125-546: Wilhelm Bodewin Johann Gustav Keitel ( German pronunciation: [ˈvɪlhɛlm ˈkaɪtl̩] ; 22 September 1882 – 16 October 1946) was a German field marshal who held office as chief of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW), the high command of Nazi Germany's armed forces , during World War II . He signed a number of criminal orders and directives that led to numerous war crimes . Keitel's rise to
250-512: A central role in Germany's military build-up during the years leading to World War II . However, by 20 January 1938, he was forced to resign after his rivals, Hermann Göring and Heinrich Himmler , presented Hitler with evidence that his wife had posed in the past for pornographic photos. Born in Stargard , Germany (now Stargard, Poland ) to a noble Baltic German family , Werner von Blomberg joined
375-739: A field marshal and commander in chief of the German Air Force after Göring had fallen out of Hitler's favour, making Greim the last German field marshal in history. Financially, the rank of Generalfeldmarschall in Nazi Germany was very rewarding as, apart from a yearly salary, Hitler introduced tax free fringe benefits for generals in the range of 2,000 to 4,000 ℛ︁ℳ︁ (€8897–17793 in 2021) per month in 1940. He also bestowed generous presents on his highest officers, with Leeb receiving 250,000 ℛ︁ℳ︁ (€1,112,067 in 2021) for his 65th birthday from Hitler. Promotion to
500-604: A glowing recommendation for the invasion based upon fabricated economic benefits. In January 1943, just before the final surrender at Stalingrad , Hitler agreed to the creation of a three-man committee with representatives of the State, the Armed Forces High Command, and the Party in an attempt to centralize control of the war economy and over the home front. The committee members were Keitel, (Chief of OKW) Hans Lammers (Chief of
625-547: A high-risk strategy of localized wars that was likely to trigger a general war before Germany was ready. None of those present at the conference had any moral objections to Hitler's strategy with which they basically agreed; only the question of timing divided them. Göring and Himmler found an opportunity to strike against Blomberg in January 1938, when the 59-year-old general married his second wife, Erna Gruhn (1913–1978, sometimes referred to as "Eva" or "Margarete"). Blomberg had been
750-606: A homosexual would not be allowed to be a member of the League of German Officers. On 29 June 1934, an article by Blomberg appeared in the official newspaper of the Nazi Party, the Völkischer Beobachter , stating that the military was behind Hitler and would support him whatever he did. In the same year, after Hindenburg's death on 2 August, as part of his "self-Gleichschaltung" strategy, Blomberg personally ordered all soldiers in
875-689: A lieutenant-colonel, Keitel was again assigned to the war ministry in 1929 and was soon promoted to Head of the Organizational Department ("T-2"), a post he held until Adolf Hitler took power in 1933. Playing a vital role in the German rearmament , he traveled at least once to the Soviet Union to inspect secret Reichswehr training camps. In the autumn of 1932, he suffered a heart attack and double pneumonia. Shortly after his recovery, in October 1933, Keitel
1000-728: A major reorganization of the Wehrmacht . Fritsch was later acquitted; together, the events became known as the Blomberg–Fritsch Affair . Generalfeldmarschall von Blomberg and his wife went on a honeymoon for a year to the island of Capri . Admiral Erich Raeder decided that Blomberg needed to commit suicide to atone for his marriage, and dispatched an officer to Italy, who followed the Blombergs around on their honeymoon and persistently and unsuccessfully tried to force Blomberg to commit suicide. The officer at one point even tried to force
1125-450: A man who would safeguard the German military's traditional "state within the state" status dating back to Prussian times under which the military did not take orders from the civilian government, headed by the chancellor, but co-existed as an equal alongside the civilian government because of its allegiance only to the head of state, not the chancellor, who was the head of government. Until 1918,
1250-638: A military politician Blomberg was every bit as ruthless, as Schleicher had been. The resignation of Hammerstein caused a crisis in military-civil relations when Hitler attempted to appoint as his successor Reichenau, a man who was not acceptable to the majority of the Reichswehr . Blomberg supported the attempt to appoint Reichenau, but reflecting the power of the "state within the state", certain Army officers appealed to Hindenburg, which led to Werner von Fritsch being appointed instead. Far more serious than dealing with
1375-616: A military wing to crush any attempt at a communist revolution before Blomberg conceded in the idea, which eventually become the Waffen-SS. Blomberg's relations with the SS were badly strained in late 1934 to early 1935 when it was discovered that the SS had bugged the offices of the Abwehr chief, Admiral Wilhelm Canaris . That led Blomberg to warn Hitler the military would not tolerate being spied upon. In response to Blomberg's protests, Hitler gave orders that
SECTION 10
#17328767049911500-524: A new Army Law passed, which ended the jurisdiction of civil courts over the military and extinguished the theoretical right for the military to elect councils although that right, despite being guaranteed by the Weimar Constitution in 1919, had never been put into practice. Blomberg's first act as defense minister was to carry out a purge of the officers associated with his hated archenemy, Schleicher. Blomberg sacked Ferdinand von Bredow as chief of
1625-422: A pun derived from Lakai (" lackey ") and his surname. Hermann Göring's description of Keitel as having "a sergeant's mind inside a field marshal's body" was a feeling often expressed by his peers. He had been promoted because of his willingness to function as Hitler's mouthpiece. He was known by his peers as a "blindingly loyal toady" of Hitler, nicknamed "Nickgeselle", after a popular metal toy nodding donkey,
1750-561: A reputation as something of a lackey to Hitler. As such, he was nicknamed "Rubber Lion" by some of his critics in the army who were less than enthusiastic about Hitler. One of the few notable exceptions was during the run-up to the Night of the Long Knives from 30 June to 2 July 1934. In early June, Hindenburg decided that unless Hitler did something to end the growing political tension in Germany, he would declare martial law and turn over control of
1875-450: A scandal and to preserve the integrity of the army. The upcoming wedding of one of Blomberg's daughters, Dorothea, would have been threatened by scandal. She was engaged to Karl-Heinz Keitel, the eldest son of Wilhelm Keitel . Blomberg refused to end his marriage but when Göring threatened to make public the pasts of Erna Gruhn and her mother, Blomberg was forced to resign his posts to prevent that, which he did on 27 January 1938. His daughter
