In the past, a couple may not have been able to marry because of differences in social class, ethnicity or religion, or a man might want to avoid
14872-464: The status of a second wife." In the Middle Assyrian Period, the main wife ( assatu ) wore a veil in the street, as could a concubine ( esirtu ) if she were accompanying the main wife, or if she were married. "If a man veils his concubine in public, by declaring 'she is my wife,' this woman shall be his wife." It was illegal for unmarried women, prostitutes and slave women to wear a veil in
15015-467: The street. "The children of a concubine were lower in rank than the descendants of a wife, but they could inherit if the marriage of the latter remained childless." While most Ancient Egyptians were monogamous , a male pharaoh would have had other, lesser wives and concubines in addition to the Great Royal Wife . This arrangement would allow the pharaoh to enter into diplomatic marriages with
15158-519: The summer palace Cuiwei Palace (翠微宮, in the Qin Mountains ), Emperor Taizong was gravely ill, and he, while impressed with Li Shiji's abilities, was concerned that Li Shiji was too able and would not submit to Li Zhi. He stated to Li Zhi: Li Shiji is full of ability and wisdom, but you had done him no favors, and it may be difficult for him to be faithful to you. I am going to exile him now. If he leaves immediately, promote him to be Puye [(僕射, head of
15301-426: The survivors had their ranks reduced. Wu Youji's title was reduced to Duke of Chu. Emperor Ruizong would often discuss with Princess Taiping many policies and guidelines for governing the government, and the two would discuss together for a long time, and whenever the prime ministers are reporting and proposaling, Emperor Ruizong ask if he has discussed with Princess Taiping and Li Longji , and he ruled by balancing
15444-412: The throne to Li Zhi. Li Zhi, concerned that Emperor Taizong might be offended, was worried and grieving, and Zhangsun suggested that Duan be executed. Emperor Taizong did not take offense and did not punish Duan or Li Zhi. Meanwhile, Li Zhi began to build a Buddhist temple named Daci'en Temple ( 大慈恩寺 ) in commemoration of his mother Empress Zhangsun, and the temple was completed in 648. In 649, while at
15587-511: The throne, he credited both Wu Youji and his cousin Wu Sansi with participating in the coup as well, and he restored Wu Youji to the greater title of Prince of Ding and gave him the honorific title of Situ (one of the Three Excellencies ). Wu Youji declined both, and subsequently, when Emperor Zhongzong reduced the Wu clan princes' titles in accordance with public sentiment, Wu Youji's title
15730-459: The tombs of Wu Shihuo and Wu Zetian's mother Lady Yang to imperial tomb status. In 710, Emperor Zhongzong suddenly died — a death that traditional historians believed to be a poisoning carried out by his wife Empress Wei and daughter Li Guo'er the Princess Anle , as Empress Wei wanted to be emperor and Li Guo'er wanted to be crown princess. Emperor Zhongzong's son by a concubine , Li Chongmao
15873-447: The topic that Empress Wang was sonless (as an excuse for deposing her), Zhangsun repeatedly found ways to divert the conversation, and subsequent visits by Consort Wu's mother Lady Yang and the official Xu Jingzong , who was allied with Consort Wu, to seek support from Zhangsun were also to no avail. In summer 655, Consort Wu accused Empress Wang and her mother Lady Liu of using witchcraft. In response, Emperor Gaozong barred Lady Liu from
16016-426: The various forms of marriage, the status of a concubina , and whether an extramarital sexual relationship was adultery or permissible pleasure-seeking with a prostitute, professional entertainer , or slave . Roman emperors not infrequently took a concubina , often a freedwoman, rather than remarrying after the death of their wife to avoid the legal complications pertaining to succession and inheritance . Caenis ,
16159-421: The woman would not be a legal wife, a situation normally considered a demotion, many wealthy merchants believed that being the concubine of a samurai was superior to being the legal wife of a commoner. When a merchant's daughter married a samurai, her family's money erased the samurai's debts, and the samurai's social status improved the standing of the merchant family. If a samurai's commoner concubine gave birth to
