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127-476: Early European-American historians attributed McIntosh's achievements and influence to his mixed-race Scottish ancestry. Since the late 20th century, historians have argued much of McIntosh's political influence stemmed more from his Muscogee upbringing and cultural standing, particularly his mother's prominent Wind Clan in the Muscogee matrilineal system, and to other aspects of Muscogee culture. Because McIntosh led

254-484: A "heavy dose" of their pre-existing beliefs including matrilineality. Tuareg women enjoy high status within their society, compared with their Arab counterparts and with other Berber tribes: Tuareg social status is transmitted through women, with residence often matrilocal . Most women could read and write, while most men were illiterate, concerning themselves mainly with herding livestock and other male activities. The livestock and other movable property were owned by

381-403: A closer relationship with their mother's eldest brother than with their biological father, because of the importance of the clan structure. McIntosh was considered a skilled orator and politician. He became a wealthy planter and slaveholder ; and he was influential in both Muscogee and European-American society. One of his cousins was George Troup , who became governor of Georgia when McIntosh

508-536: A different household. According to this source of further information about the Akan, "A man is strongly related to his mother's brother (wɔfa) but only weakly related to his father's brother. This must be viewed in the context of a polygamous society in which the mother/child bond is likely to be much stronger than the father/child bond. As a result, in inheritance, a man's nephew (sister's son) will have priority over his own son. Uncle-nephew relationships therefore assume

635-531: A different pattern, however: Example 1. Members of the (matrilineal) clan culture Minangkabau do not even have a surname or family name , see this culture's own section below. In contrast, members do have a clan name , which is important in their lives although not included in the member's name. Instead, one's name is just one's given name . Example 2. Members of the (matrilineal) clan culture Akan , see its own section below, also do not have matrilineal surnames and likewise their important clan name

762-442: A dominant position." Certain other aspects of the Akan culture are determined patrilineally rather than matrilineally. There are 12 patrilineal Ntoro (which means spirit) groups, and everyone belongs to their father's Ntoro group but not to his (matrilineal) family lineage and abusua . Each patrilineal Ntoro group has its own surnames, taboos, ritual purifications, and etiquette. A recent (2001) book provides this update on

889-697: A group that negotiated and signed the Treaty of Indian Springs in February 1825, which ceded much of remaining Muscogee lands to the United States in violation of Muscogee law, for the first time the Muscogee Creek National Council ordered that a Muscogee be executed for crimes against the Nation. It sentenced him and other signatories to death. McIntosh was executed by his long-time political nemesis Menawa and

1016-458: A land lottery. Under the treaty the Muscogee had until late 1826 to leave the ceded territory. Under its Code of 1818, the National Council had established a police force, known as Law Menders. The Council ruled that the signatories of the February 1825 treaty had to be executed for ceding the communal Muscogee lands, which was defined as a capital crime. This was the first known occasion when

1143-477: A large force of Law Menders in late April 1825. Two other signatories were executed. McIntosh's son Chilly was shot at but escaped unharmed. Menawa signed a treaty in 1826 that was very similar in both language and benefits, but one which the Muscogee Creek National Council had agreed to and was therefore considered a legitimate treaty according to contemporary Muscogee law. The majority of Chief McIntosh's descendants migrated to Indian Territory before 1831, when

1270-700: A log house with dormer windows and a stone chimney, both all but unknown in the Creek nation. He was not only literate, he was by far the wealthiest Creek of his time. McGillivray opposed the 1783 Treaty of Augusta , under which two Lower Creek chiefs had ceded Muscogee lands from the Ogeechee to the Oconee rivers to the new state of Georgia. In June 1784 he negotiated the Treaty of Pensacola with Spain, which recognized Muscogee sovereignty over three million acres (12,000 km ) of land claimed by Georgia , guaranteed access to

1397-436: A matrilineal descent system , an individual is considered to belong to the same descent group as their mother. This ancient matrilineal descent pattern is in contrast to the currently more popular pattern of patrilineal descent from which a family name is usually derived. The matriline of historical nobility was also called their enatic or uterine ancestry, corresponding to the patrilineal or "agnatic" ancestry. In

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1524-478: A particular ancestress. Several lineages are grouped into a political unit headed by a chief and a council of elders, each of whom is the elected head of a lineage – which itself may include multiple extended-family households. Public offices are thus vested in the lineage, as are land tenure and other lineage property. In other words, lineage property is inherited only by matrilineal kin. "The principles governing inheritance stress sex, generation and age – that

1651-672: A pre-statehood Florida pioneer family. As for the rest of the McIntosh Family, once settled in Oklahoma, Chilly and his younger half-brother Daniel McIntosh would both serve as officers with the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War – with Chilly rising to the rank of Colonel. Chief McIntosh as a leader adopted certain elements of European-American culture. He was interested in introducing American education among

1778-804: A robust man, he suffered throughout his adult life from the effects of syphilis and rheumatism . It seems that, exhausted by the pace of his life, he simply wore out." He died on February 17, 1793, in Pensacola and was buried in William Panton's backyard and garden, wrote Edward Forrester, a mixed-blood trader among the Lower Creeks, in a letter to Nepomuceno de Quesada , the Spanish governor of East Florida at St. Augustine . Later McGillivray's sister had his body reinterred at Choctaw Bluff , where he had earlier had his plantation, in modern Clarke County, Alabama , on

1905-467: A social actuality of sexual equality." According to LeBow (based on Schlegel's work), in the Hopi, "gender roles ... are egalitarian .... [and] [n]either sex is inferior." LeBow concluded that Hopi women "participate fully in ... political decision-making." According to Schlegel, "the Hopi no longer live as they are described here" and "the attitude of female superiority is fading". Schlegel said

2032-590: A suit of clothes for his burial, but the killers insisted on throwing the naked corpse into an unmarked grave. His burial site and part of his plantation have been preserved as the McIntosh Reserve in Carroll County, Georgia . The grave is located near a replica of McIntosh's home in McIntosh Reserve Park near Whitesburg . Members of the National Council, including Menawa, went to Washington to protest

