A wine cellar is a storage room for wine in bottles or barrels , or more rarely in carboys , amphorae , or plastic containers . In an active wine cellar, important factors such as temperature and humidity are maintained by a climate control system. In contrast, passive wine cellars are not climate-controlled, and are usually built underground to reduce temperature swings. An aboveground wine cellar is often called a wine room , while a small wine cellar (fewer than 500 bottles) is sometimes termed a wine closet . The household department responsible for the storage, care and service of wine in a great mediaeval house was termed the buttery . Large wine cellars date back over 3,700 years.
90-865: Wine cellars protect alcoholic beverages from potentially harmful external influences, providing darkness , constant temperature , and constant humidity . Wine is a natural, perishable food product issued from fermentation of fruit. Left exposed to heat, light, vibration or fluctuations in temperature and humidity , all types of wine can spoil. When properly stored, wines not only maintain their quality but many actually improve in aroma, flavor, and complexity as they mature. Depending on their level of sugar and alcohol, wines are more or less sensitive to temperature variances; wine with higher alcohol and/or sugar content will be less sensitive to temperature variance. Wine can be stored satisfactorily between 7–18 °C (45–64 °F) as long as any variations are gradual. A temperature of 13 °C (55 °F), much like that found in
180-609: A Schedule I substance in the United States , Canada , and other countries. Xyrem, which is GHB in its sodium form, is Schedule III in the United States, Canada, and other countries. In low doses, GHB mainly binds to the GHB receptor and weakly binds to the GABA B receptor. The GHB receptor is an excitatory G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR). Its endogenous ligand is GHB, since GHB
270-463: A benzodiazepine is the only drug taken; however, when combined with other central nervous system depressants such as alcohol and opiates , the potential for toxicity and fatal overdose increases. Benzodiazepines are commonly misused and taken in combination with other addictive drugs. In addition, all benzodiazepines are listed in the Beers List , which is significant in clinical practice. Cannabis
360-1125: A class of depressants, or " tranquilizers ", that are synthesized from urea . Carbamates have anxiolytic , muscle relaxant , anticonvulsant , hypnotic , antihypertensive , and analgesic effects. They have other uses, like muscle tremors , agitation , and alcohol withdrawal . Their muscle relaxant effects are useful for strains , sprains , and muscle injuries combined with rest, physical therapy, and other measures. The effects, synthesis, and mechanism of action of carbamates are very similar to those of barbiturates. There are many different types of carbamates: some only produce anxiolytic and hypnotic effects, while others only have anticonvulsant effects. Side effects of carbamates include drowsiness , dizziness , headache , diarrhea , nausea , flatulence , liver failure , poor coordination , nystagmus , abuse , dizziness , weakness , nervousness , euphoria , overstimulation , and dependence . Uncommon but potentially severe adverse reactions include hypersensitivity reactions such as Stevens–Johnson syndrome , embryo-fetal toxicity , stupor , and coma . It
450-452: A drug may be approved, that does not necessarily mean it is still being used today. Not approved: Gabapentinoids are a unique and relatively novel class of depressants that selectively bind to the auxiliary α 2 δ subunit ( CACNA2D1 and CACNA2D2 ) site of certain VDCCs and thereby act as inhibitors of α 2 δ subunit-containing voltage-gated calcium channels . α 2 δ is nicknamed
540-414: A high risk of fatal overdose due to respiratory depression. By the late 1950s, concerns over the mounting social costs associated with barbiturates prompted a concerted effort to find alternative medications. Most people still using barbiturates today do so for the prevention of seizures or, in mild form, for relief from the symptoms of migraines . One barbiturate that remains in use for seizure disorders
630-431: A number of opioids . Gabapentinoids like gabapentin and pregabalin are depressants and have anticonvulsant and anxiolytic effects. Most anticonvulsants, like lamotrigine and phenytoin , are depressants. Carbamates , such as meprobamate , are depressants that are similar to barbiturates . Anesthetics are generally depressants; examples include ketamine and propofol . Depressants exert their effects through
720-430: A number of different pharmacological mechanisms, the most prominent of which include facilitation of GABA and inhibition of glutamatergic or monoaminergic activity. Other examples are chemicals that modify the electrical signaling inside the body, the most prominent of which are bromides and channel blockers . Depressants are used medicinally to relieve the following symptoms and disorders: An alcoholic beverage
810-478: A wine last longer, so they play an important role in the aging of wine . The average number of people who drink as of 2016 was 39% for males and 25% for females (2.4 billion people in total). Females on average drink 0.7 drinks per day while males drink 1.7 drinks per day. The rates of drinking varies significantly in different areas of the world. Alcohol is used in rum-running , the illegal business of smuggling alcoholic beverages where such transportation