16302-416: The world. The International Encyclopedia of Anthropology gives four distinct forms of concubinage: Junius P. Rodriguez gives three cultural patterns of concubinage: Asian, Islamic and European. In Mesopotamia , it was customary for a sterile wife to give her husband a slave as a concubine to bear children. The status of such concubines was ambiguous; they normally could not be sold but they remained
16445-558: Was Möge Khatun , who, according to the Persian historian Ata-Malik Juvayni , was "given to Chinggis Khan by a chief of the Bakrin tribe, and he loved her very much." After Genghis Khan died, Möge Khatun became a wife of Ögedei Khan. Ögedei also favored her as a wife, and she frequently accompanied him on his hunting expeditions . Before monogamy was legally imposed in the Meiji period , concubinage
16588-442: Was a concubina ; the term concubinus is used of men mainly in a same-sex union or to deprecate a relationship in which the woman was dominant. The use of the term concubina in epitaphs for family memorials indicates that the role was socially acceptable. A man was not allowed to have both a concubina and a wife (uxor) at the same time, but a single tombstone might list multiple wives or concubinae serially. By contrast,
16731-516: Was also widely practiced in the premodern Muslim world, and many of the rulers of the Abbasid Caliphate and the Ottoman Empire were born out of such relationships. Throughout Africa, from Egypt to South Africa, slave concubinage resulted in racially mixed populations. The practice declined as a result of the abolition of slavery. In ancient Rome , the practice of concubinatus was
16874-564: Was an equality of power between Gaozong and Wu, which caused them to be called "two saints" (二聖, Er Sheng , literally two emperors) both inside and outside. After Emperor Gaozong died in December 683, power fell completely and solely into the hands of Empress Wu , acting as Empress Dowager-regent, "presiding over court and issuing edicts" ( lin chao chengzhi 臨朝稱制); she subsequently became the only empress regnant in Chinese history . After his death, he
17017-453: Was common among the nobility. Its purpose was to ensure male heirs. For example, the son of an Imperial concubine often had a chance of becoming emperor. Yanagihara Naruko , a high-ranking concubine of Emperor Meiji , gave birth to Emperor Taishō , who was later legally adopted by Empress Haruko , Emperor Meiji's formal wife. Even among merchant families, concubinage was occasionally used to ensure heirs. Asako Hirooka , an entrepreneur who
17160-461: Was completed in 663, Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu moved to the newly remodeled palace (which was itself later renamed to Hanyuan Palace). (However, Empress Wang and Consort Xiao continued to appear in her dreams even after this, and therefore, late in Emperor Gaozong's reign, he and Empress Wu were often at the eastern capital Luoyang , not at Chang'an.) Also in 663, the Tibetan Empire attacked
17303-569: Was defeated by Goguryeo forces at Sasu River (蛇水, probably Botong River ) and was killed along with his 13 sons, Su ran into harsh snowstorms and withdrew. Around the same time, after the death of the Huige chief Yaoluoge Porun ( 藥羅葛婆閏 ), who had been obedient to Tang, Yaoluoge Porun's nephew Yaoluoge Bisudu ( 藥羅葛比粟毒 ) rose in rebellion with the Tongluo ( 同羅 ) and Pugu ( 僕固 ) tribes in conjunction with other Tiele Confederation tribes. Emperor Gaozong sent
17446-489: Was disallowed from attending Emperor Taizong's funeral, Emperor Gaozong permitted him to again have a staff and be allowed to use wagons, clothes, and foods of high quality. Emperor Gaozong created his wife Crown Princess Wang empress and made her father Wang Renyou ( 王仁祐 ) the Duke of Wei. It was said that early in Emperor Gaozong's reign, he greatly respected both his uncle Zhangsun Wuji and Chu Suiliang and followed their advice, and that therefore, during this part of his reign,
17589-524: Was discovered in 643, and Emperor Taizong deposed Li Chengqian. He was initially going to make Li Tai the new crown prince, but later began to believe that Li Tai's machinations were responsible for Li Chengqian's downfall. The powerful chancellor Zhangsun Wuji – Empress Zhangsun's brother—suggested that he make Li Zhi crown prince, a possibility that Li Tai was apprehensive about. Li Tai tried to intimidate Li Zhi, who had been friendly with Li Yuanchang, by pointing out to Li Zhi that Li Yuanchang had been part of