2159-518: A third wife, a woman named Peggy. Records conflict as to whether Peggy and McIntosh had three additional children or no children. Following his death in April 1825, Chief McIntosh's widow Eliza, younger half-brother Roley, and all but one of the chief's children would voluntarily relocate to “Indian Territory” in Eastern Oklahoma between 1826 and 1830 (prior to later federal government-forced removals via

2286-783: A tributary of the Chattahoochee located adjacent to the McIntosh estate, is named after the plantation. He owned numerous black slaves to cultivate cotton as a commodity crop on his plantations. He also built a resort hotel at Indian Springs , hoping to attract more travelers along the improved road. Parts of this route are still referred to as the McIntosh Road , or the McIntosh Trail. It passes through several northern counties in Alabama and Georgia. The Muscogee struggled with internal tensions after

2413-519: A version of male-preference matrilineal seniority , favoring brothers over sisters in the current generation (but allowing sisters to inherit if no brothers remained), but passing to the next generation through the eldest female line. In A Map of Virginia John Smith of Jamestown explains: His [ Chief Powhatan 's] kingdome descendeth not to his sonnes nor children: but first to his brethren, whereof he hath 3 namely Opitchapan, Opechancanough , and Catataugh; and after their decease to his sisters. First to

2540-751: Is also matrilocal , a man will exercise guardianship rights not over the children he fathers but over his sisters' children, who are viewed as 'his own flesh'. These children's biological father – unlike an uncle who is their mother's brother and thus their caregiver – is in some sense a 'stranger' to them, even when affectionate and emotionally close. According to Steven Pinker , attributing to Kristen Hawkes, among foraging groups matrilocal societies are less likely to commit female infanticide than are patrilocal societies. Some 20 million Akan live in Africa, particularly in Ghana and Ivory Coast . (See as well their subgroups,

2667-580: Is discussed in the subsection Role of the Tokoor of one of the above-listed main articles. The Tuareg (Arabic:طوارق, sometimes spelled Touareg in French, or Twareg in English) are a large Berber ethnic confederation found across several nations in north Africa, including Niger , Mali and Algeria . The Tuareg are clan -based, and are (still, in 2007) "largely matrilineal". The Tuareg are Muslim , but mixed with

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2794-417: Is less common than among farmers. So for example, among the pygmies of Aka, which includes Biaka and Benzene, a young couple usually settles in her husband's camp after the birth of their first child. However, the husband can stay in the wife's community, where one of his brothers or sisters can join him. This can happen in societies where the bride's service is practiced, or in any other societies. According to

2921-404: Is not included in their name. However, members' names do commonly include second names which are called surnames but which are not routinely passed down from either father or mother to all their children as a family name . Note well that if a culture did include one's clan name in one's name and routinely handed it down to all children in the descent group then it would automatically be

3048-400: Is that when sisters and their mothers help each other with childcare, the descent line tends to be matrilineal rather than patrilineal. Biological anthropologists are now widely agreed that cooperative childcare was a development crucial in making possible the evolution of the unusually large human brain and characteristically human psychology. Although others refute the claims of supporters of

3175-415: Is the tracing of kinship through the female line. It may also correlate with a social system in which each person is identified with their matriline, their mother's lineage , and which can involve the inheritance of property and titles. A matriline is a line of descent from a female ancestor to a descendant of either gender in which the individuals in all intervening generations are mothers. In

3302-431: Is to say, men come before women and seniors before juniors." When a woman's brothers are available, a consideration of generational seniority stipulates that the line of brothers be exhausted before the right to inherit lineage property passes down to the next senior genealogical generation of sisters' sons. Finally, "it is when all possible male heirs have been exhausted that the females" may inherit. Each lineage controls

3429-856: The Trobrianders , Dobu and Nagovisi of Melanesia; the Nairs , some Thiyyas & Muslims of Kerala and the Mogaveeras , Billavas & the Bunts of Karnataka in south India ; the Khasi , Jaintia and Garo of Meghalaya in northeast India and Bangladesh ; the Ngalops and Sharchops of Bhutan ; the Mosuo of China ; the Kayah of Southeast Asia, the Picti of Scotland ,

3556-573: The Alabama River . Two of his maternal nephews, William Weatherford and William McIntosh , who were also born into the powerful Creek Wind Clan ("Hotvlkvlke" in Mvskoke, pronounced approximately "Hutalgalgi"), became the most important Muscogee leaders in the early 19th century. They fought on opposing sides of the Creek War , a conflict that arose between traditionalists, such as Weatherford, and those of

3683-789: The American Revolutionary War and during the War of 1812 , as debates surfaced over the increasing adoption of European-American culture. The Lower Towns, which comprised the majority of the population, were adopting some elements of European-American culture and lived more closely in relation to white settlers on the Georgia frontier. Many educated their children in English. Some prominent Muscogee sent their sons to eastern universities for their education, and some adopted Christianity; as well as forms of European dress and houses, hence they qualified as one of

3810-503: The Ashanti , also called Asante, Akyem , Bono , Fante , Akwamu .) Many but not all of the Akan still (2001) practice their traditional matrilineal customs, living in their traditional extended family households, as follows. The traditional Akan economic, political and social organization is based on maternal lineages, which are the basis of inheritance and succession. A lineage is defined as all those related by matrilineal descent from

3937-1152: The Basques of Spain and France ; the Ainu of Japan , the Akan including the Ashanti , Bono , Akwamu , Fante of Ghana ; most groups across the so-called " matrilineal belt " of south-central Africa; the Nubians of Southern Egypt & Sudan and the Tuareg of west and north Africa; the Serer of Senegal , The Gambia and Mauritania . Most of the example cultures in this article are based on (matrilineal) clans . Any clan might possibly contain from one to several or many descent groups or family groups – i.e., any matrilineal clan might be descended from one or several or many unrelated female ancestors. Also, each such descent group might have its own family name or surname , as one possible cultural pattern. The following two example cultures each follow

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4064-611: The Cegandum and Kagaw , whose historical account is enshrined in Serer religion, mythology and traditions . In Serer culture, inheritance is both matrilineal and patrilineal. It all depends on the asset being inherited – i.e. whether the asset is a paternal asset – requiring paternal inheritance ( kucarla ) or a maternal asset – requiring maternal inheritance ( den yaay or ƭeen yaay ). The actual handling of these maternal assets (such as jewelry, land, livestock, equipment or furniture, etc.)