900-511: Is exclusively fermented with white sugar , yeast , and water. Fermented water is clarified after the fermentation to produce a colorless or off-white liquid with no discernible taste other than that of ethanol . Mead ( / m iː d / ), also called hydromel, is an alcoholic drink made by fermenting honey with water, sometimes with various fruits , spices , grains , or hops . The alcoholic content of mead may range from as low as 3% ABV to more than 20%. The defining characteristic of mead
990-456: Is phenobarbital . A benzodiazepine (sometimes colloquially "benzo"; often abbreviated "BZD") is a drug whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring and a diazepine ring. The first such drug, chlordiazepoxide (Librium), was discovered accidentally by Leo Sternbach in 1955 and made available in 1960 by Hoffmann–La Roche , which has also marketed the benzodiazepine diazepam (Valium) since 1963. Benzodiazepines enhance
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#17330941607241080-432: Is a GABA analogue that is a naturally occurring neurotransmitter and depressant drug. It is also naturally found in small amounts in some alcoholic beverages alongside ethanol. GHB is the prototypical substance among a couple of GHB receptor modulators . GHB has been used as a general anesthetic and as a treatment for cataplexy , narcolepsy , and alcoholism . The sodium salt of GHB, sodium oxybate ,
1170-480: Is a drink that contains alcohol (known formally as ethanol ), an anesthetic that has been used as a psychoactive drug for several millennia . Ethanol is the oldest recreational drug still used by humans. Ethanol can cause alcohol intoxication when consumed. Alcoholic beverages are divided into three general classes for taxation and regulation of production : beers , wines , and spirits (distilled beverages). They are legally consumed in most countries around
1260-804: Is a fermented beverage most commonly produced from grapes . Wine involves a longer fermentation process than beer and often a long aging process (months or years), resulting in an alcohol content of 9%–16% ABV . Sparkling wines such French Champagne , Catalan Cava or Italian Prosecco are also made from grapes, with a secondary fermentation . Fruit wines are made from fruits other than grapes , such as plums , cherries , or apples . Distilled beverages (also called liquors or spirit drinks) are alcoholic drinks produced by distilling (i.e., concentrating by distillation ) ethanol produced by means of fermenting grain, fruit, or vegetables. Unsweetened, distilled, alcoholic drinks that have an alcohol content of at least 20% ABV are called spirits . For
1350-407: Is a large pub that specializes in beer . A cider house is an establishment that sells alcoholic cider for consumption on the premises. Some cider houses also sell cider "to go", for consumption off the premises. A traditional cider house was often little more than a room in a farmhouse or cottage , selling locally fermented cider. An ouzeri ( Greek ουζερί IPA: [uzeˈri] )
1440-439: Is a term used in the United States to describe an improvised alcoholic beverage . It is variously made from apples , oranges , fruit cocktail , fruit juices , hard candy , sugar , high fructose syrup , and possibly other ingredients, including crumbled bread . Drinking games are games which involve the consumption of alcoholic beverages and often enduring the subsequent intoxication resulting from them. Evidence of
1530-573: Is a type of Greek tavern which serves ouzo (a Greek liquor) and mezedes (small finger foods ). Pulquerías (or pulcherías) are a type of tavern in Mexico that specialize in serving an alcoholic beverage known as pulque . A tiki bar is a themed drinking establishment that serves elaborate cocktails, especially rum -based mixed drinks such as the Mai Tai and Zombie cocktails. Tiki bars are aesthetically defined by their tiki culture décor which
1620-655: Is administered intrathecally or for long periods of time. If baclofen or phenibut is used for long periods of time, it can resemble intense benzodiazepine , GHB , or alcohol withdrawal. To minimize withdrawal symptoms , baclofen or phenibut should be tapered down slowly. Abrupt withdrawal from phenibut or baclofen could possibly be life-threatening because of its mechanism of action. Abrupt withdrawal can cause rebound seizures and severe agitation . Approved: Not approved: Endogenous (not gabapentinoids ), endogenous BCAA amino acids that bind to α 2 δ ): Other α2δ ligands: Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid , or "GHB",
1710-512: Is also a neurotransmitter . It is also a transporter for vitamin B2. The existence of a specific GHB receptor was predicted by observing the action of GHB and related compounds that primarily act on the GABA B receptor but also exhibit a range of effects that were found not to be produced by GABA B activity and so were suspected of being produced by a novel and, at the time, unidentified receptor target. At higher doses, seizures are very common. This
1800-806: Is also highly psychologically addictive. It shares some similarities with the withdrawal of gabapentinoids phenibut and baclofen due to the activation of the GABA B receptor. It features a typical depressant withdrawal syndrome that mimics alcohol withdrawal. Symptoms include delirium , tremor , anxiety, tachycardia , insomnia, hypertension , confusion , sweating , severe agitation which may require restraint, auditory and visual hallucinations , and possibly death from tonic-clonic seizures . Baclofen and phenibut are very effective for withdrawal and are preferred by patients over benzodiazepines for treatment of withdrawal. GHB receptor modulators: GHB receptor agonists : - Calcium oxybate, magnesium oxybate, sodium oxybate ( Xyrem ), potassium oxybate (Xywav
