Wildness , in its literal sense, is the quality of being wild or untamed . Beyond this, it has been defined as a quality produced in nature and that which is not domesticated. More recently, it has been defined as "a quality of interactive processing between organism and nature where the realities of base natures are met, allowing the construction of durable systems" and "the autonomous ecological influences of nonhuman organisms."
151-476: People have explored the contrast of wildness versus tameness throughout recorded history. The earliest great work of literature, the Epic of Gilgamesh , tells a story of a wild man Enkidu in opposition to Gilgamesh who personifies civilization. In the story, Enkidu is defeated by Gilgamesh and becomes civilized. Cultures vary in their perception of the separation of humans from nature, with western civilization drawing
302-630: A genetically modified organism in the process. However, some broad definitions of genetic engineering include selective breeding . Cloning and stem cell research, although not considered genetic engineering, are closely related and genetic engineering can be used within them. Synthetic biology is an emerging discipline that takes genetic engineering a step further by introducing artificially synthesised material into an organism. Plants, animals or microorganisms that have been changed through genetic engineering are termed genetically modified organisms or GMOs. If genetic material from another species
453-484: A promoter and terminator region, which initiate and end transcription . A selectable marker gene is added, which in most cases confers antibiotic resistance , so researchers can easily determine which cells have been successfully transformed. The gene can also be modified at this stage for better expression or effectiveness. These manipulations are carried out using recombinant DNA techniques, such as restriction digests , ligations and molecular cloning. There are
604-421: A temple prostitute , as the first step in taming him. After six days and seven nights (or two weeks, according to more recent scholarship ) of lovemaking, Enkidu is 'weakened'; his herd flees in horror into the steppe. Enkidu is shocked by his loneliness, but Shamhat tries to comfort him: Do not grieve, you now have knowledge, like the gods . She then takes him to a shepherd's camp, teaching him civilised: his hair
755-403: A Freedom and Culture merely civil, — to regard man as an inhabitant, or a part and parcel of Nature, rather than a member of society. — "Walking" I long for wildness, a nature which I cannot put my foot through, woods where the wood thrush forever sings, where the hours are early morning ones, and there is dew on the grass, and the day is forever unproved, where I might have a fertile unknown for
906-425: A biotech company, Advanced Genetic Sciences (AGS) applied for U.S. government authorisation to perform field tests with the ice-minus strain of Pseudomonas syringae to protect crops from frost, but environmental groups and protestors delayed the field tests for four years with legal challenges. In 1987, the ice-minus strain of P. syringae became the first genetically modified organism (GMO) to be released into
1057-589: A clinical setting, wildness has been used as a scale to rate the ease with which various strains of laboratory mice can be captured and handled ( Wahlsten et al. 2003 ): In this sense, "wildness" may be interpreted as "tendency to respond with anxiety to handling". That there is no necessary connection between this factor and the state of wildness per se , given that some animals in the wild may be handled with little or no cause of anxiety. However, this factor does clearly indicate an animal's resistance to being handled. A classification system can be set out showing
1208-477: A crack in the earth, and Enkidu's ghost jumps out of it. The tablet ends with Gilgamesh questioning Enkidu about what he has seen in the underworld. This version of the epic, called in some fragments Surpassing all other kings , is composed of tablets and fragments from diverse origins and states of conservation. It remains incomplete in its majority, with several tablets missing, and those found having sizable lacunae . They are named after their current location or
1359-486: A famous line from the epic, Gilgamesh clings to Enkidu's body and denies that he has died until a maggot drops from the nose of the corpse. Gilgamesh delivers a lament for Enkidu, in which he calls upon mountains, forests, fields, rivers, wild animals, and all of Uruk to mourn for his friend. Recalling their adventures together, Gilgamesh tears at his hair and clothes in grief. He commissions a funerary statue, and provides grave gifts from his treasury to ensure that Enkidu has
1510-620: A favourable reception in the realm of the dead. A great banquet is held where the treasures are offered to the gods of the Netherworld. Just before a break in the text there is a suggestion that a river is being dammed, indicating a burial in a river bed, as in the corresponding Sumerian poem, The Death of Gilgamesh . Tablet nine opens with Gilgamesh roaming the wild wearing skins, grieving for Enkidu. Having now become fearful of his own death, he decides to seek Utnapishtim ("the Faraway"), and learn
1661-542: A gene coding for a useful protein, such as an enzyme, so that they will overexpress the desired protein. Mass quantities of the protein can then be manufactured by growing the transformed organism in bioreactor equipment using industrial fermentation , and then purifying the protein. Some genes do not work well in bacteria, so yeast, insect cells or mammalian cells can also be used. These techniques are used to produce medicines such as insulin , human growth hormone , and vaccines , supplements such as tryptophan , aid in
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#17328844059481812-456: A gene is isolated it can be stored inside the bacteria providing an unlimited supply for research. Organisms are genetically engineered to discover the functions of certain genes. This could be the effect on the phenotype of the organism, where the gene is expressed or what other genes it interacts with. These experiments generally involve loss of function, gain of function, tracking and expression. Organisms can have their cells transformed with
1963-598: A genetically modified virus has been used in a research laboratory as a scaffold for assembling a more environmentally friendly lithium-ion battery . Bacteria have also been engineered to function as sensors by expressing a fluorescent protein under certain environmental conditions. One of the best-known and controversial applications of genetic engineering is the creation and use of genetically modified crops or genetically modified livestock to produce genetically modified food . Crops have been developed to increase production, increase tolerance to abiotic stresses , alter
2114-700: A letter falsely stating that it had been inside a box of ancient bronze fragments purchased in a 1981 auction. In 2014, Hobby Lobby privately purchased the tablet for display at the Museum of the Bible in Washington, D.C. In 2019, the Gilgamesh Dream Tablet was seized by US officials and was returned to Iraq in September 2021. Recent developments in the use of Artificial Intelligence software have vastly accelerated
2265-501: A literary style that was used for literary purposes. This version was compiled by Sin-leqi-unninni sometime between 1300 and 1000 BC from earlier texts. One impact that Sin-leqi-unninni brought to the work was to bring the issue of mortality to the foreground, thus making it possible for the character to move from being an "adventurer to a wise man." The Brazilian scholar Lins Brandão saw the standard version can be seen in this sense as "sapiential literature," ("wisdom literature"), which
2416-403: A loaf of bread on each of the days he is asleep, so that he cannot deny his failure to keep awake. Gilgamesh, who is seeking to overcome death, cannot even conquer sleep. After instructing Urshanabi, the ferryman, to wash Gilgamesh and clothe him in royal robes, they depart for Uruk. As they are leaving, Utnapishtim's wife asks her husband to offer a parting gift. Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh that at
2567-568: A man of will who does what he wills or wishes, a man of hope and of the future tense, for not only the obstinate is willed, but far more the constant and persevering. The obstinate man, properly speaking, is one who will not. The perseverance of the saints is positive willedness, not a mere passive willingness. The fates are wild, for they will; and the Almighty is wild above all, as fate is. — Journal, 27 June 1853 Epic of Gilgamesh The Epic of Gilgamesh ( / ˈ ɡ ɪ l ɡ ə m ɛ ʃ / )
