38-457: A whipping boy was a young boy educated with a prince and punished in his place. Whipping boy or Whipping Boy may also refer to: Whipping boy A whipping boy was a boy educated alongside a prince (or boy monarch ) in early modern Europe , who supposedly received corporal punishment for the prince's transgressions in his presence. The prince was not punished himself because his royal status exceeded that of his tutor; seeing
76-435: A critical role, often then selling the rights to larger companies that have the resources to run the clinical trials. Drug discovery is different from Drug Development. Drug Discovery is often considered the process of identifying new medicine. At the same time, Drug development is delivering a new drug molecule into clinical practice. In its broad definition, this encompasses all steps from the basic research process of finding
114-576: A friend punished would provide an equivalent motivation not to repeat the offence. An archaic proverb which captures a similar idea is "to beat a dog before a lion". Whipping was a common punishment administered by tutors at that time. There is little contemporary evidence for the existence of whipping boys, and evidence that some princes were indeed whipped by their tutors, although Nicholas Orme suggests that nobles might have been beaten less often than other pupils. Some historians regard whipping boys as entirely mythical; others suggest they applied only in
152-575: A group of 2245 elderly Americans (average age of 71) surveyed over the period 2010 – 2011, those percentages were 88%, 38%, and 64%. One of the key classifications is between traditional small molecule drugs; usually derived from chemical synthesis and biological medical products ; which include recombinant proteins , vaccines , blood products used therapeutically (such as IVIG ), gene therapy , and cell therapy (for instance, stem cell therapies). Pharmaceuticals or drugs or medicines are classified into various other groups besides their origin on
190-505: A list of essential medicines . A sampling of classes of medicine includes: Pharmaceuticals may also be described as "specialty", independent of other classifications, which is an ill-defined class of drugs that might be difficult to administer, require special handling during administration, require patient monitoring during and immediately after administration, have particular regulatory requirements restricting their use, and are generally expensive relative to other drugs. Drugs affecting
228-718: A pharmacist dispenses only on the order of a physician, physician assistant , or qualified nurse ) from over-the-counter drugs (those that consumers can order for themselves). Another key distinction is between traditional small molecule drugs, usually derived from chemical synthesis , and biopharmaceuticals , which include recombinant proteins , vaccines , blood products used therapeutically (such as IVIG ), gene therapy , monoclonal antibodies and cell therapy (for instance, stem cell therapies). Other ways to classify medicines are by mode of action, route of administration , biological system affected, or therapeutic effects . An elaborate and widely used classification system
266-452: A process known as reverse pharmacology . Hits from these screens are then tested in cells and then in animals for efficacy . Even more recently, scientists have been able to understand the shape of biological molecules at the atomic level and to use that knowledge to design (see drug design ) drug candidates. Modern drug discovery involves the identification of screening hits, medicinal chemistry , and optimization of those hits to increase
304-411: A process of identifying a new medicine. Development: Chemicals extracted from natural products are used to make pills, capsules, or syrups for oral use. Injections for direct infusion into the blood drops for eyes or ears. Preclinical research : Drugs go under laboratory or animal testing, to ensure that they can be used on Humans. Clinical testing: The drug is used on people to confirm that it
342-499: A suitable molecular target to supporting the drug's commercial launch. Drug development is the process of bringing a new drug to the market once a lead compound has been identified through the process of drug discovery . It includes pre-clinical research (microorganisms/animals) and clinical trials (on humans) and may include the step of obtaining regulatory approval to market the drug. Drug Development Process Discovery: The Drug Development process starts with Discovery,
380-595: A vein , or by drops put into the ear or eye . A medication that does not contain an active ingredient and is used in research studies is called a placebo . In Europe, the term is "medicinal product", and it is defined by EU law as: In the US, a "drug" is: Drug use among elderly Americans has been studied; in a group of 2,377 people with an average age of 71 surveyed between 2005 and 2006, 84% took at least one prescription drug, 44% took at least one over-the-counter (OTC) drug, and 52% took at least one dietary supplement ; in
418-406: Is a drug used to diagnose , cure , treat, or prevent disease. Drug therapy ( pharmacotherapy ) is an important part of the medical field and relies on the science of pharmacology for continual advancement and on pharmacy for appropriate management. Drugs are classified in many ways. One of the key divisions is by level of control , which distinguishes prescription drugs (those that
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#1732908890501456-493: Is a medicine or a chemical compound used to treat or cure illness. According to Encyclopædia Britannica , medication is "a substance used in treating a disease or relieving pain ". As defined by the National Cancer Institute , dosage forms of medication can include tablets , capsules , liquids, creams , and patches. Medications can be administered in different ways, such as by mouth , by infusion into
494-413: Is flogged in his stead: "a most ingenious device, by which to keep this troublesome young lordling in awe, without trenching on his foolish father's injunctions". The Fortunes of Nigel (1822) by Walter Scott describes Malagrowther , the fictional whipping boy of the young James VI of Scotland (later also James I of England): "Under the stern rule, indeed, of George Buchanan , who did not approve of
532-499: Is provided by the French Catholic prelates Arnaud d'Ossat (1537–1604) and Jacques Davy Duperron (1556–1618), who were symbolically whipped by Pope Clement VIII in 1593 in proxy expiation on behalf of Henry IV of France (1553–1610), who had renounced Protestantism. Samuel Rowley 's 1604 play When You See Me You Know Me depicts the childhood of the future Edward VI. When he skips class to play tennis , Edward "Ned" Browne