1890-489: Is an unlicensed hotel , liquor-store or other vendor of alcoholic beverages, sometimes with the added connotation of selling poor-quality products. A straw purchaser may receive money or recompense from the underage person in exchange for purchasing the alcohol on their behalf. Alcohol has been used as a currency for transactional sex in South Africa, and Uganda. Pruno also known as prison hooch or prison wine,
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#17330941607241980-647: Is based upon a romanticized conception of tropical cultures, most commonly Polynesian . Depressant Depressants , colloquially known as " downers " or central nervous system (CNS) depressants , are drugs that lower neurotransmission levels, decrease the electrical activity of brain cells , or reduce arousal or stimulation in various areas of the brain. Some specific depressants do influence mood, either positively (e.g., opioids ) or negatively, but depressants often have no clear impact on mood (e.g., most anticonvulsants ). In contrast, stimulants , or "uppers", increase mental alertness, making stimulants
2070-470: Is between 3% and 50%. Many cultures have a distinct drinking culture , where alcoholic drinks are integrated into parties . Most countries have laws regulating the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic beverages. For example, some regulations may require the labeling of the percentage alcohol content (as ABV or proof ) and the use of a warning label . Some countries ban the consumption of alcoholic drinks , but they are legal in most parts of
2160-637: Is classified as a group 1 carcinogen . In 2023, the WHO declared that 'the risk to the drinker’s health starts from the first drop of any alcoholic beverage.' Discovery of late Stone Age jugs suggests that intentionally fermented drinks existed at least as early as the Neolithic period. The oldest verifiable brewery has been found in a prehistoric burial site in a cave near Haifa in modern-day Israel . Researchers have found residue of 13,000-year-old beer that they think might have been used for ritual feasts to honor
2250-433: Is commonly used today for narcolepsy, sudden muscle weakness, and excessive daytime sleepiness. It is sold under the brand name Xyrem. As a depressant, GHB would worsen narcolepsy and muscle weakness . But in low doses, GHB mainly affects the GHB receptor , an excitatory receptor that releases dopamine and glutamate , giving GHB stimulant effects, the opposite of a depressant. But in large doses, GHB activates
2340-516: Is controversy concerning the safety of benzodiazepines in pregnancy. While they are not major teratogens , uncertainty remains as to whether they cause cleft palate in a small number of babies and whether neurobehavioral effects occur as a result of prenatal exposure; they are known to cause withdrawal symptoms in the newborn . Benzodiazepines can be overdosed and cause dangerous deep unconsciousness . However, they are much less toxic than their predecessors, barbiturates, and death rarely results when
2430-411: Is forbidden by law. Wine fraud relates to the commercial aspects of wine. The most prevalent type of fraud is one where wines are adulterated, usually with the addition of cheaper products (e.g. juices) and sometimes with harmful chemicals and sweeteners (compensating for color or flavor). Moonshine is illegal to produce and sell in most countries. In Australia, a sly-grog shop (or shanty)
2520-484: Is marketed in Europe and has been largely, but not completely, discontinued. On 4 April 1997, after over 30 years of use due to reports of hepatitis and acute liver failure , the use of the drug was restricted. Carisoprodol, known as "Soma", is still commonly used today for its muscle relaxant effects. It is also very commonly abused around the world. It is a Schedule IV substance in the United States. Approved: Although
2610-581: Is not recommended to use most carbamates, like carisoprodol , for a long time, as physical and psychological dependence do occur. Meprobamate was launched in 1955. It quickly became the first popular psychotropic drug in America, becoming popular in Hollywood and gaining fame for its seemingly miraculous effects. It has since been marketed under more than 100 trade names, including Amepromat, Quivet, and Zirpon. Carisoprodol, which metabolizes into meprobamate and
2700-501: Is often considered either in its own unique category or as a mild psychedelic . The chemical compound tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) , which is found in cannabis, has many depressant effects, such as muscle relaxation , sedation , decreased alertness , and tiredness . Contrary to the previous statement, activation of the CB1 receptor by cannabinoids causes an inhibition of GABA, the exact opposite of what CNS depressants do. Carbamates are
2790-553: Is often used for medicinal purposes . It may be a grain spirit, or it may be made from other plants. It is used in mixed drinks , liqueurs , and tinctures , and also as a household solvent . In the alcoholic drinks industry, congeners are substances produced during fermentation . These substances include small amounts of chemicals such as occasionally desired alcohols, like propanol and 3-methyl-1-butanol , as well as compounds that are never desired such as acetone , acetaldehyde and glycols . Congeners are responsible for most of