4191-589: The Coosa River , near present-day Montgomery, Alabama , in 1750. Alexander's mother, Sehoy Marchand , was the daughter of Sehoy , a mixed-race Creek woman of the prestigious Wind Clan ("Hutalgalgi"), and of Jean Baptiste Louis DeCourtel Marchand , a French officer at Fort Toulouse . Alexander and his siblings were born into the Wind Clan, as the Muscogee had a matrilineal system, and gained their status from their mother's clan. They identified as Creek. Their father

4318-599: The Joos matriclan which also became a dynasty in Waalo (Senegal). Some matriclans or maternal clans form part of Serer medieval and dynastic history, such as the Guelowars . The most revered clans tend to be rather ancient and form part of Serer ancient history . These proto-Serer clans hold great significance in Serer religion and mythology . Some of these proto-Serer matriclans include

4445-606: The Nair community or Aliyasantana in the Bunt and the Billava community, and both communities were subdivided into clans . This system was exceptional in the sense that it was one of the few traditional systems in western historical records of India that gave women some liberty and the right to property. Alexander McGillivray Alexander McGillivray , also known as Hoboi-Hili-Miko (December 15, 1750 – February 17, 1793),

4572-537: The Northeast , put pressure on the federal government to take more Indian land. The federal government continued to try to persuade or force the Muscogee and other Southeastern tribes to cede the remainder of their lands in exchange for payments and land west of the Mississippi River in what was called Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma and Arkansas.) On February 12, 1825, McIntosh and eight other chiefs signed

4699-519: The Treaty of Indian Springs . These chiefs included Samuel and Benjamin Hawkins, mixed-race Muscogee sons of Stephen Hawkins, who was also of mixed race; however, McIntosh was the only chief who was a member of the Muscogee Creek National Council. The brothers had both been educated at Princeton. Samuel had married McIntosh's daughter Jane, and Benjamin would later marry his daughter Rebecca. The treaty ceded all

4826-456: The U.S. became a nation, operated by The Great Binding Law of Peace , a constitution by which women retained matrilineal-rights and participated in the League's political decision-making, including deciding whether to proceed to war, through what may have been a matriarchy or "gyneocracy". The dates of this constitution's operation are unknown: the League was formed in approximately 1000–1450, but

4953-631: The abusua framework presented above. The Berber inhabitants of Gran Canaria island had developed a matrilineal society by the time the Canary Islands and their people, called Guanches , were conquered by the Spanish. The Serer people of Senegal , the Gambia and Mauritania are patrilineal ( simanGol in Serer language ) as well as matrilineal ( tim ). There are several Serer matriclans and matriarchs . Some of these matriarchs include Fatim Beye (1335) and Ndoye Demba (1367) – matriarchs of

5080-471: The family name or surname for one's descent group (as well as for all other descent groups in one's clan). While a mother normally takes care of her own children in all cultures, in some matrilineal cultures an "uncle-father" will take care of his nieces and nephews instead: in other words social fathers here are uncles. There is not a necessary connection between the role of father and genitor. In many such matrilineal cultures, especially where residence

5207-469: The national Constitution as Scheduled Tribes, "some ... [are] matriarchal and matrilineal" "and thus have been known to be more egalitarian." Several Hindu communities in South India practiced matrilineality, especially the Nair (or Nayar ) and Tiyyas in the state of Kerala , and the Bunts and Billava in the states of Karnataka . The system of inheritance was known as Marumakkathayam in

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5334-537: The "civilized tribes". They expanded their farms, and many of the Muscogee elite became planters, purchasing enslaved African-Americans to work on plantations in a manner similar to their European-American neighbors. Internal Muscogee tensions resulted in the Creek War (1813–1814), when tensions between the Lower Creeks and the traditional Red Sticks of the Upper Towns erupted into open conflict. McIntosh and other Lower Creeks allied with United States forces against

5461-664: The 102 people she held in bondage." To the Memory and Honor of General William McIntosh The Distinguished and Patriotic Son of Georgia whose devotion was heroic, whose friendship unselfish and whose service was valiant. Who negotiated the treaty with the Creek Indians which gave the state all lands lying west of the Flint River. Who sacrificed his life for his patriotism. Erected by William McIntosh Chapter D. A. R. Jackson, Georgia, 1921." Matrilineal Matrilineality

5588-512: The 1825 treaty, was killed during the raid. Later that day, the Law Menders found the Hawkins brothers, who were also signatories. They hanged Samuel and shot Benjamin, but he escaped. The Muscogee had "adopted certain Anglo-American legal concepts, ... welded them to their own concepts of political independence and used them to serve decidedly Creek purposes." William McIntosh's wives asked for

5715-456: The 1825 treaty. The U.S. government rejected the 1825 treaty as fraudulent, and negotiated the 1826 Treaty of Washington , which allowed the Muscogee to keep about 3 million acres (12,000 km) in Alabama. In this new treaty, the Muscogee received an immediate payment of $ 217,660 and a perpetual annuity of $ 20,000. The state of Georgia ignored the new treaty and worked to evict the Muscogee from their lands before official removal started in

5842-404: The 1830s. After William's death, his younger half-brother Roley McIntosh advanced to serve as chief of the Lower Creeks until 1859, moving with them to Indian Territory in the 1830s. His first wife had died and the widower married Susannah, the widow McIntosh. Led by his son Chilly, McIntosh's family and other Muscogee voluntarily moved to Indian Territory from 1826 to 1830, where they settled at

5969-641: The Africans at the Muscogee agency, which was considered outside U.S. territory as it was within the Muscogee Creek Nation. This was prior to the expected sale of the slaves in the Mississippi Territory, then including Alabama. Too many people learned about the presence of the Africans, and Mitchell was prosecuted over the issue. President Monroe replaced Mitchell in 1821 with John Crowell , who had previously served as an Alabama Congressman. That year,

6096-463: The Akan: Some families are changing from the above abusua structure to the nuclear family . Housing, childcare, education, daily work, and elder care etc. are then handled by that individual family rather than by the abusua or clan, especially in the city. The above taboo on marriage within one's abusua is sometimes ignored, but "clan membership" is still important, with many people still living in