17732-473: Was exploring the memorials, he had Empress Wu by his side to decide if anything went wrong, and he became very dependent on her advice over time, and, as usual, because of his illness, he allowed Empress Wu to act in his name. Thereafter, her authority rivaled Emperor Gaozong's, after this point on, Empress Wu became the undisputed power behind the throne until the death of Emperor Gaozong. Meanwhile, just after Su Dingfang left Baekje territory to attack Goguryeo,
17875-483: Was happening, and she emerged to defend herself, when she reached the main palace, she saw the emperor holding a decree and asked seriously: "What is this?" And when Empress Wu found out, she cried, which prompted Emperor Gaozong to stop. Emperor Gaozong could not carry out the removal, and instead blamed Shangguan, and Emperor Gaozong said to Empress Wu: "I did not intend to do that at first! Shangguan Yi taught me this." As both Shangguan and Wang had previously served
18018-473: Was however already married. Empress Dowager Wu therefore secretly had Wu Youji's wife assassinated, and then married Princess Taiping to him. Later in 690, Empress Dowager Wu had Emperor Ruizong yield the throne to her, establishing the Zhou dynasty as its "emperor" and interrupting the Tang dynasty. She created a number of her Wu clan relatives princes, and, after posthumously created Wu Youji's grandfather Wu Shirang
18161-456: Was illegal and socially disreputable for a man to have more than one wife at a time, but it was acceptable to have concubines. From the earliest times wealthy men purchased concubines and added them to their household in addition to their wife. The purchase of concubines was similar to the purchase of slaves, but concubines had a higher social status. In the earliest records a man could have as many concubines as he could afford to purchase. From
18304-505: Was in 699, when Wu Zetian, in fear that after her death that her son Li Xian the Crown Prince (formerly emperor after Emperor Gaozong's death in 683 but who was quickly removed by her for disobedience in 684 in favor of Emperor Ruizong) and the Wu clan princes would not be able to coexist peacefully, had Li Xian, Li Dan (the former Emperor Ruizong), Princess Taiping, Wu Youji, and the other Wu clan princes swear an oath to each other and read
18447-616: Was interred at the Qian Mausoleum along with Wu Zetian. During the first part of his reign, Tang territorial gains, which started with his father Emperor Taizong, continued, including the conquest of Baekje , Goguryeo , and the Western Turkic Khaganate , but throughout the 670s, much of those gains were lost to the Tibetan Empire , Silla , Khitans , and Balhae . Further, territory previously conquered that belonged to both
18590-511: Was no intention to marry. Concubinage was highly popular before the early 20th century all over East Asia . The main functions of concubinage for men was for pleasure and producing additional heirs, whereas for women the relationship could provide financial security. Children of concubines had lower rights in account to inheritance, which was regulated by the Dishu system . In China and the Muslim world,
18733-693: Was not concubinatus in the legal sense, which might involve a signed document , though even an informal concubine had some legal protections that placed her among the more privileged slaves of the household. Concubines occupied an entire chapter, now fragmentary, in the 6th-century compilation of Roman law known as the Digest , but concubinatus was never a fully realized legal institution. It evolved in ad hoc response to Augustan moral legislation that criminalized some forms of adultery and other consensual sexual behaviors among freeborn people ( ingenui ) outside marriage. Even Roman legal experts had trouble parsing
18876-648: Was of low birth and therefore considered nonthreatening, crown prince so that Li Zhong would be grateful of her in the future. Liu also persuaded Zhangsun to suggest the idea as well, and in fall 652, Emperor Gaozong created Li Zhong crown prince. By this point, however, Empress Wang was facing a major threat from another romantic rival. When Emperor Gaozong was crown prince, he had an affair with one of Emperor Taizong's concubines, Consort Wu . After Emperor Taizong's death, all of his concubines who did not bear sons, which included Wu, were housed at Ganye Temple ( 感業寺 ) to be Buddhist nuns . In either 650 or 651, Emperor Gaozong
19019-418: Was officially announced. On 15 July, Li Zhi took the throne (as Emperor Gaozong). During his 34-year reign, he was unable to exercise power alone and was under the control of several of his great ministers and his wife, Empress Wu. The order of the regents were: Emperor Gaozong's first move as emperor was to cancel a second campaign against Goguryeo that Emperor Taizong had planned for later 649. While Li Tai