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2880-452: Is often used in anesthesiology. These properties make benzodiazepines useful in treating anxiety, insomnia, agitation , seizures, muscle spasms , alcohol withdrawal , and as a premedication for medical or dental procedures. Benzodiazepines are categorized as either short-, intermediate-, or long-acting. Short- and intermediate-acting benzodiazepines are preferred for the treatment of insomnia; longer-acting benzodiazepines are recommended for
2970-596: Is only used in the short term for muscle pain, particularly back pain. Discontinuation after long-term use could be very intense and even possibly fatal. Withdrawal can resemble barbiturate , alcohol , or benzodiazepine withdrawal, as they all have a similar mechanism of action . Discontinuation symptoms include confusion , disorientation , delirium , hallucinations ( auditory and visual ), insomnia , decreased appetite , anxiety , psychomotor agitation , pressured speech , tremor , tachycardia , and seizures , which could be fatal. Carbamates gained widespread use in
3060-788: Is potentially deadly. Common side effects of gabapentinoids include drowsiness , dizziness , weakness , increased appetite , urinary retention , shortness of breath , involuntary eye movements ( nystagmus ), memory issues , uncontrollable jerking motions , auditory hallucinations , erectile dysfunction , and myoclonic seizures . An overdose of gabapentinoids usually consists of severe drowsiness , severe ataxia , blurred vision , slurred speech , severe uncontrollable jerking motions , and anxiety. Like most anticonvulsants, pregabalin and gabapentin have an increased risk of suicidal thoughts and behaviors . Gabapentinoids, like all calcium channel blockers , are known to cause angioedema . Taking them with an ACE inhibitor can increase
3150-597: Is primarily used for the treatment of spastic movement disorders, especially in instances of spinal cord injury , cerebral palsy , and multiple sclerosis . Phenibut is used in Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and Latvia to treat anxiety and improve sleep, as in the treatment of insomnia. It is also used for various other indications, including the treatment of asthenia , depression, alcoholism , alcohol withdrawal syndrome, post-traumatic stress disorder , stuttering , tics , vestibular disorders , Ménière's disease , dizziness , and
3240-429: Is still used mainly for its muscle relaxant effects, can potentially be abused. Its mechanism of action is very similar to that of barbiturates, alcohol, methaqualone , and benzodiazepines. Carisoprodol allosterically modulates and directly activates the human α1β2γ2 GABAAR ( GABA A ) in the central nervous system , similar to barbiturates. This causes chloride channels to open, allowing chloride to flood into
3330-642: Is that the majority of the drink's fermentable sugar is derived from honey. Mead can also be referred to as "honeywine." Pulque is the Mesoamerican fermented drink made from the "honey water" of maguey , Agave americana . Pulque can be distilled to produce tequila or Mezcal . Rice wine is an alcoholic drink fermented and possibly distilled from rice , consumed in East Asia , Southeast Asia and South Asia . Sake , huangjiu , mijiu , and cheongju are popular examples of East Asian rice wine . Wine
3420-454: Is thought to be mediated through an increased Na /K current and the increased release of dopamine and glutamate . GHB can also cause absence seizures ; the mechanism is currently not known but it is believed to be due to interactions with the GABA B receptor. It is being investigated if endogenous GHB is responsible for non-convulsive seizures in humans. GHB withdrawal is very intense. Physical dependence develops quickly. It
3510-718: Is unclear if it is safe to use gabapentinoids during pregnancy, with some studies showing potential harm . Physical or physiological dependence does occur during the long-term use of gabapentinoids. Following abrupt or rapid discontinuation of pregabalin and gabapentin, people report withdrawal symptoms like insomnia, headache , nausea , diarrhea , flu-like symptoms , anxiety, depression , pain , hyperhidrosis , seizures , psychomotor agitation , confusion , disorientation , and gastrointestinal complaints . Acute withdrawal from baclofen and phenibut may also cause auditory and visual hallucinations , as well as acute psychosis . Baclofen withdrawal can be more intense if it
3600-421: Is used illegally as an intoxicant , an aphrodisiac , and an athletic-performance enhancer. It is a popular club drug in some parts of the world due to its powerful aphrodisiac and euphoric effects. Similarly to phenibut and baclofen, it is used by bodybuilders to increase the human growth hormone due to GABA B activation. It has also been reportedly used as a date-rape drug . This caused it to be
3690-503: Is why many have been replaced with benzodiazepines. Symptoms are similar to a barbiturate overdose and typically include difficulty thinking , poor coordination , decreased levels of consciousness , and a decreased effort to breathe ( respiratory depression ). An overdose is more likely to be fatal when mixed with another depressant that suppresses breathing . Physical and psychological dependence does happen with long-term use of carbamates, particularly carisoprodol. Today, carisoprodol
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3780-443: Is wine that has had a spirit added to it. Many different styles of fortified wine have been developed, including port , sherry, madeira , marsala , commandaria , and the aromatized wine vermouth . Rectified spirit , also called "neutral grain spirit", is alcohol which has been purified by means of "rectification" (i.e. repeated distillation). The term neutral refers to the spirit's lack of flavor that would have been present if