6223-659: The Arabian peoples (first of all among the Amorites of Yemen, and among some strata of Nabateans in Northern Arabia); A modern example from South Africa is the order of succession to the position of the Rain Queen in a culture of matrilineal primogeniture : not only is dynastic descent reckoned through the female line, but only females are eligible to inherit. In some traditional societies and cultures, membership in their groups

6350-545: The Bribri people of Costa Rica and Panama is matrilineal; that is, a child's clan is determined by the clan his or her mother belongs to. Only women can inherit land. The social organization of the Cabécar people of Costa Rica is predicated on matrilineal clans in which the mother is the head of household. Each matrilineal clan controls marriage possibilities, regulates land tenure, and determines property inheritance for its members. In

6477-555: The British fur-trading company Panton, Leslie & Company , and made McGillivray an official representative of Spain, with a $ 50 (~$ 1,102 in 2023) monthly salary. McGillivray became a partner in Panton, Leslie & Co. , and used his control over the deerskin trade to expand his power. McGillivray sought Creek independence after the Treaty of Paris (1783) . He sought to create mechanisms of centralized political authority (in himself), to end

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6604-515: The Council ordered the execution of men for a crime against the centralized Nation. The Council assigned chief Menawa, of a ceded township in the Upper Towns, to carry out the sentence. On April 30, 1825, the Red Stick leader and long-time McIntosh political nemesis Menawa, with a large force of 120-150 Law Menders (the recently organized Muscogee police force) from towns in the ceded territory, attacked

6731-518: The Creeks" — he was an inept military strategist and rarely participated in battle. In 1783, McGillivray became the principal chief of the Upper Creek towns, or as Saunt put it, "established himself as spokesman for a Creek nation that seemed far more unified on paper than it was in reality". His predecessor, Chief Emistigo, died while leading a war party to relieve the British garrison at Savannah, which

6858-452: The Hawkins property. Delilah and William Drew's 2400-acre plantation, called Falonah, was near the Refuge. The widow Rebecca McIntosh Hawkins married Spire M. Hagerty, who held land and slaves on his Phoenix plantation in Harrison County, Texas . He died in December 1849 in Montgomery County, Alabama. By 1860, Rebecca Hagerty was the richest woman in Texas at the age of 45. She was the only woman who in 1860 owned more than 100 slaves, and likely

6985-448: The Hopi "were and still are matrilinial" and "the household ... was matrilocal". Schlegel explains why there was female superiority as that the Hopi believed in "life as the highest good ... [with] the female principle ... activated in women and in Mother Earth ... as its source" and that the Hopi "were not in a state of continual war with equally matched neighbors" and "had no standing army" so that "the Hopi lacked

7112-490: The Indian Territory. Eight McIntosh men served with the Confederate Army during the war. Daughter Catherine "Kate" McIntosh and her Eufaula husband Billy Cousins became a pre-statehood Florida pioneer family after settling in the sparsely-populated Northwestern Florida Panhandle in September 1842. Daughter Rebecca McIntosh married Benjamin Hawkins in the Western Muscogee Nation in 1831. Benjamin knew Sam Houston , and in 1833 he and Rebecca moved to Marion County, Texas , on

7239-422: The Lenape prevented permanent settlement beyond what is now Jersey City. "Early Europeans who first wrote about these Indians found matrilineal social organization to be unfamiliar and perplexing. As a result, the early records are full of 'clues' about early Lenape society, but were usually written by observers who did not fully understand what they were seeing." The Mandan people of the northern Great Plains of

7366-457: The McIntosh plantation, lighting bonfires around the buildings. Then they set McIntosh's house on fire. McIntosh, wounded by gunfire, was pulled from the burning house by several attackers, then one of the men stabbed him in the heart. Other Muscogee shot him more than fifty times. Chilly McIntosh, the chief's oldest son, had also been sentenced to die, but he escaped by diving through a window. Etommee Tustunnuggee, another Muscogee chief who signed

7493-515: The Muscogee Creek National Council in developing a centralized government that borrowed from Anglo-American traditions. They formulated laws in the Code of 1818, which protected communal tribal property and established a police force known as the Law Defenders. In an effort to protect their remaining lands, the National Council, including McIntosh, had passed legislation in 1824 making it a capital crime to alienate communal land. Like other prominent chiefs, McIntosh worked closely with Benjamin Hawkins ,

7620-462: The Muscogee agreed to another land cession in order to raise money for needed food and supplies, as conditions were still difficult for them. Under pressure from the United States and the state of Georgia, Chief McIntosh and some Muscogee chiefs had ceded land in 1821. The National Muscogee Creek Council at that time considered execution of McIntosh for this breach of law but did not proceed. The United States' growing European population, particularly in

7747-412: The Muscogee and Choctaws , and knew them well. He commented in letters to President Thomas Jefferson that Muscogee women were matriarchs and had control of children "when connected with a white man." Hawkins further observed that even wealthy traders were nearly as "inattentive" to their mixed-race children as "the Indians". What he did not understand about the Muscogee culture was that the children had

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7874-420: The Muscogee, adopted the use of chattel slavery on his plantations, and played a role in centralizing the Muscogee Creek National Council over the years. As a successful merchant and gentleman farmer, he owned more than one hundred black slaves and two plantations where he grew cotton and raised livestock. He also operated two ferries, an inn, and a tavern. He used his influence to improve a Creek trail connecting

8001-463: The Red Sticks after 1813, during the War of 1812 . The Red Sticks were allied with the British, as both wanted to limit American expansion in the Southeast. McIntosh fought in support of General Andrew Jackson and state militias in the Battle of Horseshoe Bend , marking the defeat in 1814 of the Red Sticks and the end of the Creek War. McIntosh was appointed a brigadier general of the United States Volunteers by then-Major General Jackson and enjoyed

8128-411: The Revolutionary War, Captain McIntosh moved from the frontier to Savannah to settle. There, he married a paternal cousin, Barbara McIntosh. McIntosh gained his status and place among the Muscogee from his mother's clan. Benjamin Hawkins , first appointed as United States Indian agent in the Southeast and then as Superintendent of Indian Affairs in the territory south of the Ohio River , lived among