19162-407: Was often the reason why concubinage was preferred to marriage. A concubine could be an "alien" in a society that did not recognize marriages between foreigners and citizens. Alternatively, they might be a slave, or person from a poor family interested in a union with a man from the nobility . In other cases, some social groups were forbidden to marry, such as Roman soldiers, and concubinage served as
19305-416: Was particularly touched by the grief that Li Zhi displayed, and from that point on particularly favored him. Sometime while he was the Prince of Jin, at the recommendation of his grand aunt Princess Tong'an, he married the grandniece of Princess Tong'an's husband Wang Yu ( 王裕 ) as his wife and princess. Meanwhile, Li Zhi's two older brothers by Empress Zhangsun, Li Chengqian the Crown Prince and Li Tai
19448-446: Was reduced to Prince of Leshou. Emperor Zhongzong, believing that 16 officials, including Wu Youji, Wu Sansi, and the officials who actually carried out the coup, were contributors to his reign, granted them iron certificates that were supposed to guarantee that, except for treason, they would be pardoned from death 10 times. (However, Emperor Zhongzong subsequently turned away from these promises as to Zhang, Cui, Jing, Huan, and Yuan, as
19591-471: Was removed from his post and exiled, and would never return to Chang'an. During the years, Empress Wu had repeatedly, in her dreams, seen Empress Wang and Consort Xiao, in the states they were after their terrible deaths, and she came to believe that their spirits were after her. For that reason, Emperor Gaozong started remodeling a secondary palace, Daming Palace ( 大明宮 ), into Penglai Palace ( 蓬萊宮 ), and when Penglai Palace's main hall, Hanyuan Hall ( 含元殿 ),
19734-435: Was said that Empress Wu had quick reactions and understood both literature and history, and therefore, she was making correct and error-free rulings. Emperor Gaozong's illness worsened over time, and lasted until his death. If he was well, he also would accept Empress Wu's help, asking her to read the documents to him, he consulted with her on important matters and write down the rulings he had issued. Even until midnight, when he
19877-493: Was serving as empress dowager and regent over her son Emperor Ruizong , and Wu Youji was serving as a military officer. Empress Dowager Wu's only daughter Princess Taiping had been widowed since 688, when her husband Xue Shao (薛紹) was executed for participating in the rebellion of her cousin Li Chong , the Prince of Langye, against Empress Dowager Wu's authority. Empress Dowager Wu wanted to marry Princess Taiping to Wu Youji, who
20020-594: Was so mournful that he could not carry out any actions other than holding onto the necks of Zhangsun and Chu. Zhangsun, while mourning himself, reminded Li Zhi that he was now in charge of the empire and must act accordingly. Zhangsun also ordered that Emperor Taizong's death not be announced for the time being, and then, the next day, accompanied Li Zhi back to Chang'an. Zhangsun issued several edicts in Emperor Taizong's name—including making Yu Zhining , Zhang, and Gao Jifu chancellors. Two days later, Emperor Taizong's death
20163-461: Was the daughter of a concubine, worked hard to help her husband's family survive after the Meiji Restoration . She lost her fertility giving birth to her only daughter, Kameko; so her husband—with whom she got along well—took Asako's maid-servant as a concubine and fathered three daughters and a son with her. Kameko, as the child of the formal wife, married a noble man and matrilineally carried on
20306-409: Was visiting Ganye Temple to offer incense to Buddha when he saw Consort Wu. Both of them wept. When Empress Wang heard this, she, wanting to divert Emperor Gaozong's favor from Consort Xiao, secretly instructed Consort Wu to grow her hair back, while suggesting to Emperor Gaozong that he take her as a concubine. Consort Wu was intelligent and full of machinations, and therefore, when she first returned to
20449-466: Was well established, was extending her influence further in the political arena and increases her controlling behavior over Emperor Gaozong and arbitrarily makes many government decisions. According to Song dynasty historian Sima Guang in the Zizhi Tongjian : When emperor's attains his will, empress specialises in power and blessings, emperor desires to do something, and his actions are controlled by
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