3870-459: The GABA B receptor , an inhibitory receptor in the central nervous system , which overpowers the excitatory effects , thus causing central nervous system depression . Some antipsychotics are agonists of the GHB receptor. GHB can usually be found in either sodium , potassium , magnesium , or calcium salts . Xywav is a medication that is a mixture of all GHB salts and is used to treat
3960-493: The GABA B receptor . Gabapentin, but not pregabalin, has been found to activate voltage-gated potassium channels ( KCNQ ), which might potentiate its depressant qualities. Despite this, gabapentinoids mimic GABA activity by inhibiting neurotransmission . Gabapentinoids prevent delivery of the calcium channels to the cell membrane and disrupt interactions of α 2 δ with NMDA receptors , AMPA receptors , neurexins , and thrombospondins . Some calcium channel blockers of
4050-523: The Great Rebellion . The alcohol monopoly system has a long history in various countries, often implemented to limit the availability and consumption of alcohol for public health and social welfare reasons. The alcohol monopoly was created in the Swedish town of Falun in 1850, to prevent overconsumption and reduce the profit motive for sales of alcohol. It later went all over the country in 1905 when
4140-464: The Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act , the penalty is automatically tripled, so the finding will cost Pfizer $ 141 million." The case stems from a claim from Kaiser Foundation Health Plan Inc . that "it was misled into believing Neurontin was effective for off-label treatment of migraines, bipolar disorder and other conditions. Pfizer argued that Kaiser physicians "still recommend
4230-763: The Swedish parliament ordered all sales of vodka to be done via local alcohol monopolies. In 1894, the Russian Empire established a state monopoly on vodka, which became a major source of revenue for the Russian government. Later in the nineteenth century opposition to alcohol grew in the form of the temperance movement , in the United States , United Kingdom , Canada , Scandinavia and India , and it eventually led to national prohibitions in Canada (1918 to 1920), Norway (spirits only from 1919 to 1926 ), Finland (1919 to 1932), and
4320-607: The analgesic effects of gabapentinoids. Ziconotide , a non-gabapentinoid ω- conotoxin peptide , binds to the N-type calcium channels and has analgesic effects 1000 times stronger than morphine . Gabapentinoids are selective for the α 2 δ site but non-selective when they bind to the calcium channel complex. They act on the α 2 δ site to lower the release of many excitatory and pro- nociceptive neurochemicals , including glutamate , substance P , calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), and more. Gabapentinoids are absorbed from
4410-718: The caves used to store wine in France, is ideal for both short-term storage and long-term aging of wine. Wine generally matures differently and more slowly at a lower temperature than it does at a higher temperature. When the temperature swings are significant, 14 degrees or more, it will cause the wine to breathe through the cork which significantly speeds up the aging process. Between 10–14 °C (50–57 °F), wines will age normally. Wine cellars can be either active or passively cooled. Active wine cellars are highly insulated and need to be properly constructed. They require specialized wine cellar conditioning and cooling systems to maintain
4500-439: The congeners . Freeze distillation concentrates ethanol along with methanol and fusel alcohols (fermentation by-products partially removed by distillation) in applejack . Fortified wine is wine, such as port or sherry , to which a distilled beverage (usually brandy ) has been added. Fortified wine is distinguished from spirits made from wine in that spirits are produced by means of distillation , while fortified wine
4590-858: The dihydropyridine class are used for hypertension to weakly block α 2 δ . Gabapentinoids have anxiolytic, anticonvulsant , antiallodynic , antinociceptive , and possibly muscle relaxant properties. Pregabalin and gabapentin are used in epilepsy , mainly partial seizures (focal). Gabapentinoids are not effective for generalized seizures . They are also used for postherpetic neuralgia , neuropathic pain associated with diabetic neuropathy , fibromyalgia , generalized anxiety disorder , and restless legs syndrome . Pregabalin and gabapentin have many off-label uses, including insomnia , alcohol and opioid withdrawal , smoking cessation , social anxiety disorder , bipolar disorder , attention deficit hyperactivity disorder , chronic pain , hot flashes , tinnitus , migraines , and more. Baclofen
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#17330941607244680-554: The neurotransmitter GABA that could more easily cross the blood–brain barrier and was first described in 1975 by Satzinger and Hartenstein. Gabapentin was first approved for epilepsy , mainly as an add-on treatment for partial seizures . Gabapentinoids are GABA analogues , but they do not bind to the GABA receptors , convert into GABA or another GABA receptor agonist in vivo , or directly modulate GABA transport or metabolism . Phenibut and baclofen , two structurally related compounds, are exceptions, as they mainly act on
4770-503: The "gabapentin receptor". At physiologic or resting membrane potential , VDCCs are normally closed . They are activated (opened) at depolarized membrane potentials , which is the source of the " voltage-gated " epithet . Gabapentinoids bind to the α1 and α2 sites of the α 2 δ subunit family. Gabapentin is the prototypical gabapentinoid. The α 2 δ is found on L-type calcium channels , N-type calcium channels , P/Q-type calcium channels , and R-type calcium channels throughout