2000-610: A single naval officer, Henning von Holtzendorff , was designated Grand Admiral. Not even such well-known German commanders as Erich Ludendorff , Erich von Falkenhayn , or Reinhard Scheer received marshal's batons or Grand Admiral rank. Before the Second World War , Adolf Hitler reintroduced the rank into the Wehrmacht with the promotion of the Reich Minister of War, Generaloberst Werner von Blomberg (20 April 1936), and
2125-518: A threat to their power, worked together to undermine it. The result was that nothing changed, and the Committee declined into irrelevance. Keitel played an important role after the failed 20 July plot in 1944. He sat on the army " court of honour " that handed over many officers who were involved, including Field Marshal Erwin von Witzleben , to Roland Freisler 's notorious People's Court . Around 7,000 people were arrested, many of whom were tortured by
2250-635: A title no other German officer had ever held. Hitler remained the Supreme Commander of the military in his capacity as Head of State, the Führer of Germany. On 20 April 1936, the loyal Blomberg became the first Generalfeldmarschall appointed by Hitler. On 30 January 1937 to mark the fourth anniversary of the Nazi regime, Hitler personally presented the Golden Party Badge to the remaining non-Nazi members of
2375-540: A war would be total war of a highly mechanized, industrial type. In 1929, Blomberg came into conflict with General Kurt von Schleicher at the Truppenamt and was removed from his post and appointed military commander in East Prussia . Early that year, Schleicher had started a policy of "frontier defense" ( Grenzschutz ) under which the Reichswehr would stockpile arms in secret depots and begin training volunteers beyond
2500-468: A way of upholding military "honor." Wheeler-Bennett wrote that the fact that Blomberg instigated the expulsion of Röhm from the League just two days before Röhm was arrested on charges of high treason proved he knew what was coming. Röhm had been quite open about his homosexuality ever since he had been outed in 1925 after the publication in a newspaper of his love letters to a former boyfriend. Wheeler-Bennett found highly implausible Blomberg's claim that
2625-520: A wealthy landowner's daughter at Wülfel near Hanover . Keitel was 1.85 metres (6 feet 1 inch) tall, later described as a solidly built and square-jawed Prussian. During World War I, Keitel served on the Western Front and took part in the fighting in Flanders , where he was severely wounded. After being promoted to captain, Keitel was posted to the staff of an infantry division in 1915. After
SECTION 20
#17328767049912750-476: A widower since the death of his first wife, Charlotte, in 1932. Gruhn was a 24-year-old typist and secretary (Blomberg was 59), but the Berlin police had a long criminal file on her and her mother, a former prostitute. Among the reports was information that Erna Gruhn had posed for pornographic photos in 1932. That was reported to the Berlin police chief, Wolf-Heinrich von Helldorf , who went to Wilhelm Keitel with
2875-787: The Wehrmacht high command began with his appointment as the head of the Armed Forces Office at the Reich Ministry of War in 1935. Having taken command of the Wehrmacht in 1938, Adolf Hitler replaced the ministry with the OKW and Keitel became its chief. He was reviled among his military colleagues as Hitler's habitual " yes-man ". After the war, Keitel was indicted by the International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg as one of
3000-636: The Austrian Empire as Kaiserlicher Feldmarschall ("imperial field marshal") and in Austria-Hungary as Kaiserlicher und königlicher Feldmarschall - Császári és királyi tábornagy ("imperial and royal field marshal"). Both were based on prior usage during the Holy Roman Empire . The Emperor - King held the rank ex officio , other officers were promoted as required. Between 1914 and 1918, ten men attained this rank, of whom four were members of
3125-664: The Battle of Stalingrad , to the rank of Generalfeldmarschall via field radio on 30 January 1943, a day before his army's inevitable surrender, in order to encourage him to continue to fight until death or commit suicide. In the promotion, Hitler noted that no German or, before that, Prussian field marshal had ever been captured alive. Generalfeldmarschall Paulus surrendered the following day anyway, claiming, Ich habe nicht die Absicht, mich für diesen bayerischen Gefreiten zu erschießen. ("I have no intention of shooting myself for this Bavarian corporal.") A disappointed Hitler commented, "That's
3250-737: The Deutsche Demokratische Republik (DDR) (German Democratic Republic, i.e. East Germany ) created the rank of Marshal of the German Democratic Republic on 25 March 1982. A general could be appointed to this rank by the State Council ( Staatsrat ; the head-of-state council of the GDR) during wartime or for exceptional military achievement; no one ever held the rank, however. The ranks of Generalfeldmarschall , Generaloberst , Großadmiral and Generaladmiral no longer exist in
3375-512: The Franco-Prussian War —became the first Prussian princes appointed to the rank of Generalfeldmarschall . The exalted nature of the rank was underscored during World War I , when only five German officers (excluding honorary promotions to members of royal families and foreign officers) were designated Generalfeldmarschall : Paul von Hindenburg , August von Mackensen , Karl von Bülow , Hermann von Eichhorn , and Remus von Woyrsch . Only
3500-549: The Führer ”. In 1942, three other men were promoted— Wüstenfuchs ('Desert Fox') Erwin Rommel (22 June) for the siege of Tobruk , Erich von Manstein (30 June) for the Siege of Sevastopol , and Georg von Küchler (30 June) for his success as Oberbefehlshaber der Heeresgruppe Nord (commander-in-chief of Army Group North). Hitler promoted Friedrich Paulus , commander of the 6th Army at
3625-532: The Ministeramt and replaced him with General Walter von Reichenau , Eugen Ott was dismissed as chief of the Wehramt and sent to Japan as a military attaché and General Wilhelm Adam was sacked as chief of the Truppenamt (the disguised General Staff) and replaced with Ludwig Beck . The British historian Sir John Wheeler-Bennett wrote about the "ruthless" way that Blomberg set about isolating and undermining
3750-458: The Reichswehr would be the main military force, and the SA was to remain a political organization. Despite the ruling, Röhm continued to press for a greater role for the SA. In March 1934, Blomberg and Röhm began openly fighting each other at cabinet meetings and exchanging insults and threats. As a result of his increasingly-heated feud with Röhm, Blomberg warned Hitler that he must curb the ambitions of
3875-500: The Reichswehr , which had some. Müller wrote that Blomberg wanted to show Hitler that the Reichswehr was even more loyal and ideologically sound than was the SA and that purging Reichswehr members who could be considered Jewish without being ordered to do so was an excellent way to demonstrate loyalty within the Nazi regime. As both the Army and the Navy had longstanding policies of refusing to accept Jews, there were no Jews to purge within
Wilhelm Keitel - Misplaced Pages Continue