2718-502: A mountain, and perform a dream ritual. Gilgamesh has five terrifying dreams about falling mountains, thunderstorms, wild bulls, and a thunderbird that breathes fire. Despite similarities between his dream figures and earlier descriptions of Humbaba, Enkidu interprets these dreams as good omens, and denies that the frightening images represent the forest guardian. As they approach the cedar mountain, they hear Humbaba bellowing, and have to encourage each other not to be afraid. The heroes enter
2869-458: A natural affinity within the structure of their brains and they have deep psychic significance in the present time, in spite of urbanization. Humans are dependent on healthy nature not only for their physical sustenance, but for mental health, too. The concept of a state of nature was first posited by the 17th century English philosopher Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan . Hobbes described the concept in
3020-464: A number of techniques used to insert genetic material into the host genome. Some bacteria can naturally take up foreign DNA . This ability can be induced in other bacteria via stress (e.g. thermal or electric shock), which increases the cell membrane's permeability to DNA; up-taken DNA can either integrate with the genome or exist as extrachromosomal DNA . DNA is generally inserted into animal cells using microinjection , where it can be injected through
3171-556: A piece believed to have contained the first lines of the epic in the storeroom of the British Museum; the fragment, found in 1878 and dated to between 600 BC and 100 BC, had remained unexamined by experts for more than a century since its recovery. The fragment read "He who saw all, who was the foundation of the land, who knew (everything), was wise in all matters: Gilgamesh." The discovery of artifacts ( c. 2600 BC ) associated with Enmebaragesi of Kish , mentioned in
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#17328844059483322-410: A population that was once raised under human control, but is now living and multiplying outside of human control. Examples include mustangs . Hybrids can be wild, domesticated, or both: a liger is a hybrid of two wild animals, a mule is a hybrid of two domesticated animals, and a beefalo is a cross between a wild and a domestic animal. The basic idea of ecopsychology is that while the human mind
3473-549: A raft and return home along the Euphrates with the giant tree and (possibly) the head of Humbaba. Gilgamesh rejects the advances of the goddess Ishtar because of her mistreatment of previous lovers like Dumuzi . Ishtar becomes angry and denies Gilgamesh entry into E-Ana, interfering with his business. Ishtar asks her father Anu to send Gulaana- the Bull of Heaven to avenge her. When Anu rejects her complaints, Ishtar threatens to raise
3624-401: A sharp contrast between the two while the traditions of many indigenous peoples have always seen humans as part of nature. The perception of man's place in nature and civilization has also changed over time. In western civilization, for example, Darwinism and environmentalism have renewed the perception of humans as part of nature, rather than separate from it. Wildness is often mentioned in
3775-516: A short discussion, Sur-sunabu asks him to carve 300 oars so that they may cross the waters of death without needing the "stone ones". The rest of the tablet is missing. The text on the Old Babylonian Meissner fragment (the larger surviving fragment of the Sippar tablet) has been used to reconstruct possible earlier forms of the Epic of Gilgamesh , and it has been suggested that a "prior form of
3926-410: A soil about me. — Journal, 22 June 1853 As I came home through the woods with my string of fish, trailing my pole, it being now quite dark, I caught a glimpse of a woodchuck stealing across my path, and felt a strange thrill of savage delight, and was strongly tempted to seize and devour him raw; not that I was hungry then, except for that wildness which he represented. — Walden What we call wildness
4077-407: A swallow, and a raven. When the raven fails to return, he opens the ark and frees its inhabitants. Utnapishtim offers a sacrifice to the gods, who smell the sweet savor and gather around. Ishtar vows that just as she will never forget the brilliant necklace that hangs around her neck, she will always remember this time. When Enlil arrives, angry that there are survivors, she condemns him for instigating
4228-447: A test of strength. Gilgamesh wins the contest; nonetheless, the two become friends. Together, they make a six-day journey to the legendary Cedar Forest , where they ultimately slay its Guardian, Humbaba , and cut down the sacred Cedar. The goddess Ishtar sends the Bull of Heaven to punish Gilgamesh for spurning her advances. Gilgamesh and Enkidu kill the Bull of Heaven, insulting Ishtar in
4379-413: A virus was used to insert a healthy gene into the skin cells of a boy suffering from a rare skin disease, epidermolysis bullosa , in order to grow, and then graft healthy skin onto 80 percent of the boy's body which was affected by the illness. Germline gene therapy would result in any change being inheritable, which has raised concerns within the scientific community. In 2015, CRISPR was used to edit
4530-589: A wide range of plants, animals and microorganisms. Bacteria , the first organisms to be genetically modified, can have plasmid DNA inserted containing new genes that code for medicines or enzymes that process food and other substrates . Plants have been modified for insect protection, herbicide resistance , virus resistance, enhanced nutrition, tolerance to environmental pressures and the production of edible vaccines . Most commercialised GMOs are insect resistant or herbicide tolerant crop plants. Genetically modified animals have been used for research, model animals and
4681-515: A year later the company produced a human protein ( somatostatin ) in E. coli . Genentech announced the production of genetically engineered human insulin in 1978. In 1980, the U.S. Supreme Court in the Diamond v. Chakrabarty case ruled that genetically altered life could be patented. The insulin produced by bacteria was approved for release by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1982. In 1983,
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4832-455: Is a civilization other than our own. — Journal, 16 February 1859 In Wildness is the preservation of the World. — "Walking" We need the tonic of wildness — to wade sometimes in marshes where the bittern and the meadow-hen lurk, and hearing the booming of the snipe; to smell the whispering sedge where only some wilder and more solitary fowl builds her nest, and the mink crawls with its belly close o
4983-441: Is added to the host, the resulting organism is called transgenic . If genetic material from the same species or a species that can naturally breed with the host is used the resulting organism is called cisgenic . If genetic engineering is used to remove genetic material from the target organism the resulting organism is termed a knockout organism. In Europe genetic modification is synonymous with genetic engineering while within
5134-528: Is an epic from ancient Mesopotamia . The literary history of Gilgamesh begins with five Sumerian poems about Gilgamesh (formerly read as Sumerian "Bilgames" ), king of Uruk , some of which may date back to the Third Dynasty of Ur ( c. 2100 BC ). These independent stories were later used as source material for a combined epic in Akkadian . The first surviving version of this combined epic, known as
5285-486: Is an important tool for natural scientists , with the creation of transgenic organisms one of the most important tools for analysis of gene function. Genes and other genetic information from a wide range of organisms can be inserted into bacteria for storage and modification, creating genetically modified bacteria in the process. Bacteria are cheap, easy to grow, clonal , multiply quickly, relatively easy to transform and can be stored at -80 °C almost indefinitely. Once
5436-680: Is claimed to be a quality that builds from animals and ecosystems, it often fails to be considered within reductionist theories for nature. Meanwhile, an ecological perspective sees wildness as "(the degree of) subjection to natural selection pressures", many of which emerge independently from the biosphere . Thus modern civilization - contrasted with all humanity – can be seen as an 'unnatural' force (lacking wildness) as it strongly insulates its population from many natural selection mechanisms, including interspecific competition such as predation and disease, as well as some intraspecific phenomena. The importance of maintaining wildness in animals