4860-542: The 1950s, alongside barbiturates. While their popularity has gradually waned due to concerns over overdose and dependence potential, newer derivatives of carbamates continue to be developed. Among these is Felbamate , an anticonvulsant that was approved in 1993 and is commonly used today. It is a GABA A positive allosteric modulator and blocks the NR2B subunit of the NMDA receptor . Other carbamates block sodium channels . Phenprobamate
4950-615: The Encouraging of the Distillation of Brandy and Spirits from Corn" Alcoholic beverages played an important role in the Thirteen Colonies from their early days when drinking wine and beer at that time was safer than drinking water – which was usually taken from sources also used to dispose of sewage and garbage. Drinking hard liquor was common occurrence in early nineteenth-century United States. The Whiskey Rebellion (also known as
5040-483: The United States (1920 to 1933), as well as provincial prohibition in India (1948 to present). Beer is a beverage fermented from grain mash . It is typically made from barley or a blend of several grains and flavored with hops . Most beer is naturally carbonated as part of the fermentation process. If the fermented mash is distilled, then the drink becomes a spirit . Beer is the most consumed alcoholic beverage in
5130-469: The Whiskey Insurrection) was a violent tax protest in the United States beginning in 1791 and ending in 1794 during the presidency of George Washington . The so-called "whiskey tax" was the first tax imposed on a domestic product by the newly formed federal government. Beer was difficult to transport and spoiled more easily than rum and whiskey. The Rum Rebellion of 1808 was a coup d'état in
5220-443: The central and peripheral nervous systems . α 2 δ is located on presynaptic neurons and affects calcium channel trafficking and kinetics, initiates extracellular signaling cascades and gene expression , and promotes excitatory synaptogenesis through thrombospondin 1 . Gabapentinoids are not direct channel blockers ; rather, they disrupt the regulatory function of α 2 δ and its interactions with other proteins. Most of
5310-435: The central nervous system. They modify large neutral amino acid (LNAA) transport at the blood–brain barrier and reduce the synthesis of neurotransmitters derived from aromatic amino acids , notably serotonin from tryptophan and catecholamines from tyrosine and phenylalanine . This may be relevant to the pharmacology of gabapentinoids. Gabapentin was designed by researchers at Parke-Davis to be an analogue of
5400-487: The country. For instance, in North America, a blood alcohol content of 0.10 g/dL means that there are 0.10 g of alcohol for every dL of blood (i.e., mass per volume is used there). Barbiturates were once popular treatments for insomnia, anxiety, and seizures, although their popularity has waned in recent decades. Barbiturates are sometimes used recreationally; they cause dependence and severe withdrawal , and they have
5490-454: The dead. The traces of a wheat-and-barley-based alcohol were found in stone mortars carved into the cave floor. The Carmona Wine Urn is a first century Roman glass urn containing intact wine . Discovered in 2019 in Carmona, Spain during excavations of the city's western Roman necropolis , analysis of the urn's contents five years after has deemed the vessel as the oldest surviving wine in
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#17330941607245580-462: The desired temperature and humidity. In a very dry climate, it may be necessary to actively humidify the air, but in most areas this is not necessary. Passive wine cellars must be located in naturally cool and damp areas with minor seasonal and diurnal temperature variations, for example, a basement in a temperate climate. Passive cellars may be less predictable, but cost nothing to operate and are not affected by power outages . Some wine experts debate
5670-565: The distillation of various substances. The distillation of wine is attested in Arabic works attributed to al-Kindī ( c. 801 –873 CE) and to al-Fārābī ( c. 872 –950), and in the 28th book of al-Zahrāwī 's (Latin: Abulcasis, 936–1013) Kitāb al-Taṣrīf (later translated into Latin as Liber servatoris ). 12th century: The process of distillation spread from the Middle East to Italy, where distilled alcoholic drinks were recorded in
5760-487: The drug for those uses" and that "the insurer's website also still lists Neurontin as a drug for neuropathic pain." In some cases, gabapentinoids are abused and provide similar effects to alcohol, benzodiazepines, and gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB). The FDA placed a black box warning on Neurontin (gabapentin) and Lyrica (pregabalin) for serious breathing problems . Mixing gabapentinoids with opioids, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, GHB, alcohol, or any other depressant
5850-403: The effect of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) at the GABA A receptor , resulting in sedative , hypnotic ( sleep-inducing ), anxiolytic (anti-anxiety), anticonvulsant, and muscle relaxant properties. High doses of shorter-acting benzodiazepines induce anterograde amnesia , which may be helpful for surgical and procedural anesthesia to reduce patient recall. Midazolam