8255-798: The Trail of Tears starting in 1831). Second eldest daughter Kate would remain behind after marrying a full-blooded Muscogee named William Cousins (1800–1876), the grandson of George Cousins (chief of the Eufaula tribe within the Muscogee Confederacy), in August 1825 in Cusseta, Georgia. The young couple remained with Billy's extended tribal kinsmen in Clayton (Barbour County), Alabama until September 1842, when they began traveling by wagon train with three other Muscogee families bound for Oklahoma. A broken wagon wheel unexpectedly delayed their travels near Laurel Hill, Florida [1] . Kate and Billy found their new Northwestern Florida Panhandle surroundings akin to their native homelands and decided to stay—ultimately settling in modern-day Mossy Head in Walton County, Florida , as

8382-462: The U.S. Indian Agent to the Muscogee Creek Nation. Mitchell had formerly been the governor of Georgia (1809–1813) (1815–1817), as well as holding other posts in the state. After the Creek War, the people suffered from the disruption. The U.S. provided food and supplies as part of the annuities for the land cessions, especially the 21 million acres the Muscogee were forced to cede following the war. Mitchell and McIntosh were suspected of controlling some of

8509-417: The U.S. Indian Supervisor in the Southeast for two decades until 1816. Hawkins was instrumental in gaining Muscogee cessions of land through that period, but he also supported McIntosh's efforts to bring European-American education to the territory by welcoming missionaries who set up schools. After President James Monroe came to office, in November 1817 his administration appointed David Brydie Mitchell as

8636-461: The U.S. federal government began forcibly removing tribes west in the Trail of Tears. Two of Chief McIntosh's sons, Chilly and Daniel, served as Confederate officers during the American Civil War . Daughter Kate and her family became pre-statehood pioneers of the Florida Panhandle. Daughters Rebecca and Delilah moved to East Texas with their husbands and developed plantations there. Rebecca married again after her first husband died young, and by 1860

8763-435: The United States and Spain paying for his influence at the same time. He was also the superintendent-general of the Creek nation on behalf of Spain, the Indian agent of the United States, the mercantile partner of Panton, and self-appointed "emperor" of the Creek and Seminole nations. McGillivray moved to Pensacola , where he became a member of the Masonic Order . His health began to fail; as Michael D. Green writes, "Never

8890-416: The United States historically lived in matrilineal extended family lodges. The Naso (Teribe or Térraba) people of Panama and Costa Rica describe themselves as a matriarchal community, although their monarchy has traditionally been inherited in the male line. The Navajo people of the American southwest are a matrilineal society in which kinship, children, livestock and family histories are passed down through

9017-409: The United States in the First Seminole War and helped capture the fort. When the Americans shot a heated cannonball into the fort, it struck the magazine and set off a huge explosion. Most of the people within the fort died immediately. Chief McIntosh was actively involved in collaborating with chiefs from the Upper and Lower Towns (then primarily located in Alabama and Georgia, respectively) through

9144-537: The Upper and Lower Creek in Tuckabatchee declared war against Georgia, The Spanish officials opposed this and, after they told McGillivray they would reduce aid if he persisted, he entered into peace talks with the U.S. A Loyalist like his father, McGillivray resented the developing United States Indian policy; however, he did not wish to leave Creek territory. McGillivray became a leading spokesman (self-appointed) for all

9271-523: The Upper and Lower Towns, that ran from Talladega, Alabama , to the Chattahoochee River . He owned two plantations, Lockchau Talofau ("Acorn Bluff") in present-day Carroll County, and Indian Springs, in present-day Butts County His plantation of Acorn Bluff was at the eastern terminus of the McIntosh Road, where the chief developed a ferry operation across the Chattahoochee River . Acorn Creek ,

9398-591: The Wind Clan. Both McIntosh and Weatherford became well-established as Muscogee chiefs and wealthy planters, but Weatherford was aligned with the traditionalist Red Sticks of the Upper Towns in the period of the Creek Wars. The Red Sticks were allied with the British and so he and McIntosh, who was with the Lower Towns and allied with the Americans, were opposed to each other during the conflict. Chief McIntosh's first wife

9525-539: The area. It was occupied by about 300 African-American men, women, and children, 20 renegade Choctaw , and a few Seminole warriors, led by an African-American former Colonial Marine named Garçon. Among the African-Americans were members of the disbanded British Corps of Colonial Marines . Georgia slaveholders and the U.S. Army called it the " Negro Fort ," and worried that the autonomy of the blacks would encourage their own slaves to escape or rebel. McIntosh fought with

9652-622: The background. Originally, Chinese surnames were derived matrilineally, although by the time of the Shang dynasty (1600 to 1046 BCE ) they had become patrilineal. Archaeological data supports the theory that during the Neolithic period (7000 to 2000 BCE ) in China, Chinese matrilineal clans evolved into the usual patrilineal families by passing through a transitional patrilineal clan phase. Evidence includes some "richly furnished" tombs for young women in

9779-521: The capital of the U.S. The conference resulted in the Treaty of New York (1790) . (For decades Indian policy was under the oversight of the War Department.) McGillivray and 29 other chiefs signed the Treaty of New York on behalf of the 'Upper, Middle and Lower Creek and Seminole composing the Creek nation of Indians'. McGillivray was the only one who could sign his name, and Lower Creeks were soon to complain that they had no representative present (none

9906-515: The cession in 1821, American agents awarded McIntosh 1,000 acres of land at Indian Springs and 640 acres on the Ocmulgee River . After the wars, European-American settlers were increasingly migrating to the interior of the Southeast from the coastal areas and encroached on the territories of the Muscogee and other Southeastern tribes. Cultivation of short-staple cotton, which did well in these areas,

10033-624: The constitution was oral until written in about 1880. The League still exists. Other Iroquoian-speaking peoples such as the Wyandot and the Meherrin , that were never part of the Iroquois League, nevertheless have traditionally possessed a matrilineal family structure. The Kogi people of northern Colombia practice bilateral inheritance, with certain rights, names or associations descending matrilineally. Occupied for 10,000 years by Native Americans ,