5587-588: Is common in the Middle East, but this idea has not been widely accepted. The Standard Babylonian version has different opening words, or incipit , from the older version. The older version begins with the words "Surpassing all other kings", while the Standard Babylonian version has "He who saw the deep" ( ša naqba īmuru ), "deep" referring to the mysteries of the information brought back by Gilgamesh from his meeting with Uta-Napishti ( Utnapishtim ) about Ea ,
5738-414: Is cut, he learns to eat human food and drink beer. Gilgamesh, meanwhile, has been having dreams about the imminent arrival of a beloved new companion and asks his mother, the goddess Ninsun , to help interpret these dreams. In the shepherds' camp, to whose way of life he has become accustomed, Enkidu is appointed night watchman. Learning from a passing stranger about Gilgamesh's treatment of new brides, he
5889-456: Is derived from an unknown version of that story. The contents of this last tablet are inconsistent with previous ones: Enkidu is still alive, despite having died earlier in the epic. Because of this, its lack of integration with the other tablets, and the fact that it is almost a copy of an earlier version, it has been referred to as an 'inorganic appendage' to the epic. Alternatively, it has been suggested that "its purpose, though crudely handled,
6040-408: Is generated through genetic engineering is considered to be genetically modified (GM) and the resulting entity is a genetically modified organism (GMO). The first GMO was a bacterium generated by Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen in 1973. Rudolf Jaenisch created the first GM animal when he inserted foreign DNA into a mouse in 1974. The first company to focus on genetic engineering, Genentech ,
6191-403: Is his concept of species-being , or the unique potential of humans for dynamic, creative, and cooperative relations between each other. For Marx and others in his line of critical theory , alienated and abstracted social relations prevent the fulfillment of this potential (see anomie ). David Hume 's view brings together and challenges the theories of Rousseau and Hobbes. He posits that in
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6342-594: Is in a sad mood. In order to cheer him up Gilgamesh suggests going to the Pine Forest to cut down trees and kill Humbaba (known here as Huwawa). Enkidu protests, as he knows Huwawa and is aware of his power. Gilgamesh talks Enkidu into it with some words of encouragement, but Enkidu remains reluctant. They prepare, and call for the elders. The elders also protest, but after Gilgamesh talks to them, they agree to let him go. After Gilgamesh asks his god (Shamash) for protection, and both he and Enkidu equip themselves, they leave with
6493-461: Is incensed and travels to Uruk to intervene at a wedding. When Gilgamesh attempts to visit the wedding chamber, Enkidu blocks his way, and they fight. After a fierce battle, Enkidu acknowledges Gilgamesh's superior strength and they become friends. Gilgamesh proposes a journey to the Cedar Forest to slay the monstrous demi-god Humbaba in order to gain fame and renown. Despite warnings from Enkidu and
6644-608: Is no "Sumerian or Akkadian word for myth or heroic narrative, just as there is no ancient recognition of poetic narrative as a genre." Lins Brandão 2019 suggested, though with little supporting evidence, that the prologue of "He who Saw the Abyss" recalls the inspiration of the Greek Muses, even though there is no assistance from the Sumerian gods here. In more popular treatments, Sir Jonathan Sacks , Neil McGregor , and BBC Radio 4 interpret
6795-422: Is not necessary. Selectable markers are used to easily differentiate transformed from untransformed cells. These markers are usually present in the transgenic organism, although a number of strategies have been developed that can remove the selectable marker from the mature transgenic plant. Further testing using PCR, Southern hybridization , and DNA sequencing is conducted to confirm that an organism contains
6946-414: Is oppressing his people, who cry out to the gods for help. For the young women of Uruk this oppression takes the form of a droit du seigneur , or "lord's right", to sleep with brides on their wedding night. For the young men (the tablet is damaged at this point) it is conjectured that Gilgamesh exhausts them through games, tests of strength, or perhaps forced labour on building projects. The gods respond to
7097-704: Is possible to create animal model organisms of human diseases. As well as producing hormones, vaccines and other drugs, genetic engineering has the potential to cure genetic diseases through gene therapy . Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells are used in industrial genetic engineering. Additionally mRNA vaccines are made through genetic engineering to treat viruses such as COVID-19 . The same techniques that are used to produce drugs can also have industrial applications such as producing enzymes for laundry detergent, cheeses and other products. The rise of commercialised genetically modified crops has provided economic benefit to farmers in many different countries, but has also been
7248-559: Is recognized in the management of Wilderness areas . Feeding wild animals in national parks for example, is usually discouraged because the animals may lose the skills they need to fend for themselves. Human interventions may also upset continued natural selection pressures upon the population, producing a version of domestication within wildlife (Peterson et al. 2005). Tameness implies a reduction in wildness, where animals become more easily handled by humans. Some animals are easier to tame than others, and are amenable to domestication. In
7399-406: Is regarded as a foundational work in religion and the tradition of heroic sagas, with Gilgamesh forming the prototype for later heroes like Heracles ( Hercules ) and the epic itself serving as an influence for Homeric epics . It has been translated into many languages and is featured in several works of popular fiction . ...this discovery is evidently destined to excite a lively controversy. For
7550-563: Is separated by using restriction enzymes to cut the DNA into fragments or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify up the gene segment. These segments can then be extracted through gel electrophoresis . If the chosen gene or the donor organism's genome has been well studied it may already be accessible from a genetic library . If the DNA sequence is known, but no copies of the gene are available, it can also be artificially synthesised . Once isolated
7701-425: Is shaped by the modern social world, it can be readily inspired and comforted by the wider natural world, because that is the arena in which it originally evolved. Mental health or unhealth cannot be understood in the narrow context of only intrapsychic phenomena or social relations. One also has to include the relationship of humans to other species and ecosystems. These relations have a deep evolutionary history; reach
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#17328844059487852-401: Is the genetic engineering of humans , generally by replacing defective genes with effective ones. Clinical research using somatic gene therapy has been conducted with several diseases, including X-linked SCID , chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), and Parkinson's disease . In 2012, Alipogene tiparvovec became the first gene therapy treatment to be approved for clinical use. In 2015
8003-422: Is the modification and manipulation of an organism's genes using technology . It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel organisms . New DNA is obtained by either isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using recombinant DNA methods or by artificially synthesising
8154-631: Is to explain to Gilgamesh (and the reader) the various fates of the dead in the Afterlife" and in "an awkward attempt to bring closure", it both connects the Gilgamesh of the epic with the Gilgamesh who is the King of the Netherworld, and is "a dramatic capstone whereby the twelve-tablet epic ends on one and the same theme, that of "seeing" (= understanding, discovery, etc.), with which it began." Gilgamesh complains to Enkidu that various of his possessions (the tablet
8305-476: Is unclear exactly what – different translations include a drum and a ball) have fallen into the underworld. Enkidu offers to bring them back. Delighted, Gilgamesh tells Enkidu what he must and must not do in the underworld if he is to return. Enkidu does everything which he was told not to do. The underworld keeps him. Gilgamesh prays to the gods to give him back his friend. Enlil and Suen do not reply, but Enki and Shamash decide to help. Shamash makes