5940-418: The effects of gabapentinoids are mediated by the high-voltage activated N and P/Q-type calcium channels. P/Q-type calcium channels are mainly found in the cerebellum ( Purkinje neurons ), which may be responsible for the ataxic adverse effect of gabapentinoids, while N-type calcium channels are located throughout the central and peripheral nervous systems. N-type calcium channels are mainly responsible for
6030-417: The existence of drinking games dates back to antiquity. Drinking games have been banned at some institutions, particularly colleges and universities. A drinking song is a song sung while drinking an alcoholic beverage. A beer garden (German: Biergarten ) is an outdoor area in which beer and food are served, typically at shared tables shaded by trees. A beer hall ( German : Bierpalast, Bierhalle )
6120-467: The floor periodically sprinkled with a little water was recommended to retain the desired humidity. Alcoholic beverages This is an accepted version of this page An alcoholic beverage (also called an adult beverage , alcoholic drink , strong drink , or simply a drink ) is a beverage containing alcohol (ethanol) . Alcoholic drinks are typically divided into three classes— beers , wines , and spirits —and typically their alcohol content
6210-485: The importance of humidity for proper wine storage. In the Wine Spectator , writer Matt Kramer noted a French study which claimed that the relative humidity within a bottle is maintained 100% regardless of the closure used or the orientation of the bottle. However, Alexis Lichine says that low humidity can be a problem because it may cause organic corks to dry prematurely. One inch (2.5 cm) of gravel covering
6300-461: The intestines mainly by the large neutral amino acid transporter 1 (LAT1, SLC7A5) and the excitatory amino acid transporter 3 (EAAT3). They are one of the few drugs that use these amino acid transporters . Gabapentinoids are structurally similar to the branched-chain amino acids L-leucine and L-isoleucine , both of which also bind to the α 2 δ site. Branched-chain amino acids like l-leucine, l-isoleucine, and l-valine have many functions in
6390-613: The last month. Several other animals are affected by alcohol similarly to humans and, once they consume it, will consume it again if given the opportunity, though humans are the only species known to produce alcoholic drinks intentionally. Alcohol is a depressant , which in low doses causes euphoria , reduces anxiety , and increases sociability. In higher doses, it causes drunkenness , stupor , unconsciousness , or death . Long-term use can lead to an alcohol use disorder , an increased risk of developing several types of cancer , cardiovascular disease , and physical dependence . Alcohol
6480-425: The mash ingredients had been distilled to a lower level of alcoholic purity. Rectified spirit also lacks any flavoring added to it after distillation (as is done, for example, with gin ). Other kinds of spirits, such as whiskey , (or whisky) are distilled to a lower alcohol percentage to preserve the flavor of the mash. Rectified spirit is a clear, colorless, flammable liquid that may contain as much as 95% ABV . It
6570-570: The mid-12th century. In Italy, the works of Taddeo Alderotti (1223–1296) describe a method for concentrating alcohol involving repeated fractional distillation through a water-cooled still. By the early 14th century, distilled alcoholic drinks had spread throughout the European continent . Distillation spread to Ireland and Scotland no later than the 15th century, as did the common European practice of distilling " aqua vitae ", primarily for medicinal purposes. in 1690, England passed "An Act for
6660-488: The most common distilled drinks, such as whisky (or whiskey) and vodka, the alcohol content is around 40%. The term hard liquor is used in North America to distinguish distilled drinks from undistilled ones (implicitly weaker). Brandy , gin , mezcal , rum , tequila , vodka , whisky (or wiskey) , baijiu , shōchū and soju are examples of distilled drinks. Distilling concentrates the alcohol and eliminates some of
6750-761: The neolithic village of Jiahu in the Henan province of northern China revealed residue left behind by the alcoholic drinks they had once contained. According to a study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , chemical analysis of the residue confirmed that a fermented drink made of grape and hawthorn fruit wine, honey mead and rice beer was being produced in 7000–5600 BC (McGovern et al., 2005; McGovern 2009). The results of this analysis were published in December 2004. The earliest evidence of winemaking
6840-404: The neuron. This slows down communication between neurons and the nervous system . Unlike benzodiazepines, which increase the frequency of the chloride channel opening, carisoprodol increases the duration of channel opening when GABA is bound. GABA is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the nervous system , which causes its depressant effects. Carbamates are fatal in overdose , which
6930-413: The opposite drug class from depressants. Antidepressants are defined by their effect on mood, not on general brain activity, so they form an orthogonal category of drugs. Depressants are closely related to sedatives as a category of drugs, with significant overlap. The terms may sometimes be used interchangeably or may be used in somewhat different contexts. Depressants are widely used throughout
7020-407: The prevention of motion sickness and anxiety before or after surgical procedures or painful diagnostic tests. Phenibut, like other GABA B agonists, is also sometimes used by bodybuilders to increase the human growth hormone . Reuters reported on 25 March 2010 that " Pfizer Inc violated a United States racketeering law by improperly promoting the epilepsy drug Neurontin (gabapentin). Under