10160-556: The data above, some scientists also say that kinship and residence in hunter-gatherer societies are complex and multifaceted. For example, when re-checking past data (which were not very reliable), the researchers note that about 40% of the groups were bilocal, 22.9% were matrilocal and 25% were patrilocal. A number of scientists also advocate multilocality, refuting the concepts of exceptional matrilocality (matrilineality) or patrilocality (patrilineality). Matrilineal surnames are names transmitted from mother to daughter, in contrast to

10287-636: The distribution of food and annuities for their own benefit in this period, increasing McIntosh's power among the Muscogee. In addition, Mitchell was implicated in the African importation case, in which illegal African slaves were held at the Creek Agency on their sovereign land, for sale in the Mississippi Territory. This was tried in Admiralty Court as Miguel de Castro v. Ninety-five African Negros (1819–1820) because it violated U.S. law, effective 1808, to end

10414-477: The early Neolithic Yangshao culture, whose multiple other collective burials imply a matrilineal clan culture. Toward the late Neolithic period, when burials were apparently of couples, "a reflection of patriarchy", an increasing elaboration of presumed chiefs' burials is reported. Relatively isolated ethnic minorities such as the Mosuo (Na) in southwestern China are highly matrilineal. Of communities recognized in

10541-676: The eldest sister, then to the rest: and after them to the heires male and female of the eldest sister; but never to the heires of the males. The Upper Kuskokwim people are the original inhabitants of the Upper Kuskokwim River basin. They speak an Athabaskan language more closely related to Tanana than to the language of the Lower Kuskokkwim River basin. They were traditionally hunter-gatherers who lived in matrilineal semi-nomadic bands. The Wayuu people of Colombia and Venezuela live in matrilineal clans, with paternal relationships in

10668-647: The female. In marriage the groom moved to live with the brides family. Children also came from their mother's clan living in hogans of the females family. The Tanana Athabaskan people, the original inhabitants of the Tanana River basin in Alaska and Canada, traditionally lived in matrilineal semi-nomadic bands. The Powhatan and other tribes of the Tsenacommacah , also known as the Powhatan Confederacy, practiced

10795-776: The forks of the Arkansas, Verdigris and Grand (Neosho) rivers, setting up the Western Muscogee Nation. His two sons Chillicothe and Daniel McIntosh both served as Confederate officers in the Civil War. Chilly founded the 1st Creek Mounted Volunteers (later known as the First Creek Cavalry Regiment, C.S.A.); Chilly founded the 2nd Creek Mounted Volunteers (later known as the Second Creek Cavalry Regiment, CSA). Both brothers later became Baptist ministers in

10922-550: The full emoluments, such as pay and allowances for subsistence, forage and servants, as officers of the same flag officer rank in the United States Army. The Muscogee were forced to cede lands to the United States in the early 1800s. Maps mark the strips that were ceded over the years. McIntosh played a role in negotiations and cessions of 1805, 1814 (21 million acres after the Creek War), 1818 and 1821. For his role in completing

11049-484: The help of his sister Sophia Durant , who often assisted him as a translator, interpreter, and as his spokesperson. (Alexander did so because either he had difficulty with the varying Native dialects or because he wished to adhere to a diplomatic practice common among the Creek at the time). He had more book learning than any other Creek, and later in life had a substantial library on natural history . A skillful diplomat – an early writer called him " Talleyrand of

11176-530: The illiterate Creek gradually became aware of his duplicity in the Treaty of New York and other matters, there "began a process that would culminate in the Redstick War ." "Not surprisingly, the struggle began in the era of Alexander McGillivray." Alexander was born Hoboi-Hili-Miko (Good Child King) in the Coushatta village of Little Tallassee (also known as Little Tallase, Little Talisi and Little Tulsa) on

11303-556: The international African slave trade. The privateer "Commodore" Aury had taken the Africans as a prize from a Spanish ship bound for Havana, Cuba , where Spain continued slavery. He transported them to Amelia Island off Florida. William Bowen bought 110 slaves for $ 25,000 and had them taken to the Indian agency in the Muscogee Creek Nation in two batches: in December 1817 and January 1818. Mitchell appeared to be primarily responsible for keeping

11430-440: The land for personal gain, or because he believed removal was inevitable, and he was trying to achieve some security for the Muscogee Creek Nation. Historians like Michael Green believe that McIntosh sold away the tribe's birthright and future, describing the treaty as Fraudulent by the standards of any society, concluded in violation of the expressed orders of both interested governments, riddled with bribery, chicanery, and deceit,

11557-454: The land that is present-day New Jersey was overseen by clans of the Lenape , who farmed, fished, and hunted upon it. The pattern of their culture was that of a matrilineal agricultural and mobile hunting society that was sustained with fixed, but not permanent, settlements in their matrilineal clan territories. Leadership by men was inherited through the maternal line, and the women elders held

11684-480: The largest landholders in the colony. His father was a delegate in the colonial (Georgia) Assembly , and was "a partner in a profitable mercantile firm that dealt in slaves, among other commodities". In 1773, the boy was sent to school in Charleston, South Carolina , where he learned Latin and Greek. He was apprenticed at two trading companies, one of which was the second largest importer of slaves in Georgia. With

11811-655: The late 18th century when they formed a new tribe, known as the Seminole . Enslaved African-Americans from Georgia also escaped and took refuge in Spanish Florida, where the Spanish Crown offered them freedom and land in exchange for converting to Catholicism . After the War of 1812, the British withdrew and turned over the fort they constructed at Prospect Bluff on the lower Apalachicola River to newly freed African-Americans in

11938-553: The late 19th century, almost all prehistorians and anthropologists believed, following Lewis H. Morgan 's influential book Ancient Society , that early human kinship everywhere was matrilineal. This idea was taken up by Friedrich Engels in The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State . The Morgan-Engels thesis that humanity's earliest domestic institution was not the family but

12065-457: The lineage land farmed by its members, functions together in the veneration of its ancestors, supervises marriages of its members, and settles internal disputes among its members. The political units above are likewise grouped into eight larger groups called abusua (similar to clans ), named Aduana, Agona, Asakyiri, Asenie, Asona, Bretuo, Ekuona and Oyoko. The members of each abusua are united by their belief that they are all descended from