8456-469: Is written instead of "Gilgamesh", and there are some differences in the underlying stories such as the fact that Enkidu is Gilgamesh's servant in the Sumerian version: The first direct Arabic translation from the original tablets was published in the 1960s by Iraqi archaeologist Taha Baqir . Genetically modified This is an accepted version of this page Genetic engineering , also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation ,
8607-560: The American Association for the Advancement of Science say that absent scientific evidence of harm even voluntary labeling is misleading and will falsely alarm consumers. Labeling of GMO products in the marketplace is required in 64 countries. Labeling can be mandatory up to a threshold GM content level (which varies between countries) or voluntary. In Canada and the US labeling of GM food
8758-507: The CRISPR/Cas9 system, a technique which can be used to easily and specifically alter the genome of almost any organism. Creating a GMO is a multi-step process. Genetic engineers must first choose what gene they wish to insert into the organism. This is driven by what the aim is for the resultant organism and is built on earlier research. Genetic screens can be carried out to determine potential genes and further tests then used to identify
8909-691: The Library of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh by Austen Henry Layard , his assistant Hormuzd Rassam , and W. K. Loftus in the early 1850s. Late in the following decade, the British Museum hired George Smith to study these; in 1872, Smith read translated fragments before the Society of Biblical Archaeology , and in 1875 and 1876 he published fuller translations, the latter of which was published as The Chaldaean Account of Genesis . The central character of Gilgamesh
9060-579: The host organism or into a cell that is then fused or hybridised with the host. This relies on recombinant nucleic acid techniques to form new combinations of heritable genetic material followed by the incorporation of that material either indirectly through a vector system or directly through micro-injection , macro-injection or micro-encapsulation . Genetic engineering does not normally include traditional breeding, in vitro fertilisation , induction of polyploidy , mutagenesis and cell fusion techniques that do not use recombinant nucleic acids or
9211-434: The infectious sequences . Genetic engineering is also used to create animal models of human diseases. Genetically modified mice are the most common genetically engineered animal model. They have been used to study and model cancer (the oncomouse ), obesity, heart disease, diabetes, arthritis, substance abuse, anxiety, aging and Parkinson disease. Potential cures can be tested against these mouse models. Gene therapy
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#17328844059489362-477: The "Old Babylonian" version, dates back to the 18th century BC and is titled after its incipit , Shūtur eli sharrī ("Surpassing All Other Kings"). Only a few tablets of it have survived. The later Standard Babylonian version compiled by Sîn-lēqi-unninni dates to somewhere between the 13th to the 10th centuries BC and bears the incipit Sha naqba īmuru ("He who Saw the Deep(s)", lit. ' "He who Sees
9513-455: The Bull lowers the level of the Euphrates river, and dries up the marshes. He opens up huge pits that swallow 300 men. Without any divine assistance, Enkidu and Gilgamesh kill him and offer up his heart to Shamash. When Ishtar cries out, Enkidu hurls one of the hindquarters of the bull at her. The city of Uruk celebrates, but Enkidu has an ominous dream about his future failure. In Enkidu's dream,
9664-501: The DNA of non-viable human embryos , leading scientists of major world academies to call for a moratorium on inheritable human genome edits. There are also concerns that the technology could be used not just for treatment, but for enhancement, modification or alteration of a human beings' appearance, adaptability, intelligence, character or behavior. The distinction between cure and enhancement can also be difficult to establish. In November 2018, He Jiankui announced that he had edited
9815-432: The DNA. A construct is usually created and used to insert this DNA into the host organism. The first recombinant DNA molecule was made by Paul Berg in 1972 by combining DNA from the monkey virus SV40 with the lambda virus . As well as inserting genes , the process can be used to remove, or " knock out ", genes. The new DNA can be inserted randomly, or targeted to a specific part of the genome . An organism that
9966-458: The Epic of Gilgamesh's flood myth as having a pantheon of gods who are misanthropes willing to condemn humanity to death, with the exception of Ea. Such an interpretation is an unhelpful contemporary take on Mesopotamia's polytheistic religion (and on polytheistic systems more generally), in which the gods may be helpful or harmful in diverse situations. It is also made explicit that Gilgamesh rose to
10117-449: The FDA approved a drug produced in goat milk. Genetic engineering has potential applications in conservation and natural area management. Gene transfer through viral vectors has been proposed as a means of controlling invasive species as well as vaccinating threatened fauna from disease. Transgenic trees have been suggested as a way to confer resistance to pathogens in wild populations. With
10268-494: The Gods, a paradise in which trees full of delicious jewels grow. Gilgamesh meets alewife Siduri in her pub. First she assumes that he would be a murderer or thief because of his disheveled appearance, but Gilgamesh tells her about the purpose of his journey. She attempts to dissuade him from his quest, but sends him to Urshanabi the ferryman, who will help him cross the sea to Utnapishtim. Gilgamesh, out of spontaneous rage, destroys
10419-502: The Latin phrase bellum omnium contra omnes , meaning "the war of all against all." In this state any person has a natural right to do anything to preserve their own liberty or safety. Famously, he believed that such a condition would lead to a "war of every man against every man" and make life "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." Hobbes's view was challenged in the eighteenth century by Jean-Jacques Rousseau , who claimed that Hobbes
10570-511: The Old Babylonian version, or Surpassing all other kings . Five earlier Sumerian poems about Gilgamesh have been partially recovered, some with primitive versions of specific episodes in the Babylonian version, others with unrelated stories. The Standard Babylonian version was discovered by Hormuzd Rassam in the library of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh in 1853. "Standard Babylonian" refers to
10721-613: The USDA, FDA and EPA. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety , an international treaty that governs the transfer, handling, and use of GMOs, was adopted on 29 January 2000. One hundred and fifty-seven countries are members of the Protocol, and many use it as a reference point for their own regulations. The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation. Some countries allow
10872-579: The United States and Europe . Genetic engineering : Process of inserting new genetic information into existing cells in order to modify a specific organism for the purpose of changing its characteristics. Note : Adapted from ref. Genetic engineering is a process that alters the genetic structure of an organism by either removing or introducing DNA , or modifying existing genetic material in situ. Unlike traditional animal and plant breeding , which involves doing multiple crosses and then selecting for
11023-478: The United States of America and Canada genetic modification can also be used to refer to more conventional breeding methods. Humans have altered the genomes of species for thousands of years through selective breeding , or artificial selection as contrasted with natural selection . More recently, mutation breeding has used exposure to chemicals or radiation to produce a high frequency of random mutations, for selective breeding purposes. Genetic engineering as
11174-404: The United States. One of the key issues concerning regulators is whether GM products should be labeled. The European Commission says that mandatory labeling and traceability are needed to allow for informed choice, avoid potential false advertising and facilitate the withdrawal of products if adverse effects on health or the environment are discovered. The American Medical Association and