4000-785: The SS assumed command of all Jewish forced labour in July 1942. Keitel formally endorsed the state of affairs in September, reiterating for the armed forces that "evacuation of the Jews must be carried out thoroughly and its consequences endured, despite any trouble it may cause over the next three or four months". After the war, Keitel faced the International Military Tribunal (IMT), which indicted him on all four counts before it: conspiracy to commit crimes against peace , planning, initiating and waging wars of aggression , war crimes , and crimes against humanity . Most of
4125-546: The Soviet Union , where he was much impressed by the high status of the Red Army , and left a convinced believer in the value of totalitarian dictatorship as the prerequisite for military power. This was part of a broader shift on the part of the German military to the idea of a totalitarian Wehrstaat ( transl. Defence State ) which, beginning in the mid-1920s, became increasingly popular with military officers. The German historian Eberhard Kolb wrote that: from
4250-747: The State of Defence , that supreme command authority is transferred to the Federal Chancellor . The Inspector General of the Bundeswehr is the military chief of defence and heads the Armed Forces Command Staff ( German : Führungsstab der Streitkräfte ). The rank of Field Marshal was first used in the northern German State of Saxony within the Holy Roman Empire in 1631. It was then used nine further times in that century and seven times in
4375-548: The Wehrstaat had clearly failed, and that Germany needed a new approach to forming the Wehrstaat . By late January 1933, it was clear that the Schleicher government could only stay in power by proclaiming martial law and by authorizing the Reichswehr to crush popular opposition. In doing so, the military would have to kill hundreds, if not thousands of German civilians; any régime established in this way could never expect to build
4500-588: The physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer , the director of the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory , where the first atomic bombs were developed. Keitel was frequently depicted in World War II films , such as by Dieter Mann in Downfall (2004). Notably, East German actor Gerd Michael Henneberg repeatedly reprised his role as Keitel in several Soviet-East German co-productions directed by Yuri Ozerov in
4625-885: The "Nickesel". During the war he was subject to verbal abuse from Hitler, who said to other officers (according to Gerd von Rundstedt ) that "you know he has the brains of a movie usher ... (but he was made the highest ranking officer in the Army) ... because the man's as loyal as a dog" (said by Hitler with a sly smile). Keitel was predisposed to manipulation because of his limited intellect and nervous disposition; Hitler valued his diligence and obedience. On one occasion, Generalleutnant Burkhart Müller-Hillebrand [ de ] asked who Keitel was: upon finding out he became horrified at his own failure to salute his superior. Franz Halder , however, told him: "Don't worry, it's only Keitel". German officers consistently bypassed him and went directly to Hitler. On 30 August 1939, immediately prior to
4750-516: The "major war criminals". He was found guilty on all counts of the indictment: crimes against humanity , crimes against peace , criminal conspiracy , and war crimes . He was sentenced to death and executed by hanging in 1946. Wilhelm Keitel was born in the village of Helmscherode near Gandersheim in the Duchy of Brunswick , Germany. He was the eldest son of Carl Keitel (1854–1934), a middle-class landowner, and his wife Apollonia Vissering (1855–1888). At
4875-737: The 18th century. It was used twice in the 19th century by the Kingdom of Saxony after it became part of the German Empire in 1871. The rank of Field Marshal General was first used in Ethiopia in 2022. On 8 January 2022, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed presided over the Ethiopian National Defense Force promotion ceremony, that saw the rank be introduced to Birhanu Jula , Chief of General Staff . Werner von Blomberg Werner Eduard Fritz von Blomberg (2 September 1878 – 13 March 1946)
5000-420: The 1970s and 1980s, such as Soldiers of Freedom (1977), Battle of Moscow (1985) and Stalingrad (1990). Generalfeldmarschall Generalfeldmarschall ( German: [ɡenəʁaːlˈfɛltmaʁʃal] ; from Old High German marahscalc , "marshal, stable master, groom"; English: general field marshal , field marshal general , or field marshal ; often abbreviated to Feldmarschall )
5125-517: The Army, replacing von Fritsch. Keitel was promoted to Generaloberst (Colonel General) in November 1938, and in April 1939 he was awarded the Golden Party Badge by Hitler. Field Marshal Ewald von Kleist labelled Keitel nothing more than a "stupid follower of Hitler" because of his servile "yes man" attitude toward Hitler. His sycophancy was well known in the army, and he acquired the nickname 'Lakeitel',
Wilhelm Keitel - Misplaced Pages Continue
5250-518: The Aviation Minister, Hermann Göring (4 February 1938), to the rank of Generalfeldmarschall . In the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany during the Second World War, the rank of Generalfeldmarschall remained the highest military rank until July 1940 , when Hermann Göring was promoted to the newly created higher rank of Reichsmarschall . The equivalent of a Generalfeldmarschall in the navy
5375-561: The Defense Minister. The meeting lasted half-an-hour, and Hindenburg repeated the threat to dismiss Hitler. Blomberg was aware of least in general of the purge that Hitler began planning after the Neudeck meeting. The conversations between Blomberg and Hitler in late June 1934 were generally not recorded, which makes it difficult to determine how much Blomberg knew, but he was definitely aware of what Hitler had decided to do. On 25 June 1934,
5500-620: The Defense Ministry, while Oskar von Hindenburg had orders for Blomberg to report directly to the Palace of the Reich President . Over and despite Kuntzen's protests, Blomberg chose to go with Hindenburg to meet the president, who swore him in as defense minister. This was done in a manner contrary to the Weimar constitution, under which the president could only swear in a minister after receiving
5625-686: The Döberitz Brigade; in 1921, he was appointed chief of staff of the Stuttgart Army Area. In 1925, General Hans von Seeckt appointed him chief of army training. By 1927, Blomberg was a major-general and chief of the Troop Office ( German : Truppenamt ), the thin disguise for the German General Staff , which had been forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles . In 1928, Blomberg visited
5750-567: The German involvement in Spain. At a conference held at the Reich Chancellery on 21 December 1936 attended by Hitler, Hermann Göring , Blomberg, Neurath, General Werner von Fritsch , General Walter Warlimont and Faupel, Blomberg argued against Faupel that an all-out German drive for victory in Spain would be too likely to cause a general war before Germany had rearmed properly. He stated that even if otherwise, it would consume money better spent on military modernization. Blomberg prevailed against Faupel. Unfortunately for Blomberg, his position as