12192-806: The matrilineal clan soon became incorporated into communist orthodoxy . In reaction, most 20th century social anthropologists considered the theory of matrilineal priority untenable, although during the 1970s and 1980s, a range of feminist scholars often attempted to revive it. In recent years, evolutionary biologists , geneticists and palaeoanthropologists have been reassessing the issues, many citing genetic and other evidence that early human kinship may have been matrilineal after all. One crucial piece of indirect evidence has been genetic data suggesting that over thousands of years, women among sub-Saharan African hunter-gatherers have chosen to reside postmaritally not with their husbands' family but with their own mother and other natal kin. Another line of argument

12319-465: The more familiar patrilineal surnames transmitted from father to son, the pattern most common among family names today. For clarity and for brevity, the scientific terms patrilineal surname and matrilineal surname are usually abbreviated as patriname and matriname . There appears to be some evidence for the presence of matrilineality in Pre-Islamic Arabia , in a very limited number of

12446-564: The only Native American in Texas to do so. She owned three plantations: the third was in Cass County, and the total properties amounted to 12,800 acres. In 1860, her "personal wealth was reported to have been $ 85,000, and her real estate valued at $ 35,000. She was the wealthiest person in Marion County , where her plantation Refuge was located. Most of her personal wealth was attributed to the value of

12573-469: The outbreak of the American Revolutionary War , his Loyalist father returned to Scotland , and his lands were confiscated. Alexander returned to his mother's people in Little Tallassee in 1777. While he was accepted as a Creek because of his mother, he "was deeply alienated from most Creek traditions and from the vast majority of the Creek people" When he ascended to leadership, Alexander relied on

12700-466: The power to remove leaders of whom they disapproved. Villages were established and relocated as the clans farmed new sections of the land when soil fertility lessened and when they moved among their fishing and hunting grounds by seasons. The area was claimed as a part of the Dutch New Netherland province dating from 1614, where active trading in furs took advantage of the natural pass west, but

12827-416: The remaining Muscogee land in Georgia (the Upper and Lower Towns) plus 3,000,000 acres in Alabama to the United States in exchange for $ 200,000 and annuities to be paid to the Muscogee nation. Another $ 200,000 was paid directly to McIntosh. The fifth article of the treaty stipulated that McIntosh receive payment for lands he was previously granted in 1821. Historians continue to argue over whether McIntosh ceded

12954-406: The richest Creek of his time. McGillivray was literate and his "voluminous" correspondence has survived. In many cases his letters are the only source for events in his life, and they naturally present him in a very good light. Recent historians have taken issue with the heroic status he had in earlier histories. McGillivray's status among the Creeks, who did not customarily have a single leader,

13081-414: The same ancient ancestress. Marriage between members of the same abusua is forbidden. One inherits or is a lifelong member of the lineage, the political unit, and the abusua of one's mother, regardless of one's gender and/or marriage. Note that members and their spouses thus belong to different abusuas , mother and children living and working in one household and their husband/father living and working in

13208-645: The spur to masculine superiority" and, within that, as that women were central to institutions of clan and household and predominated "within the economic and social systems (in contrast to male predominance within the political and ceremonial systems)", the Clan Mother , for example, being empowered to overturn land distribution by men if she felt it was unfair, since there was no "countervailing ... strongly centralized, male-centered political structure". The Iroquois Confederacy or League , combining five to six Native American Haudenosaunee nations or tribes before

13335-470: The territory's eastern border, where they developed the Refuge plantation. Their son William died young, and they had two daughters, Louisa and Anna. Benjamin Hawkins died in 1836 in Texas, killed near Nacogdoches. By the 1840s, Rebecca's sisters Delilah McIntosh, who married William Drew, and Catherine Hettie McIntosh, who married James D. Willison, were settled in Texas with their husbands and families on part of

13462-520: The traditional culture of the Guna people of Panama and Colombia, families are matrilinear and matrilocal, with the groom moving to become part of the bride's family. The groom also takes the last name of the bride. The Hopi (in what is now the Hopi Reservation in northeastern Arizona ), according to Alice Schlegel , had as its "gender ideology ... one of female superiority, and it operated within

13589-520: The traditional village autonomy by which individual chiefs had signed treaties and ceded land. Armed by British traders operating out of Spanish West Florida , the Muscogee raided back-country European-American settlers to protect their hunting grounds. From 1785 to 1787, Upper Creek war parties fought alongside the Cherokee in the Cherokee–American wars in present-day Tennessee . In 1786 a council of

13716-501: The treaty illegally acquired for Georgia and Alabama, through the offices of the United States, an enormous amount of land. As soon as the Muscogee Creek National Council learned of this, they protested to Washington, but the U.S. Senate had already ratified the treaty. Initially Washington officials tried to carry it out. Governor George Troup of Georgia, a cousin of McIntosh, had promised him protection, but put pressure on him to survey lands ahead of time, as Georgia wanted to prepare for

13843-534: The tribe. This provision angered the Seminoles of Florida, who had provided refuge to numerous escaped slaves, and had intermarried with some. The Black Seminoles by this time had communities allied with the Seminole. The Creeks "soon concluded that McGillivray had deceived them". Under secret provisions in the treaty, McGillivray was commissioned as a brigadier general of the U.S., with an annual salary of $ 1,200. He

13970-588: The tribes along the Florida- Georgia border areas. Georgia's Yazoo land scandal convinced President George Washington that the federal government needed to control Indian affairs rather than allowing the states to make treaties. In 1790 he sent a special emissary to the Southeast, who persuaded McGillivray and other chiefs to attend a conference with Henry Knox , the Secretary of War , in New York City , then

14097-475: The universality of matrilocality or patrilocality , pointing out that hunter-gatherer societies have a flexible philopatry or practice multilocality, which in turn leads to a more egalitarian society, since both men and women have the right to choose with whom to live. According to some data, pastoralists and farmers strongly gravitate towards patrilocality, so patrilocality is a common phenomenon among non-Pygmies. But among some hunter-gatherers, patrilocality

14224-434: The wealthy Europeans. Through both his mother and father, McIntosh was related to numerous other influential Muscogee chiefs, most of whom were mixed-race, of Muscogee mothers and white fathers, who were valued as husbands. The most prominent were Alexander McGillivray (1750–1793), the son of Sehoy II , a Wind Clan mother, and Lachlan McGillivray ; and William Weatherford ( c.  1780 –1824), also born to