11325-567: The Unknown" ' ). Approximately two-thirds of this longer, twelve-tablet version have been recovered. Some of the best copies were discovered in the library ruins of the 7th-century BC Assyrian king Ashurbanipal . The first half of the story discusses Gilgamesh (who was king of Uruk) and Enkidu , a wild man created by the gods to stop Gilgamesh from oppressing the people of Uruk. After Enkidu becomes civilized through sexual initiation with Shamhat , he travels to Uruk, where he challenges Gilgamesh to
11476-445: The animals of the field". A violent storm then arose which caused the terrified gods to retreat to the heavens. Ishtar lamented the wholesale destruction of humanity, and the other gods wept beside her. The storm lasted six days and nights, after which "all the human beings turned to clay". Utnapishtim weeps when he sees the destruction. His boat lodges on the Mt. Nimush , and he releases a dove,
11627-514: The approaches taken by governments to assess and manage the risks associated with the development and release of GMOs. The development of a regulatory framework began in 1975, at Asilomar , California. The Asilomar meeting recommended a set of voluntary guidelines regarding the use of recombinant technology. As the technology improved the US established a committee at the Office of Science and Technology , which assigned regulatory approval of GM food to
11778-540: The auras, they chop down part of the forest and discover the gods' secret abode. The rest of the tablet is broken. The auras are not referred to in the Standard Babylonian version, but are in one of the Sumerian poems as "sons". Partially overlapping the felling of the trees from the Ishchali tablet. Partially overlapping the Standard Babylonian version tablets IX–X. Gilgamesh mourns the death of Enkidu wandering in his quest for immortality. Gilgamesh argues with Shamash about
11929-473: The best candidates. The development of microarrays , transcriptomics and genome sequencing has made it much easier to find suitable genes. Luck also plays its part; the Roundup Ready gene was discovered after scientists noticed a bacterium thriving in the presence of the herbicide. The next step is to isolate the candidate gene. The cell containing the gene is opened and the DNA is purified. The gene
12080-445: The bottom of the sea there lives a boxthorn -like plant that will make him young again. Gilgamesh, by binding stones to his feet so he can walk on the bottom, manages to obtain the plant. Gilgamesh proposes to investigate if the plant has the hypothesized rejuvenation ability by testing it on an old man once he returns to Uruk. When Gilgamesh stops to bathe, it is stolen by a serpent , who sheds its skin as it departs. Gilgamesh weeps at
12231-496: The cedar forest. Humbaba , the guardian of the Cedar Forest, insults and threatens them. He accuses Enkidu of betrayal, and vows to disembowel Gilgamesh and feed his flesh to the birds. Gilgamesh is afraid, but with some encouraging words from Enkidu the battle commences. The mountains quake with the tumult and the sky turns black. The god Shamash sends 13 winds to bind Humbaba, and he is captured. Humbaba pleads for his life, and Gilgamesh pities him. He offers to make Gilgamesh king of
12382-408: The cell membrane permeable to plasmid DNA. As only a single cell is transformed with genetic material, the organism must be regenerated from that single cell. In plants this is accomplished through the use of tissue culture . In animals it is necessary to ensure that the inserted DNA is present in the embryonic stem cells . Bacteria consist of a single cell and reproduce clonally so regeneration
12533-763: The cell's nuclear envelope directly into the nucleus , or through the use of viral vectors . Plant genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use of Agrobacterium for the delivery of sequences hosted in T-DNA binary vectors . In plants the DNA is often inserted using Agrobacterium -mediated transformation , taking advantage of the Agrobacterium s T-DNA sequence that allows natural insertion of genetic material into plant cells. Other methods include biolistics , where particles of gold or tungsten are coated with DNA and then shot into young plant cells, and electroporation , which involves using an electric shock to make
12684-516: The characteristics of wildness are varied. One consideration sees wildness as that part of nature which is not controllable by humans. Nature retains a measure of autonomy, or wildness, apart from human constructions. In Wild by Design , Laura J. Martin reviews attempts to manage nature while respecting and even generating the wildness of other species. Another version of this theme is that wildness produces things that are natural, while humans produce things that are artificial (man-made). Ambiguities about
12835-453: The common fate of humans is futile and diminishes life's joys. Gilgamesh observes that Utnapishtim seems no different from himself, and asks him how he obtained his immortality. Utnapishtim explains that the gods decided to send a great flood. To save Utnapishtim the god Enki told him to build a boat. He gave him precise dimensions, and it was sealed with pitch and bitumen . His entire family went aboard together with his craftsmen and "all
12986-443: The composition of the food, or to produce novel products. The first crops to be released commercially on a large scale provided protection from insect pests or tolerance to herbicides . Fungal and virus resistant crops have also been developed or are in development. This makes the insect and weed management of crops easier and can indirectly increase crop yield. GM crops that directly improve yield by accelerating growth or making
13137-604: The concept of substantial equivalence . The European Union by contrast has possibly the most stringent GMO regulations in the world. All GMOs, along with irradiated food , are considered "new food" and subject to extensive, case-by-case, science-based food evaluation by the European Food Safety Authority . The criteria for authorisation fall in four broad categories: "safety", "freedom of choice", "labelling", and "traceability". The level of regulation in other countries that cultivate GMOs lie in between Europe and
13288-467: The council of elders, Gilgamesh is not deterred. The elders give Gilgamesh advice for his journey. Gilgamesh visits his mother, Ninsun, who seeks the support and protection of the sun-god Shamash for their adventure. Ninsun adopts Enkidu as her son, and Gilgamesh leaves instructions for the governance of Uruk in his absence. Gilgamesh and Enkidu journey to the Cedar Forest . Every few days they camp on
13439-417: The dead who will "outnumber the living" and "devour them", as well as screaming loud enough to be heard by the heavens and earth. Anu states that if he gives her the Bull of Heaven, Uruk will face 7 years of famine. Ishtar provides him with provisions for 7 years in exchange for the bull. Ishtar leads the Bull of Heaven to Uruk, and he causes widespread devastation. Drinking continuously without being satisfied,
13590-413: The defective gene with a functioning one. It is an important tool in research that allows the function of specific genes to be studied. Drugs, vaccines and other products have been harvested from organisms engineered to produce them. Crops have been developed that aid food security by increasing yield, nutritional value and tolerance to environmental stresses. The DNA can be introduced directly into
13741-567: The direct manipulation of DNA by humans outside breeding and mutations has only existed since the 1970s. The term "genetic engineering" was coined by the Russian-born geneticist Nikolay Timofeev-Ressovsky in his 1934 paper "The Experimental Production of Mutations", published in the British journal Biological Reviews. Jack Williamson used the term in his science fiction novel Dragon's Island, published in 1951 – one year before DNA's role in heredity
13892-475: The distinction between the natural and the artificial animate much of art, literature and philosophy. There is the perception that naturally produced items have a greater elegance over artificial things. Modern zoos seek to improve the health and vigour of animals by simulating natural settings, in a move away from stark man-made structures. Another view of wildness is that it is a social construct, and that humans cannot be considered innately ‘unnatural. As wildness
14043-468: The earliest surviving tablets for a single Epic of Gilgamesh narrative. The older Old Babylonian tablets and later Akkadian version are important sources for modern translations, with the earlier texts mainly used to fill in gaps ( lacunae ) in the later texts. Although several revised versions based on new discoveries have been published, the epic remains incomplete. Analysis of the Old Babylonian text has been used to reconstruct possible earlier forms of