5875-456: The Gestapo, and around 5,000 were executed. In April and May 1945, during the Battle of Berlin , Keitel called for counterattacks to drive back the Soviet forces and relieve Berlin. However, there were insufficient German forces to carry out such counterattacks. After Hitler's suicide on 30 April, Keitel stayed on as a member of the short-lived Flensburg Government under Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz . Upon arriving in Flensburg, Albert Speer ,
6000-449: The May 1941 order on the " Guidelines for the Conduct of the Troops in Russia ", Keitel issued a new order, writing: "[The] struggle against Bolshevism demands ruthless and energetic action especially also against the Jews, the main carriers of Bolshevism". Also in September, Keitel issued an order to all commanders, not just those in the occupied Soviet Union, instructing them to use "unusual severity" to stamp out resistance. In this context,
6125-456: The Minister of Armaments and War Production, said that Keitel grovelled to Dönitz in the same way as he had done to Hitler. On 7 May 1945, Alfred Jodl, on behalf of Dönitz, signed Germany's unconditional surrender on all fronts. Joseph Stalin considered this an affront, so a second signing was arranged at the Berlin suburb of Karlshorst on 8 May. There, Keitel signed the German Instrument of Surrender on 8 May 1945. Five days later on 13 May, he
6250-405: The Nazis would indoctrinate ordinary people with the right sort of ultra-nationalist, militarist values so that when young German men joined the Reichswehr they would be already half-converted into soldiers while at the same time making it clear that control of military matters would rest solely with the generals. In 1931, he visited the US, where he openly proclaimed his belief in the certainty and
6375-429: The Reich Chancellery), and Martin Bormann (Chief of the Party Chancellery). The committee, soon known as the Dreierausschuß (Committee of Three), met eleven times between January and August 1943. However, it had little autonomy, with Hitler reserving most of the final decisions to himself. In addition, it ran up against resistance from cabinet ministers, who headed deeply entrenched spheres of influence and, seeing it as
SECTION 50
#17328767049916500-445: The Rhineland. When Blomberg, whom Schleicher personally disliked, insisted on extending Grenzschutz to areas bordering France, Schleicher in August 1929 leaked to the press that Blomberg had attended armed maneuvers by volunteers in Westphalia . Defence Minister General Wilhelm Groener called Blomberg to Berlin to explain himself. Blomberg expected Schleicher to stick to the traditional Reichswehr policy of denying everything, and
6625-432: The SA absorb the Reichswehr , a prospect that Blomberg was determined to prevent at all costs. In December 1933, he made clear to Hitler his displeasure about Röhm being appointed to the Cabinet. In February 1934, when Röhm penned a memo about the SA absorbing the Reichswehr to become the new military force, Blomberg informed Hitler that the Army would never accept it under any conditions. On 28 February 1934, Hitler ruled
6750-418: The SA in East Prussia led him to the conclusion that Nazis made for excellent soldiers, which further increased the appeal of Nazism for him. But at the same time, Blomberg saw the SA only as a junior partner to the Army , and utterly opposed the SA's ambitions to replace the Reichswehr as Germany's main military force. Blomberg, like almost all German generals, envisioned a future Nazi-Army relationship where
6875-457: The SA, or the Army would do so itself. To defend the military "state within the state", Blomberg followed a strategy of Nazifying the military more and more in a paradoxical effort to persuade Hitler that it was not necessary to end the traditional "state within the state" to prevent Gleichschaltung being imposed by engaging in what can be called a process of "self-Gleichschaltung". In February 1934, Blomberg, on his own initiative, had all of
7000-419: The SS could not spy upon the military, no member of the military could be arrested by the police, and cases of suspected "political unreliability" in the military were to be investigated solely by the military police . On 21 May 1935, the Ministry of Defense was renamed the Ministry of War ( Reichskriegsministerium ); Blomberg also was given the title of Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces ( Wehrmacht ),
7125-406: The Tribunal, Keitel said: "As these atrocities developed, one from the other, step by step, and without any foreknowledge of the consequences, destiny took its tragic course, with its fateful consequences." To underscore the criminal rather than military nature of Keitel's acts, the Allies denied his request to be shot by firing squad . Instead, he was executed at Nuremberg Prison by hanging . On
7250-426: The adoring ' Hitler-Junge Quex ', but embodying all the stern ruthlessness of the Prussian military caste". Blomberg bluntly informed Hitler that Hindenburg was highly displeased with the recent developments and was seriously considering dismissing Hitler as chancellor if he did not rein in the SA at once. When Hitler met Hindenburg, the latter insisted for Blomberg to attend the meeting as a sign of his confidence in
7375-528: The advice of the chancellor. Hindenburg had not consulted Schleicher about his wish to see Blomberg replace him as defense minister because in late January 1933, there were wild (and untrue) rumors circulating in Berlin that Schleicher was planning to stage a putsch . To counter alleged plans of a putsch by Schleicher, Hindenburg wanted to remove Schleicher as defense minister as soon as possible. Two days later, on 30 January 1933, Hindenburg swore in Adolf Hitler as Chancellor, after telling him that Blomberg
7500-419: The air force to the rank of field marshal on 19 July 1940 : Walther von Brauchitsch , Wilhelm Keitel , Gerd von Rundstedt , Fedor von Bock , Wilhelm von Leeb , Wilhelm List , Günther von Kluge , Erwin von Witzleben and Walter von Reichenau (of the Heer ); and Albert Kesselring , Erhard Milch and Hugo Sperrle (of the Luftwaffe ). The holders of this rank had the right to a “direct presentation to
7625-434: The army and all sailors in the Navy to pledge the oath of allegiance to Adolf Hitler not to People and Fatherland but to the new Führer , which is thought to have limited later opposition to Hitler. The oath was the initiative of Blomberg and the Ministeramt chief General Walther von Reichenau . The entire military took the oath to Hitler, who was most surprised at the offer. Thus, the popular view that Hitler imposed
SECTION 60
#17328767049917750-532: The army commander, General Kurt von Hammerstein —recalled Blomberg from the World Disarmament Conference to return to Berlin. Upon learning of this, Schleicher guessed correctly that the order to recall Blomberg to Berlin meant his own government was doomed. When Blomberg arrived at the railroad station in Berlin on 28 January 1933, he was met by two officers, Adolf-Friedrich Kuntzen and Oskar von Hindenburg , adjutant and son of President Hindenburg. Kuntzen had orders from Hammerstein for Blomberg to report at once to