14351-615: The women, whereas personal property is owned and inherited regardless of gender. In contrast to most other Muslim cultural groups, men wear veils but women do not. This custom is discussed in more detail in the Tuareg article's clothing section , which mentions it may be the protection needed against the blowing sand while traversing the Sahara desert . The Bororo people of Brazil and Bolivia live in matrilineal clans, with husbands moving to live with their wives' extended families. The clan system of

14478-623: Was Lachlan McGillivray , a Scottish trader (of the Clan MacGillivray chief's lineage). He built trading posts among the Upper Towns of the Muscogee Confederacy, whose members had formerly traded with French Louisiana . As a child, Alexander briefly lived in Augusta with his father on one of his plantations . By the time he was 12, his father owned several large plantations totalling over 10,000 acres (4,000 ha), making him one of

14605-512: Was Eliza Hawkins, although she has often erroneously been conflated with Elizabeth Grierson . Married around McIntosh's twenty-fifth birthday, he and Eliza's marriage produced five children: Chillicothe (aka " Chilly "), Jane, Kate, Sallie, and Louis. Their first-born was a son, named Chilly McIntosh (1800–1895), born near Georgia, in Coweta . Their daughter Jane married Samuel Hawkins, Kate married William Cousins, and their daughter Sallie's husband

14732-469: Was George McLish. Around the end of the Creek War, McIntosh took a second wife, Susannah Ree (also shown as Roe/Rowe, or Coe), whose heritage is variously given as Cherokee, and full-blooded Muscogee. McIntosh and Susannah had four children: Rebecca , Catherine Hettie, Delilah, and Daniel , known as D.N. As a highly successful soldier and businessman, McIntosh's elevated social/tribal status allowed him to take

14859-422: Was a Muscogee (Creek) leader. The son of a Muscogee mother and a Scottish father, he was literate and educated, and understood the "white" European world and merchandise trading well. These gave him prestige, especially with European Americans, who were glad to finally find a Creek leader they could talk to and deal with. He used his role as link between the two worlds to his advantage, not always fairly, and became

14986-431: Was a "secret partner" of the trading firm Panton, Leslie and Company , one of his principal sources of power, according to Thomas Jefferson , who met him in 1790. In 1792, McGillivray repudiated the Treaty of New York. He negotiated another with Spanish officials, who ruled Louisiana . They promised to respect Muscogee sovereignty. McGillivray was a man of remarkable ability, as evident from his success in keeping both

15113-472: Was a prominent chief. Whites sometimes mistakenly assumed that McIntosh had centralized authority over the Muscogee, but he was only one among numerous chiefs, and the central power became the Muscogee Creek National Council, especially after it adopted the Code of 1818 . For generations, Muscogee chiefs had approved their daughters' marriages to fur traders in order to strengthen their alliances and trading power with

15240-456: Was also granted permission to import goods via Pensacola without paying duties, and paid $ 100,000 for his father's confiscated properties. With this money, he acquired three plantations and 60 African American slaves. The treaty temporarily pacified the Southern frontier, but the U.S. failed to honor its obligation and did not eject white settlers who were illegally on Creek lands. In addition, he

15367-541: Was also named after his father, who was connected to a prominent Savannah, Georgia family. Captain McIntosh, a Loyalist during the Revolutionary War , had worked with the Muscogee to recruit them as military allies to the British. The senior McIntosh's mother was Margaret "Mary" McGillivray, believed to have been a sister of the Scot Lachlan McGillivray , a wealthy fur trader and planter in Georgia. After

15494-572: Was besieged by the Continental Army under General "Mad" Anthony Wayne . At one time, McGillivray claimed that he had 5,000 to 10,000 warriors, to arrive at which figure he included the Cherokee , Seminoles , and Chickamauga he came in contact with (but did not rule). However, he did not live a Creek lifestyle, as he built a plantation on the Little River , and a second one on the Coosa River , just above modern Montgomery, Alabama . He built

15621-457: Was controversial and sometimes resented. His chief asset to ensure he was seen as a leader was his ability to hand out gifts to the Creek from both Britain and Spain. He was the most "Anglicized" of the Creek, and built solid houses, planted orchards, and ran a plantation (and owned about 60 slaves), which made him suspect. That he knew English well, was literate, and was experienced in the trading world also gave him influence, if not prestige. Yet as

15748-469: Was invited), and that the Creek signers had no right to give away their lands. The first treaty negotiated after ratification of the U.S. Constitution , it established the Altamaha and Oconee rivers as the boundary between Creek lands and the United States. The U.S. government promised to remove illegal white settlers from the area, and the Muscogee agreed to return fugitive black slaves who sought refuge with

15875-604: Was made profitable by Eli Whitney 's invention of the cotton gin in the 1790s, which mechanized processing of the cotton. Lands were developed in the piedmont areas for large cotton plantations, stimulating a demand for African-American slaves that resulted in the forcible migration of more than one million slaves to the Deep South in the domestic trade. Remnants of Muscogee Confederacy and Miccosukee , and Yuchi , as well as other American Indian tribes plus maroons ( fugitive enslaved people ) had migrated to Spanish Florida during

16002-646: Was the wealthiest woman in Texas, owning three plantations with a total of 12,800 acres and 120 enslaved people. Tustunnuggee Hutke (or "White Warrior") was born in the Lower Creek Town of Coweta in present-day Georgia to Scottish-American soldier William McIntosh and to Senoya (also spelled Senoia and Senoy ), a Muscogee member of the Wind Clan . As the Muscogee had a matrilineal kinship system, through which property and hereditary positions were passed, his mother's status determined that of White Warrior. The boy

16129-670: Was – and, in the following list, still is if shown in italics  – inherited matrilineally. Examples include the Cherokee , Choctaw , Gitksan , Haida , Hopi , Iroquois , Lenape , Navajo and Tlingit of North America ; the Cabécar and Bribri of Costa Rica; the Naso and Kuna people of Panama; the Kogi , Wayuu and Carib of South America; the Minangkabau people of West Sumatra , Indonesia and Negeri Sembilan , Malaysia ;

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