14194-573: The earliest uses of genetic engineering was to mass-produce human insulin in bacteria. This application has now been applied to human growth hormones , follicle stimulating hormones (for treating infertility), human albumin , monoclonal antibodies , antihemophilic factors , vaccines and many other drugs. Mouse hybridomas , cells fused together to create monoclonal antibodies , have been adapted through genetic engineering to create human monoclonal antibodies. Genetically engineered viruses are being developed that can still confer immunity, but lack
14345-685: The elders' blessing and counsel. Possibly another version of the contents of the Yale Tablet, practically irrecoverable. In the journey to the cedar forest and Huwawa, Enkidu interprets one of Gilgamesh's dreams. Fragments from two different versions/tablets tell how Enkidu interprets one of Gilgamesh's dreams on the way to the Forest of Cedar, and their conversation when entering the forest. After defeating Huwawa, Gilgamesh refrains from slaying him, and urges Enkidu to hunt Huwawa's "seven auras". Enkidu convinces him to smite their enemy. After killing Huwawa and
14496-555: The environment when a strawberry field and a potato field in California were sprayed with it. Both test fields were attacked by activist groups the night before the tests occurred: "The world's first trial site attracted the world's first field trasher". The first field trials of genetically engineered plants occurred in France and the US in 1986, tobacco plants were engineered to be resistant to herbicides . The People's Republic of China
14647-403: The epic. The most recent Akkadian version, also referred to as the Standard Babylonian version, consists of twelve tablets and was edited by Sîn-lēqi-unninni , who is thought to have lived sometime between 1300 BC and 1000 BC. From the diverse sources found, two main versions of the epic have been partially reconstructed: the Standard Babylonian version, or He who saw the deep , and
14798-471: The first synthetic genome and inserted it into an empty bacterial cell. The resulting bacterium, named Mycoplasma laboratorium , could replicate and produce proteins. Four years later this was taken a step further when a bacterium was developed that replicated a plasmid containing a unique base pair , creating the first organism engineered to use an expanded genetic alphabet. In 2012, Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier collaborated to develop
14949-583: The first GMO designed as a pet, was sold in the United States in December 2003. In 2016 salmon modified with a growth hormone were sold. Genetic engineering has been applied in numerous fields including research, medicine, industrial biotechnology and agriculture. In research, GMOs are used to study gene function and expression through loss of function, gain of function, tracking and expression experiments. By knocking out genes responsible for certain conditions it
15100-512: The flood. Enki also castigates him for sending a disproportionate punishment. Enlil blesses Utnapishtim and his wife, and rewards them with eternal life. This account largely matches the flood story that concludes the Epic of Atra-Hasis . The main point seems to be that when Enlil granted eternal life it was a unique gift. As if to demonstrate this point, Utnapishtim challenges Gilgamesh to stay awake for six days and seven nights. Gilgamesh falls asleep, and Utnapishtim instructs his wife to bake
15251-482: The food supply and intellectual property rights have also been raised as potential issues. These concerns have led to the development of a regulatory framework, which started in 1975. It has led to an international treaty, the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety , that was adopted in 2000. Individual countries have developed their own regulatory systems regarding GMOs, with the most marked differences occurring between
15402-411: The forest, to cut the trees for him, and to be his slave. Enkidu, however, argues that Gilgamesh should kill Humbaba to establish his reputation forever. Humbaba curses them both and Gilgamesh dispatches him with a blow to the neck, as well as killing his seven sons. The two heroes cut down many cedars, including a gigantic tree that Enkidu plans to fashion into a gate for the temple of Enlil . They build
15553-513: The form of a spirit to relate the nature of the Underworld to Gilgamesh. In terms of form, the poetic conventions followed in the Standard Babylonian version appear to be inconsistent and are still controversial among scholars. There is, however, extensive use of parallelism across sets of two or three adjacent lines, much like in the Hebrew Psalms . When it was discovered in the 19th century,
15704-408: The fountain of wisdom. Gilgamesh was given knowledge of how to worship the gods, why death was ordained for human beings, what makes a good king, and how to live a good life. The story of Utnapishtim, the hero of the flood myth , can also be found in the Babylonian epic of Atra-Hasis . The Standard version is also known as iškar Gilgāmeš , "Series of Gilgamesh". The 12th tablet is a sequel to
15855-412: The futility of his efforts, because he has now lost all chance of immortality. He returns to Uruk, where the sight of its massive walls prompts him to praise this enduring work to Urshanabi. This tablet is mainly an Akkadian translation of an earlier Sumerian poem, "Gilgamesh and the Netherworld" (also known as " Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld " and variants), although it has been suggested that it
16006-407: The futility of his quest. After a lacuna, Gilgamesh talks to Siduri about his quest and his journey to meet Utnapishtim (here called Uta-na'ishtim). Siduri attempts to dissuade Gilgamesh in his quest for immortality, urging him to be content with the simple pleasures of life. After one more lacuna, Gilgamesh smashes the "stone ones" and talks to the ferryman Urshanabi (here called Sur-sunabu). After
16157-464: The gene is ligated into a plasmid that is then inserted into a bacterium. The plasmid is replicated when the bacteria divide, ensuring unlimited copies of the gene are available. The RK2 plasmid is notable for its ability to replicate in a wide variety of single-celled organisms , which makes it suitable as a genetic engineering tool. Before the gene is inserted into the target organism it must be combined with other genetic elements. These include
16308-404: The genome of pigs to induce the growth of human organs, with the aim of increasing the success of pig to human organ transplantation . Scientists are creating "gene drives", changing the genomes of mosquitoes to make them immune to malaria, and then looking to spread the genetically altered mosquitoes throughout the mosquito population in the hopes of eliminating the disease. Genetic engineering
16459-458: The genome, and use the cell's endogenous mechanisms to repair the induced break by the natural processes of homologous recombination and nonhomologous end-joining . There are four families of engineered nucleases: meganucleases , zinc finger nucleases , transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), and the Cas9-guideRNA system (adapted from CRISPR ). TALEN and CRISPR are
16610-466: The genomes of two human embryos, to attempt to disable the CCR5 gene, which codes for a receptor that HIV uses to enter cells. The work was widely condemned as unethical, dangerous, and premature. Currently, germline modification is banned in 40 countries. Scientists that do this type of research will often let embryos grow for a few days without allowing it to develop into a baby. Researchers are altering
16761-498: The gods decide that one of the heroes must die because they killed Humbaba and the Bull of Heaven. Despite the protestations of Shamash, Enkidu is marked for death. Enkidu curses the great door he has fashioned for Enlil's temple. He also curses the trapper and Shamhat for removing him from the wild. Shamash reminds Enkidu of how Shamhat fed and clothed him, and introduced him to Gilgamesh. Shamash tells him that Gilgamesh will bestow great honors upon him at his funeral, and will wander into
16912-403: The ground. — Walden It is in vain to dream of a wildness distant from ourselves. There is none such. — Journal, 30 August 1856 The most alive is the wildest. — "Walking" Whatever has not come under the sway of man is wild. In this sense original and independent men are wild — not tamed and broken by society. — Journal, 3 September 1851 Trench says a wild man is a willed man. Well, then,
17063-511: The host genome or targeted to a specific location. The technique of gene targeting uses homologous recombination to make desired changes to a specific endogenous gene. This tends to occur at a relatively low frequency in plants and animals and generally requires the use of selectable markers . The frequency of gene targeting can be greatly enhanced through genome editing . Genome editing uses artificially engineered nucleases that create specific double-stranded breaks at desired locations in