7875-413: The army in 1897 and attended the Prussian Military Academy in 1904. In April 1904, he married Charlotte Hellmich. The couple had five children. Graduated from the academy in 1907, Blomberg entered the German General Staff in 1908. Serving with distinction on the Western Front during the First World War , Blomberg was awarded the Pour le Mérite . In 1920, Blomberg was appointed chief of staff of
8000-447: The ashes were scattered in the river Isar . Before his execution, Keitel published his memoirs, which were titled in English as In the Service of the Reich . It was later re-edited by Walter Görlitz as The Memoirs of Field-Marshal Keitel ( ISBN 978-0-8154-1072-0 ). Another work by Keitel later published in English was Questionnaire on the Ardennes Offensive . Keitel was the uncle of Katherine "Kitty" Oppenheimer , wife of
8125-437: The beginning he wanted to take over his family's estates after completing his education at a gymnasium . This plan failed as his father did not want to retire. Instead, he embarked on a military career in 1901, becoming an officer cadet of the Prussian Army . As a commoner, he did not join the cavalry, but a field artillery regiment in Wolfenbüttel , serving as adjutant from 1908. On 18 April 1909, Keitel married Lisa Fontaine,
8250-671: The benefits of a Nazi government for Germany. Blomberg's first wife Charlotte died on 11 May 1932, leaving him with two sons and three daughters. In 1932, Blomberg served as part of the German delegation to the World Disarmament Conference in Geneva where, during his time as the German chief military delegate, he not only continued his pro-Nazi remarks to the press, but used his status as Germany's chief military delegate to communicate his views to Paul von Hindenburg , whose position as President of Germany made him German Supreme Commander in Chief. In his reports to Hindenburg, Blomberg wrote that his arch-rival Schleicher's attempts to create
8375-469: The cabinet, including Blomberg, and enrolled him in the Party (membership number 3,805,226). In December 1936, a crisis was created within the German decision-making machinery when General Wilhelm Faupel, the chief German officer in Spain , started to demand the dispatch of three German divisions to fight in the Spanish Civil War as the only way for victory. That was strongly opposed by the Foreign Minister Baron Konstantin von Neurath , who wanted to limit
8500-401: The careers of 70 men for something that was not their fault, there were no objections. Again, on his own initiative as part of "self-Gleichschaltung", Blomberg had the Reichswehr in May 1934 adopt Nazi symbols into their uniforms. In 1935, Blomberg worked hard to ensure that the Wehrmacht complied with the Nuremberg Laws by preventing any so-called Mischling from serving. Blomberg had
8625-505: The case against him was based on his signature being present on dozens of orders that called for soldiers and political prisoners to be killed or ' disappeared '. In court, Keitel admitted that he knew many of Hitler's orders were illegal. His defence relied almost entirely on the argument he was merely following orders in conformity to "the leader principle" ( Führerprinzip ) and his personal oath of loyalty to Hitler . The IMT rejected this defence and convicted him on all charges. Although
8750-414: The country. In October 1942, Keitel signed the Commando Order that authorized the killing of enemy special operations troops even when captured in uniform. In the spring and summer of 1942, as the deportations of the Jews to extermination camps progressed, the military initially protested when it came to the Jews that laboured for the benefit of the Wehrmacht . The army lost control over the matter when
8875-459: The day of the execution, Keitel told prison chaplain Henry F. Gerecke "You have helped me more than you know. May Christ, my saviour, stand by me all the way. I shall need him so much." He then received Communion and was executed later that day. Keitel was executed by US Army Master Sergeant John C. Woods . His last words were: "I call on God Almighty to have mercy on the German people. More than two million German soldiers went to their death for
9000-512: The decree made it possible for foreign nationals to be transferred to Germany for trial by special courts, or simply handed to the Gestapo for deportation to concentration camps. The OKW further imposed a blackout on any information concerning the fate of the accused. At the same time, Keitel increased pressure on Otto von Stülpnagel , the military commander in France, for a more ruthless reprisal policy in
9125-514: The entire military. On 5 November 1937, the conference between the Reich's top military–foreign policy leadership and Hitler recorded in the so-called Hossbach Memorandum occurred. At the conference, Hitler stated that it was the time for war or, more accurately wars, as what Hitler envisioned would be a series of localized wars in Central and Eastern Europe in the near future. Hitler argued that because
9250-503: The fatherland before me. I follow now my sons – all for Germany." The trap door was small, causing head injuries to Keitel and several other condemned men as they dropped. Many of the executed Nazis fell from the gallows with insufficient force to snap their necks, resulting in convulsions that in Keitel's case lasted 24 minutes. The corpses of Keitel and the other nine executed men were, like Hermann Göring's, cremated at Ostfriedhof (Munich) and
9375-407: The file on the new Mrs. Blomberg. Helldorff said he was uncertain about what to do. Keitel told Helldorf to take the file to Göring, which he did. Göring, who had served as best man to Blomberg at the wedding, used the file to argue Blomberg was unfit to serve as a war minister. Göring then informed Hitler, who had been present at the wedding. Hitler ordered Blomberg to annul the marriage to avoid
9500-465: The followers of Schleicher was Blomberg's relations with the SA. He was resolutely opposed to any effort to subject the military to the control of the Nazi Party or that of any of its affiliated organizations such as the SA or the SS, and throughout his time as a minister, he fought fiercely to protect the institutional autonomy of the military. By the autumn of 1933, Blomberg had come into conflict with Ernst Röhm , who made it clear that he wanted to see
9625-455: The government to the army. Blomberg, who had been known to oppose the growing power of the SA , was chosen to inform Hitler of that decision on the president's behalf. When Hitler arrived at Hindenburg's estate at Neudeck on 21 June 1934, he was greeted by Blomberg on the steps leading into the estate. Wheeler-Bennett wrote that Hitler was faced with "a von Blomberg no longer the affable 'Rubber Lion' or
9750-438: The guideline stated that execution of 50 to 100 "Communists" was an appropriate response to a loss of a German soldier. Such orders and directives further radicalised the army's occupational policies and enmeshed it in the genocide of the Jews . In December 1941, Hitler instructed the OKW to subject, with the exception of Denmark, Western Europe (which was under military occupation) to the Night and Fog Decree . Signed by Keitel,