7110-416: The same conditions as Xyrem. Both Xywav and Xyrem are Schedule III and have a black box warning for central nervous system depressant effects ( hypoventilation and bradycardia ) and for their very high potential for abuse . Overdose on GHB is fatal with or without mixing other CNS depressants. Death from a GHB overdose is usually caused by respiratory depression , seizures, or coma . GHB
7200-439: The taste and aroma of distilled alcoholic drinks and contribute to the taste of non-distilled drinks. It has been suggested that these substances contribute to the symptoms of a hangover . Tannins are congeners found in wine in the presence of phenolic compounds. Wine tannins add bitterness, have a drying sensation, taste herbaceous, and are often described as astringent . Wine tannins add balance, complexity, structure and make
7290-514: The then-British penal colony of New South Wales , staged by the New South Wales Corps in order to depose Governor William Bligh . Australia's first and only military coup, its name derives from the illicit rum trade of early Sydney , over which the 'Rum Corps', as it became known, maintained a monopoly. During the first half of the 19th century, it was widely referred to in Australia as
7380-466: The toxic effects of gabapentinoids. They may also enhance the fluid-retaining effect of certain anti-diabetic agents ( thiazolidinediones ). It is not known if they cause gingival enlargement like other calcium channel blockers . Gabapentinoids are excreted by the kidney , mostly in their original form. Gabapentinoids can build up in the body when someone has renal failure . This usually presents itself as myoclonus and an altered mental state . It
7470-612: The treatment of anxiety. In general, benzodiazepines are safe and effective in the short term, although cognitive impairments and paradoxical effects such as aggression or behavioral disinhibition occasionally occur. A minority of patients react to benzodiazepines with paradoxical agitation. Long-term use is controversial due to adverse psychological and cognitive effects, decreasing effectiveness, dependence, and benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome , following withdrawal after long-term use. The elderly are at an increased risk of experiencing both short- and long-term adverse effects . There
7560-565: The world as prescription medicines and illicit substances . Alcohol is a very prominent depressant. When depressants are used, effects often include ataxia , anxiolysis , pain relief , sedation or somnolence , cognitive or memory impairment , as well as, in some instances, euphoria , dissociation , muscle relaxation , lowered blood pressure or heart rate , respiratory depression , and anticonvulsant effects. Depressants sometimes also act to produce anesthesia . Other depressants can include drugs like Xanax (a benzodiazepine ) and
7650-599: The world, surpassing the previous record holder, the Speyer wine bottle (discovered in 1867) by three centuries. Beer was likely brewed from barley as early as 13,000 years ago in the Middle East. Pliny the Elder wrote about the golden age of winemaking in Rome , the 2nd century BCE (200–100 BCE), when vineyards were planted. Examination and analysis of ancient pottery jars from
7740-504: The world. Cider or cyder ( / ˈ s aɪ d ər / SY -dər ) is a fermented alcoholic drink made from any fruit juice ; apple juice (traditional and most common), peaches , pears (" Perry " cider) or other fruit. Cider alcohol content varies from 1.2% ABV to 8.5% or more in traditional English ciders. In some regions, cider may be called " apple wine ". Fermented water is an ethanol -based water solution with approximately 15-17% ABV without sweet reserve . Fermented water
7830-442: The world. More than 100 countries have laws regulating their production, sale, and consumption. The most common way to measure intoxication for legal or medical purposes is through blood alcohol content (also called blood alcohol concentration or blood alcohol level). It is usually expressed as a percentage of alcohol in the blood in units of mass of alcohol per volume of blood, or mass of alcohol per mass of blood, depending on
7920-421: The world. The temperance movement advocates against the consumption of alcoholic beverages. The global alcoholic drink industry exceeded $ 1.5 trillion in 2017. Alcohol is one of the most widely used recreational drugs in the world, and about 33% of all humans currently drink alcohol. In 2015, among Americans , 86% of adults had consumed alcohol at some point, with 70% drinking it in the last year and 56% in
8010-609: Was dated at 6,000 to 5,800 BCE in Georgia in the South Caucasus . Celtic people were known to have been making types of alcoholic cider as early as 3000 BC. and wine was consumed in Classical Greece at breakfast or at symposia , and in the 1st century BC. Medieval Muslim chemists such as Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (Latin: Geber, ninth century) and Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (Latin: Rhazes, c. 865–925 ) experimented extensively with
8100-415: Was used as an anxiolytic and is still sometimes used in Europe for general anesthesia and for treating muscle cramps and spasticity. Methocarbamol is a popular drug that is commonly known as Robaxin and is over-the-counter in some countries. It is a carbamate with muscle relaxant effects. Tetrabamate is a controversial drug that is a combination of febarbamate , difebarbamate , and phenobarbital . It
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