17214-454: The import of GM food with authorisation, but either do not allow its cultivation (Russia, Norway, Israel) or have provisions for cultivation even though no GM products are yet produced (Japan, South Korea). Most countries that do not allow GMO cultivation do permit research. Some of the most marked differences occur between the US and Europe. The US policy focuses on the product (not the process), only looks at verifiable scientific risks and uses
17365-678: The increasing risks of maladaptation in organisms as a result of climate change and other perturbations, facilitated adaptation through gene tweaking could be one solution to reducing extinction risks. Applications of genetic engineering in conservation are thus far mostly theoretical and have yet to be put into practice. Genetic engineering is also being used to create microbial art . Some bacteria have been genetically engineered to create black and white photographs. Novelty items such as lavender-colored carnations , blue roses , and glowing fish , have also been produced through genetic engineering. The regulation of genetic engineering concerns
17516-513: The legends as the father of one of Gilgamesh's adversaries, has lent credibility to the historical existence of Gilgamesh. In the early 2000s, the Gilgamesh Dream Tablet was imported illegally into the United States. According to the United States Department of Justice , the tablet was encrusted with dirt and unreadable when it was purchased by a US antiquities dealer in 2003. The tablet was sold by an unnamed antiques dealer in 2007 with
17667-434: The monkey virus SV40 with that of the lambda virus . In 1973 Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen created the first transgenic organism by inserting antibiotic resistance genes into the plasmid of an Escherichia coli bacterium. A year later Rudolf Jaenisch created a transgenic mouse by introducing foreign DNA into its embryo, making it the world's first transgenic animal These achievements led to concerns in
17818-447: The moon god Sin . Then, waking from an encouraging dream, he kills the lions and uses their skins for clothing. After a long and perilous journey, Gilgamesh arrives at the twin peaks of Mount Mashu at the western end of the earth. He comes across the tunnel of the sun god Shamash , which no man has ever entered, guarded by two scorpion monsters , who appear to be a married couple. The husband tries to dissuade Gilgamesh from passing, but
17969-446: The natural state we are born wicked and evil because of, for instance, the cry of the baby that demands attention. Like Rousseau, he believes that society shapes us, but that we are born evil and it is up to society to shape us into who we become. Thoreau made many statements on wildness: In Wildness is the preservation of the World. — "Walking" I wish to speak a word for Nature, for absolute Freedom and Wildness, as contrasted with
18120-498: The new gene. These tests can also confirm the chromosomal location and copy number of the inserted gene. The presence of the gene does not guarantee it will be expressed at appropriate levels in the target tissue so methods that look for and measure the gene products (RNA and protein) are also used. These include northern hybridisation , quantitative RT-PCR , Western blot , immunofluorescence , ELISA and phenotypic analysis. The new genetic material can be inserted randomly within
18271-399: The organism with the desired phenotype , genetic engineering takes the gene directly from one organism and delivers it to the other. This is much faster, can be used to insert any genes from any organism (even ones from different domains ) and prevents other undesirable genes from also being added. Genetic engineering could potentially fix severe genetic disorders in humans by replacing
18422-414: The original 11, and was probably appended at a later date. It bears little relation to the well-crafted 11-tablet epic; the lines at the beginning of the first tablet are quoted at the end of the 11th tablet, giving it circularity and finality. Tablet 12 is a near copy of an earlier Sumerian tale, a prequel, in which Gilgamesh sends Enkidu to retrieve some objects of his from the Underworld, and he returns in
18573-432: The people's pleas by creating an equal to Gilgamesh who will be able to stop his oppression. This is the invincibly strong Enkidu , covered in hair, who lives in the wilderness with his herd of animal relatives. He is spotted by a trapper, whose livelihood is being ruined because Enkidu destroys all his traps. The trapper tells the sun god Shamash about the man, and it is arranged that Enkidu will be seduced by Shamhat ,
18724-401: The place where they were found. Surpassing all other kings Tablet II, greatly correlates with tablets I–II of the Standard Babylonian version. Gilgamesh tells his mother Ninsun about two dreams he had. His mother explains that they mean that a new companion will soon arrive at Uruk. In the meanwhile the wild Enkidu and the priestess (here called Shamkatum) have sex. She tames him in company of
18875-564: The plant more hardy (by improving salt, cold or drought tolerance) are also under development. In 2016 Salmon have been genetically modified with growth hormones to reach normal adult size much faster. GMOs have been developed that modify the quality of produce by increasing the nutritional value or providing more industrially useful qualities or quantities. The Amflora potato produces a more industrially useful blend of starches. Soybeans and canola have been genetically modified to produce more healthy oils. The first commercialised GM food
19026-632: The present the orthodox people are in great delight, and are very much prepossessed by the corroboration which it affords to Biblical history. It is possible, however, as has been pointed out, that the Chaldean inscription, if genuine, may be regarded as a confirmation of the statement that there are various traditions of the deluge apart from the Biblical one, which is perhaps legendary like the rest. The New York Times , front page, 1872 About 15,000 fragments of Assyrian cuneiform tablets were discovered in
19177-441: The process of uncovering new fragments of the epic dispersed, and often unread, in museums around the world. Distinct sources exist from over a 2000-year timeframe. The earliest Sumerian poems are now generally considered to be distinct stories, rather than parts of a single epic. Some of these may date back to as early as the Third Dynasty of Ur ( c. 2100 BC ). The Old Babylonian tablets ( c. 1800 BC ) are
19328-558: The process, after which the gods decide to sentence Enkidu to death and kill him by giving him a fatal illness. In the second half of the epic, distress over Enkidu's death causes Gilgamesh to undertake a long and perilous journey to discover the secret of eternal life. Finally, he learns from the Babylonian Noah (cf. Atrahasis ) that "Life, which you look for, you will never find. For when the gods created man, they let death be his share, and life withheld in their own hands". The epic
19479-430: The production of agricultural or pharmaceutical products. The genetically modified animals include animals with genes knocked out , increased susceptibility to disease , hormones for extra growth and the ability to express proteins in their milk. Genetic engineering has many applications to medicine that include the manufacturing of drugs, creation of model animals that mimic human conditions and gene therapy . One of
19630-570: The production of food ( chymosin in cheese making) and fuels. Other applications with genetically engineered bacteria could involve making them perform tasks outside their natural cycle, such as making biofuels , cleaning up oil spills, carbon and other toxic waste and detecting arsenic in drinking water. Certain genetically modified microbes can also be used in biomining and bioremediation , due to their ability to extract heavy metals from their environment and incorporate them into compounds that are more easily recoverable. In materials science ,
19781-480: The rank of an "ancient wise man" (antediluvian). Lins Brandão continues, noting how the poem would have been "put on a stele" ("narû"), that at first "narû" could be seen as the genre of the poem, taking into consideration that the reader (or scribe) would have to pass the text on, without omitting or adding anything. This summary is based on Andrew George 's translation. The story introduces Gilgamesh , king of Uruk . Gilgamesh, two-thirds god and one-third man,