9875-529: The head of state had been the emperor, and since 1925, it had been Hindenburg himself. Defending the military "state within the state" and trying to reconcile the military to the Nazis was to be one of Blomberg's major concerns as a defense minister. Blomberg was an ardent supporter of the Nazi regime and cooperated with it in many capacities, including serving on the Academy for German Law . On 20 July 1933, Blomberg had
10000-563: The influence of a Nazi -sympathizing Lutheran chaplain, Ludwig Müller , who introduced Blomberg to Nazism. Blomberg cared little for Nazi doctrines per se , his support for the Nazis being motivated by his belief that only a dictatorship could make Germany a great military power again, and that the Nazis were the best party to establish a dictatorship in Germany. Because he had the command of only one infantry division in East Prussia, Blomberg depended very strongly on Grenzschutz to increase
10125-418: The invasion. The participants did not object to the invasion. Hitler asked for war studies to be completed and Georg Thomas was given the task of completing two studies on economic matters. The first study by Thomas detailed serious problems with fuel and rubber supplies. Keitel bluntly dismissed the problems, telling Thomas that Hitler would not want to see it. This influenced Thomas' second study which offered
10250-535: The job. He told Hitler that Keitel (who was his son-in-law's father) "is just the man who runs my office". Hitler snapped his fingers and exclaimed "That's exactly the man I'm looking for". So on 4 February 1938 when Hitler became Commander-in-Chief of the Wehrmacht , Keitel (to the astonishment of the General Staff, including himself) became chief of staff. Soon after his promotion, Keitel convinced Hitler to appoint Walther von Brauchitsch as Commander-in-Chief of
10375-647: The last field marshal I make in this war!" Nevertheless, he appointed seven more, three on the very day following Paulus' surrender: Ernst Busch , Paul Ludwig Ewald von Kleist and Maximilian von Weichs (all members of the Heer ). Later that same month, Hitler promoted Luftwaffe General Wolfram von Richthofen to the rank for his service in the Crimean campaign , and the later part of the Battle of Stalingrad . From 1944 to 1945, three more men would reach this rank. In early 1944, Walter Model , one of Hitler's most loyal generals,
10500-473: The law and went beyond what even the Nazis then wanted. The German historian Wolfram Wette called the order "an act of proactive obedience". The German historian Klaus-Jürgen Müller [ de ] wrote that Blomberg's anti-Semitic purge in early 1934 was part of his increasingly-savage feud with Röhm, who since the summer of 1933 had been drawing unfavorable comparisons between the "racial purity" of his SA, which had no members with "Jewish" blood, and
10625-586: The limits imposed by the Treaty of Versailles in the eastern parts of Germany bordering Poland; in order to avoid incidents with France, there was to be no such Grenzschutz in western Germany. The French planned to withdraw from the Rhineland in June 1930 – five years earlier than specified by the Treaty of Versailles – and Schleicher wanted no violations of the Treaty that might seem to threaten France before French troops left
10750-549: The men considered to be Jews serving in the Reichswehr given an automatic and immediate dishonorable discharge . As a result, 74 soldiers lost their jobs for having "Jewish blood". The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service , enacted in April 1933, had excluded Jews who were First World War veterans and did not apply to the military. Thereby, Blomberg's discharge order was his way of circumventing
10875-457: The mid-1920s onwards the Army leaders had developed and propagated new social conceptions of a militarist kind, tending towards a fusion of the military and civilian sectors and ultimately a totalitarian military state ( Wehrstaat ). Blomberg's visit to the Soviet Union in 1928 confirmed his view that totalitarian power fosters the greatest military power. Blomberg believed the next world war, as
11000-444: The military and broadly allowed the execution of Jews, civilians, and non-combatants for any reason. Those carrying out the murders were exempted from court-martial or later being tried for war crimes. The orders were signed by Keitel; however, other members of the OKW and the OKH , including Halder, wrote or changed the wording of his orders. Commanders in the field interpreted and carried out
11125-503: The military was placed in a state of alert, and on 28 June, Röhm was expelled from the League of German Officers. The decision to expel Röhm was part of Blomberg's effort to maintain the "honor" of the German military. Röhm being executed as a traitor from the League would besmirch the honor of the reputation of the League in general. The same thinking later led to those officers involved in the putsch attempt of 20 July 1944 to be dishonorably discharged before they were tried for treason as
11250-460: The military, which was intended to tie Hitler more tightly towards the military and away from the Nazi Party . Blomberg later admitted that he had not thought the full implications of the oath at the time. As part of his defense of the military "state within the state", Blomberg fought against the attempts of the SS to create a military wing. Heinrich Himmler repeatedly insisted that the SS needed
11375-402: The military. Instead, Blomberg used the Nazi racial definition of a Jew in his purge. None of the men given dishonorable discharges themselves practiced Judaism, but they were the sons or grandsons of Jews who had converted to Christianity and thus were considered to be "racially" Jewish. Blomberg ordered every member of the Reichswehr to submit documents to their officers and that anyone who
11500-407: The national consensus necessary to create the Wehrstaat . The military had decided that Hitler alone was capable of peacefully creating the national consensus that would allow the creation of the Wehrstaat , and thus the military successfully brought pressure on Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as Chancellor . In late January 1933, President Hindenburg—without informing the chancellor, Schleicher, or
11625-635: The new German (until 1990 West German ) Armed Forces, the Bundeswehr , which were created in 1956. Currently, the highest military grades in the Bundeswehr are general and admiral . The Commander-in-Chief of the Bundeswehr is, in peacetime, according to Article 65a of the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany (constitution), the civilian Federal Minister of Defence , who holds supreme command authority over all soldiers. In wartime, during
11750-414: The number of fighting men available. This led him to co-operate closely with the SA as a source of volunteers for Grenzschutz forces. Blomberg had excellent relations with the SA at this time, which led to the SA serving by 1931 as an unofficial militia backing up the Reichswehr . Many generals saw East Prussia as a model for future Army-Nazi co-operation all over Germany. Blomberg's interactions with
11875-449: The number of fighting men in the event of a war with Poland—started to make lists of all the men fit for military service, which further increased the attraction of a totalitarian state able to mobilize an entire society for war to him, and of an ideologically motivated levée en masse as the best way to fight the next war. During his time as commander of Wehrkreis I, the military district which comprised East Prussia, Blomberg fell under
12000-421: The oath on the military is incorrect. On the other hand, Hitler had long expected Hindenburg's death and had planned on taking power anyhow and so could he have very well convinced Von Blomberg to implement such an oath long before the actual implementation took place. The intention of Blomberg and Reichenau in having the military swear an oath to Hitler was to create a personal special bond between Hitler and
12125-568: The orders. In the summer and autumn of 1941, German military lawyers unsuccessfully argued that Soviet prisoners of war should be treated in accordance with the Geneva Conventions . Keitel rebuffed them, writing: "These doubts correspond to military ideas about wars of chivalry. Our job is to suppress a way of life." In September 1941, concerned that some field commanders on the Eastern Front did not exhibit sufficient harshness in implementing
12250-499: The outbreak of the Second World War, Keitel was appointed by Hitler to the six-person Council of Ministers for the Defense of the Reich which was set up to operate as a "war cabinet". After Germany defeated France in the Battle of France in six weeks, Keitel described Hitler as "the greatest warlord of all time". Keitel conducted the negotiations of the French armistice , and on 19 July 1940
12375-543: The power of the army commander-in-chief, a close associate of Schleicher, General Kurt von Hammerstein-Equord , to the point that in February 1934 Hammerstein finally resigned in despair, as his powers had become more nominal than real. With Hammerstein's resignation, the entire Schleicher faction that had dominated the army since 1926 had been removed from their positions within the High Command. Wheeler-Bennett commented that as
12500-496: The previous one, would become a total war , requiring full mobilization of German society and economy by the state, and that a totalitarian state would best prepare society in peacetime, militarily and economically, for war. As most of Nazi Germany's military elite, Blomberg took for granted that, for Germany to achieve the world power that it had unsuccessfully sought in the First World War would require another war, and that such
12625-641: The rank did not guarantee Hitler's ongoing favour, however. As the tide of the war turned, Hitler took out his frustrations on his top commanders, relieving most of the Generalfeldmarschalls of duty before the war's conclusion. Bock, Brauchitsch, Leeb, and List were all relieved of their posts in 1942 for perceived failures during Operation Barbarossa and took no further active part in the war. Kleist, Manstein and Sperrle were similarly retired in 1944 and Rundstedt and Weichs in March 1945. Grand Admiral Erich Raeder
12750-473: The ranking officer of Nazi Germany alienated Hermann Göring , Hitler's second-in-command and Commander-in-Chief of the Luftwaffe , Germany's air force, and Heinrich Himmler , the head of the SS, the security organization of the Nazi Party , and concurrently the chief of all police forces of Germany, who conspired to oust him from power. Göring, in particular, had ambitions of becoming Commander-in-Chief himself of
12875-543: The regime's assault upon basic human rights or counter the role of the Einsatzgruppen in the murders. The criminal nature of the invasion was now obvious; local commanders continued to express shock and protest over the events they were witnessing. Keitel continued to ignore the protests among the officer corps while they became morally numbed to the atrocities. Keitel issued a series of criminal orders from April 1941. The orders went beyond established codes of conduct for
13000-540: The reigning Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty. In the Royal Prussian Army , the subsequent Imperial German Army and later in the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany , the rank of Generalfeldmarschall had several privileges, such as elevation to nobility, equal protocol rank with Cabinet ministers, the right of reporting directly to the monarch , and a constant escort. In 1854, the rank of Generaloberst ( colonel general )
13125-571: The tribunal's charter allowed "superior orders" to be considered a mitigating factor, it found Keitel's crimes were so egregious that "there is nothing in mitigation". In its judgment against him, the IMT wrote, "Superior orders, even to a soldier, cannot be considered in mitigation where crimes as shocking and extensive have been committed consciously, ruthlessly and without military excuse or justification." It also noted several instances where he issued illegal orders on his own authority. In his statement before
13250-606: The war ministry with the Supreme Command of the Armed Forces ( Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ), with Keitel as its chief. As a result of his appointment, Keitel assumed the responsibilities of Germany's war minister. Although not officially appointed a Reichsminister , Keitel was granted cabinet-level rank . When von Blomberg was asked by Hitler (out of respect for him, after his dismissal in 1938) who he would recommend to replace him, he had said that Hitler himself should take over
13375-627: The war, Keitel was retained in the newly created Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic and played a part in organizing the paramilitary Freikorps units on the Polish border. In 1924, Keitel was transferred to the Ministry of the Reichswehr in Berlin, serving with the Truppenamt ('Troop Office'), the post-Versailles disguised German General Staff . Three years later, he returned to field command. Now
13500-686: The wars were necessary to provide Germany with Lebensraum , autarky and the arms race with France and the United Kingdom made it imperative to act before the Western powers developed an insurmountable lead in the arms race. Of those invited to the conference, objections arose from Foreign Minister Konstantin von Neurath , Blomberg and the Army Commander-in-Chief, General Werner von Fritsch , that any German aggression in Eastern Europe
13625-467: Was Großadmiral (grand admiral). Unlike Kaiser Wilhelm II , Hitler distributed the rank more widely, promoting 25 Heer and Luftwaffe officers in total and two Kriegsmarine Grand Admirals. (Another promotion, that of Austrian General Eduard von Böhm-Ermolli , was honorary.) Four weeks after the Heer and Luftwaffe had won the Battle of France , Hitler promoted nine Army generals and three of