19932-521: The relationship to Nimrod was dropped, the view of "Greek epic" was retained. Martin Litchfield West , in 1966, in the preface to his edition of Hesiod , recognized the proximity of the Greeks to the middle eastern center of convergence: "Greek literature is a Near East literature." Considering how the text would be viewed from the standpoint of its time is tricky, as George Smith acknowledges that there
20083-491: The scientific community about potential risks from genetic engineering, which were first discussed in depth at the Asilomar Conference in 1975. One of the main recommendations from this meeting was that government oversight of recombinant DNA research should be established until the technology was deemed safe. In 1976 Genentech, the first genetic engineering company, was founded by Herbert Boyer and Robert Swanson and
20234-439: The secret of eternal life. Utnapishtim and his wife are the only couple of humans artificially created by the gods who were allowed to survive the great flood and even endowed with divine immortality in gratitude for food sacrifices to the gods, so Utnapishtim seems to be identical to the pious priest Atra-Hasis . Gilgamesh crosses a mountain pass at night and encounters a pride of lions. Before sleeping he prays for protection to
20385-420: The shepherds by offering him bread and beer. Enkidu helps the shepherds by guarding the sheep. They travel to Uruk to confront Gilgamesh and stop his abuses. Enkidu and Gilgamesh battle but Gilgamesh breaks off the fight. Enkidu praises Gilgamesh. Surpassing all other kings Tablet III, partially matches tablets II–III of the Standard Babylonian version. For reasons unknown (the tablet is partially broken) Enkidu
20536-434: The source of most of the controversy surrounding the technology. This has been present since its early use; the first field trials were destroyed by anti-GM activists. Although there is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, critics consider GM food safety a leading concern. Gene flow , impact on non-target organisms, control of
20687-445: The spectrum from wild to domesticated animal states: This classification system does not account for several complicating factors: genetically modified organisms, feral populations, and hybridization . Many species that are farmed or ranched are now being genetically modified. This creates a unique category of them because it alters the organisms as a group but in ways unlike traditional domestication. Feral organisms are members of
20838-538: The stone charms that Urshanabi keeps with him. Gilgamesh tells his story, but when he asks for help, Urshanabi informs him that he has just destroyed the objects that can help them cross the Waters of Death, which are deadly to the touch. Urshanabi instructs Gilgamesh to cut down 120 trees and fashion them into punting poles. When they reach the island where Utnapishtim lives, Gilgamesh recounts his story, asking him for his help. Utnapishtim reprimands him, declaring that fighting
20989-513: The story of Gilgamesh was classified as a Greek epic, a genre known in Europe, even though it predates the Greek culture that spawned epics, specifically, when Herodotus referred to the works of Homer in this way. When Alfred Jeremias translated the text, he insisted on the relationship to Genesis by giving the title " Izdubar-Nimrod " and by recognizing the genre as that of Greek heroic poetry. Although
21140-547: The story – earlier even than that preserved on the Old Babylonian fragment – may well have ended with Siduri sending Gilgamesh back to Uruk..." and "Utnapistim was not originally part of the tale." There are five extant Gilgamesh stories in the form of older poems in Sumerian . These probably circulated independently, rather than being in the form of a unified epic. Some of the names of the main characters in these poems differ slightly from later Akkadian names; for example, "Bilgames"
21291-412: The two most commonly used and each has its own advantages. TALENs have greater target specificity, while CRISPR is easier to design and more efficient. In addition to enhancing gene targeting, engineered nucleases can be used to introduce mutations at endogenous genes that generate a gene knockout . Genetic engineering has applications in medicine, research, industry and agriculture and can be used on
21442-450: The wife intervenes, expresses sympathy for Gilgamesh, and (according to the poem's editor Benjamin Foster) allows his passage. Entering the tunnel's gate, he follows the path of Shamash in total darkness and actually manages to reach the eastern exit within 12 ‘double hours’, just before he would have been caught up by the sun god, burning him alive. Astonished, he enters the marvellous Garden of
21593-480: The wild consumed with grief. Enkidu regrets his curses and blesses Shamhat instead. In a second dream, however, he sees himself being taken captive to the Netherworld , a "house of dust" and darkness whose inhabitants eat clay, and are clothed in bird feathers, supervised by terrifying beings. For 12 days, Enkidu's condition worsens. Finally, after a lament that he could not meet a heroic death in battle, he dies. In
21744-451: The writings of naturalists, such as John Muir and David Brower , where it is admired for its freshness and otherness. Henry David Thoreau wrote "In wildness is the preservation of the world". Some artists and photographers such as Eliot Porter explore wildness in the themes of their works. The benefits of reconnecting with nature by seeing the achievements of wildness is an area being investigated by ecopsychology . Attempts to identify
21895-490: Was a tomato that had delayed ripening, increasing its shelf life . Plants and animals have been engineered to produce materials they do not normally make. Pharming uses crops and animals as bioreactors to produce vaccines, drug intermediates, or the drugs themselves; the useful product is purified from the harvest and then used in the standard pharmaceutical production process. Cows and goats have been engineered to express drugs and other proteins in their milk, and in 2009
22046-494: Was approved safe by the Environmental Protection Agency , after having been approved by the FDA, making it the first pesticide producing crop to be approved in the US. In 2009 11 transgenic crops were grown commercially in 25 countries, the largest of which by area grown were the US, Brazil, Argentina, India, Canada, China, Paraguay and South Africa. In 2010, scientists at the J. Craig Venter Institute created
22197-477: Was confirmed by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase , and two years before James Watson and Francis Crick showed that the DNA molecule has a double-helix structure – though the general concept of direct genetic manipulation was explored in rudimentary form in Stanley G. Weinbaum 's 1936 science fiction story Proteus Island . In 1972, Paul Berg created the first recombinant DNA molecules by combining DNA from
22348-495: Was founded in 1976 and started the production of human proteins. Genetically engineered human insulin was produced in 1978 and insulin-producing bacteria were commercialised in 1982. Genetically modified food has been sold since 1994, with the release of the Flavr Savr tomato. The Flavr Savr was engineered to have a longer shelf life, but most current GM crops are modified to increase resistance to insects and herbicides. GloFish ,
22499-464: Was initially reintroduced to the world as " Izdubar ", before the cuneiform logographs in his name could be pronounced accurately. In 1891, Paul Haupt collected the cuneiform text, and nine years later, Peter Jensen provided a comprehensive edition; R. Campbell Thompson updated both of their work in 1930. Over the next two decades, Samuel Noah Kramer reassembled the Sumerian poems. In 1998, American Assyriologist Theodore Kwasman discovered
22650-406: Was taking socialized persons and simply imagining them living outside of the society they were raised in. He affirmed instead that people were born neither good nor bad; men knew neither vice nor virtue since they had almost no dealings with each other. Their bad habits are the products of civilization specifically social hierarchies, property , and markets. Another criticism put forth by Karl Marx
22801-527: Was the first country to commercialise transgenic plants, introducing a virus-resistant tobacco in 1992. In 1994 Calgene attained approval to commercially release the first genetically modified food , the Flavr Savr , a tomato engineered to have a longer shelf life. In 1994, the European Union approved tobacco engineered to be resistant to the herbicide bromoxynil , making it the first genetically engineered crop commercialised in Europe. In 1995, Bt potato
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