13750-481: Was retired in January 1943 following a fierce argument with Hitler over the future of the German surface fleet. Model, one of Hitler's most successful commanders, had nevertheless lost the Fuhrer's confidence by war's end and committed suicide to avoid capture and likely trial as a war criminal . Milch was relieved after conspiring unsuccessfully to have Göring removed from command of the Luftwaffe , and even Göring himself
13875-572: Was a German General Staff officer and the first Minister of War in Adolf Hitler's government . After serving on the Western Front in World War I , Blomberg was appointed chief of the Truppenamt ("Troop Office") during the Weimar Republic . Following the Nazis' rise to power, he was named Minister of War and Commander-in-Chief of the German Armed Forces. In this capacity, Blomberg played
14000-437: Was a "non-Aryan" or refused to submit documents would be dishonorably discharged. As a result, seven officers, eight officer cadets, 13 NCOs and 28 privates from the Army, and three officers, four officer candidates, three NCOs and four sailors from the Navy were dishonorably discharged, together with four civilian employees of the Defense Ministry. With the exception of Erich von Manstein , who complained that Blomberg had ruined
14125-549: Was a rank in the armies of several German states and the Holy Roman Empire , ( Reichsgeneralfeldmarschall ); in the Habsburg monarchy , the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary , the rank Feldmarschall was used. The rank was the equivalent to Großadmiral (English: Grand Admiral ) in the Kaiserliche Marine and Kriegsmarine , a five-star rank , comparable to OF-10 in today's NATO naval forces . The rank existed in
14250-471: Was appointed as deputy commander of the 3rd Infantry Division; in 1934, he was given command of the 22nd Infantry Division at Bremen. In 1935, at the recommendation of General Werner von Fritsch , Keitel was promoted to the rank of major general and appointed chief of the Reich Ministry of War's Armed Forces Office ( Wehrmachtsamt ), which oversaw the army, navy, and air force. After assuming office, Keitel
14375-625: Was arrested at the request of the United States and interned at Camp Ashcan in Mondorf-les-Bains . Jodl succeeded him as Chief of OKW until the final dissolution of the Flensburg Government on 23 May. Keitel had full knowledge of the criminal nature of the planning and the subsequent invasion of Poland , agreeing to its aims in principle. The Nazi plans included mass arrests, population transfers, and mass murder. Keitel did not contest
14500-622: Was bound to trigger a war against France because of the French alliance system in Eastern Europe, the so-called cordon sanitaire , and if a Franco–German war broke out, Britain was almost certain to intervene rather than risk the prospect of France's defeat. Moreover, it was objected that Hitler's assumption was flawed that Britain and France would just ignore the projected wars because they had started their rearmament later than Germany had. Accordingly, Fritsch, Blomberg and Neurath advised Hitler to wait until Germany had more time to rearm before pursuing
14625-589: Was created in order to promote Wilhelm, Crown Prince of Prussia (the later Wilhelm I, German Emperor ) to senior rank without breaking the rule that only wartime field commanders could receive the rank of field marshal for a victory in a decisive battle or the capture of a fortification or major town. The equivalent of Generaloberst in the German Navy was Generaladmiral ( general admiral or admiral-general). In 1870, Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia and Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm —who had commanded armies during
14750-555: Was married in May the same year. Keitel, who would be promoted to the rank of field marshal in 1940, and Blomberg's former right-hand man would be appointed by Hitler as the Chief of the OKW of the Armed Forces. A few days later, Göring and Himmler accused Generaloberst Werner von Fritsch , the Commander-in-Chief of the Army, of being a homosexual. Hitler used these opportunities for
14875-433: Was promoted to Generalfeldmarschall (field marshal). The planning for Operation Barbarossa , the 1941 invasion of the Soviet Union, was begun tentatively by Halder with the redeployment of the 18th Army into an offensive position against the Soviet Union. On 31 July 1940, Hitler held a major conference that included Keitel, Halder, Alfred Jodl , Erich Raeder , Brauchitsch, and Hans Jeschonnek which further discussed
15000-433: Was promoted to lieutenant general on 1 January 1936. On 21 January 1938, Keitel received evidence revealing that the wife of his superior, War Minister Werner von Blomberg , was a former prostitute. Upon reviewing this information, Keitel suggested that the dossier be forwarded to Hitler's deputy, Hermann Göring , who used it to bring about Blomberg's resignation. Hitler took command of the Wehrmacht in 1938 and replaced
15125-510: Was promoted to the rank; he was also the last German field marshal to receive a ceremonial marshal's baton. Ferdinand Schörner , another loyal officer, was promoted on 5 April 1945. Three weeks later, he was made Commander-in-Chief of the German Army in Hitler's last will and testament . On 25 April, just five days before his own suicide , Adolf Hitler made Luftwaffe General Robert Ritter von Greim
15250-450: Was purely personal, not political, and in all essentials, Blomberg and Schleicher had identical views on foreign and defense policies. Their dispute was simply over who was best qualified to carry out the policies, not the policies themselves. Blomberg was chosen personally by Hindenburg as a man he trusted to safeguard the interests of the Defense Ministry and could be expected to work well with Hitler. Above all, Hindenburg saw Blomberg as
15375-504: Was shocked to see Schleicher instead attack him in front of Groener as a man who had recklessly exposed Germany to the risk of providing the French with an excuse to remain in the Rhineland until 1935. As a result, Blomberg was demoted from command of the Truppenamt and sent to command a division in East Prussia. Since East Prussia was cut off from the rest of Germany and had only one infantry division stationed there, Blomberg—to increase
15500-528: Was stripped of his offices and expelled from the Nazi Party in Hitler's last days. Schörner ignominiously abandoned his command to save himself in the war's last days. Kluge, Witzleben and Rommel were either executed or forced to commit suicide for their real or imagined roles in the 20 July plot against Hitler. By war's end, only Keitel, Kesselring, Greim and Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz were still in positions of military responsibility. The National People's Army of
15625-502: Was to be his defense minister regardless of his wishes. Hitler for his part welcomed and accepted Blomberg. In 1933, Blomberg rose to national prominence when he was appointed Minister of Defense in Hitler's government. Blomberg became one of Hitler's most devoted followers and worked feverishly to expand the size and the power of the army. Blomberg was made a colonel general for his services in 1933. Although Blomberg and his predecessor, Kurt von Schleicher , loathed each other, their feud
#990009