570-478: Is safe to use. FDA Review: drug is sent to FDA before launching the drug into the market. FDA post-Market Review: The drug is reviewed and monitored by FDA for the safety once it is available to the public. The regulation of drugs varies by jurisdiction. In some countries, such as the United States, they are regulated at the national level by a single agency. In other jurisdictions, they are regulated at
608-410: Is sent to the chapel to be whipped by the master of children. Cranmer says, "Since he was whipped thus for the prince's faults. / His grace hath got more knowledge in a month. / Than he attained in a year before, / For still the fearful boy, to save his breech, / Doth hourly haunt him, wheresoe'er he goes." The prince persuades king Henry VIII to knight Ned: "the poor gentleman was pitifully wounded in
646-523: Is still a lengthy, "expensive, difficult, and inefficient process" with a low rate of new therapeutic discovery. In 2010, the research and development cost of each new molecular entity (NME) was approximately US$ 1.8 billion. Drug discovery is done by pharmaceutical companies, sometimes with research assistance from universities. The "final product" of drug discovery is a patent on the potential drug. The drug requires very expensive Phase I, II, and III clinical trials, and most of them fail. Small companies have
684-778: Is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System . The World Health Organization keeps a list of essential medicines . Drug discovery and drug development are complex and expensive endeavors undertaken by pharmaceutical companies , academic scientists, and governments. As a result of this complex path from discovery to commercialization, partnering has become a standard practice for advancing drug candidates through development pipelines. Governments generally regulate what drugs can be marketed, how drugs are marketed , and in some jurisdictions, drug pricing . Controversies have arisen over drug pricing and disposal of used Medicine . Medication
722-406: Is used for euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide . Euthanasia is not permitted by law in many countries, and consequently, medicines will not be licensed for this use in those countries. A single drug may contain single or multiple active ingredients . The administration is the process by which a patient takes medicine. There are three major categories of drug administration: enteral (via
760-469: Is used per day (e.g., four times a day). It may include event-related information (e.g., 1 hour before meals, in the morning, at bedtime), or complimentary to an interval, although equivalent expressions may have different implications (e.g., every 8 hours versus 3 times a day). In the fields of medicine, biotechnology , and pharmacology , drug discovery is the process by which new drugs are discovered. Historically, drugs were discovered by identifying
798-526: Is whipped by John Cheke for teaching Edward VI swear-words; when Edward protests that nobody has whipping boys any more, Cheke says "the Duke of Richmond had one". Cheke relents from giving FitzPatrick the whipping owed to Edward. Sarah Ruhl 's 2016 play "Scenes from Court Life, or The Whipping Boy and His Prince" includes whipping boys in its depictions of Charles I and Charles II of England. Some accounts of modern slavery include instances of slaves punished for
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#1732908890501836-520: The Oxford English Dictionary is from a 1647 Bible commentary by John Trapp on 1 Tim 5:20 : "Those Presbyters that sin publikely ... and those who were convicted by two or three witnesses ...: Rebuke before all, yet not as if they were whipping boyes". In Book V of Gil Blas (1715) by Alain-René Lesage , when the Marquis of Leganez forbids his son's tutors from beating him, Don Raphael
874-506: The affinity , selectivity (to reduce the potential of side effects), efficacy/ potency , metabolic stability (to increase the half-life ), and oral bioavailability . Once a compound that fulfills all of these requirements has been identified, it will begin the process of drug development prior to clinical trials . One or more of these steps may, but not necessarily, involve computer-aided drug design . Despite advances in technology and understanding of biological systems, drug discovery
912-3535: The central nervous system include psychedelics , hypnotics , anaesthetics , antipsychotics , eugeroics , antidepressants (including tricyclic antidepressants , monoamine oxidase inhibitors , lithium salts , and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)), antiemetics , anticonvulsants /antiepileptics, anxiolytics , barbiturates , movement disorder (e.g., Parkinson's disease ) drugs, nootropics , stimulants (including amphetamines ), benzodiazepines , cyclopyrrolones , dopamine antagonists , antihistamines , cholinergics , anticholinergics , emetics , cannabinoids , and 5-HT (serotonin) antagonists . The main classes of painkillers are NSAIDs , opioids , and local anesthetics . For consciousness (anesthetic drugs) Some anesthetics include benzodiazepines and barbiturates . The main categories of drugs for musculoskeletal disorders are: NSAIDs (including COX-2 selective inhibitors ), muscle relaxants , neuromuscular drugs , and anticholinesterases . Antibiotics , sympathomimetics , antihistamines , anticholinergics , NSAIDs , corticosteroids , antiseptics , local anesthetics , antifungals , and cerumenolytics. Bronchodilators , antitussives , mucolytics , decongestants , inhaled and systemic corticosteroids , beta2-adrenergic agonists , anticholinergics , mast cell stabilizers , leukotriene antagonists . Androgens , antiandrogens , estrogens , gonadotropin , corticosteroids , human growth hormone , insulin , antidiabetics ( sulfonylureas , biguanides / metformin , thiazolidinediones , insulin ), thyroid hormones , antithyroid drugs, calcitonin , diphosphonate , vasopressin analogues . Antifungal , alkalinizing agents , quinolones , antibiotics , cholinergics , anticholinergics , antispasmodics , 5-alpha reductase inhibitor , selective alpha-1 blockers , sildenafils , fertility medications . NSAIDs , anticholinergics , haemostatic drugs , antifibrinolytics , Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT), bone regulators, beta-receptor agonists , follicle stimulating hormone , luteinising hormone , LHRH , gamolenic acid , gonadotropin release inhibitor , progestogen , dopamine agonists , oestrogen , prostaglandins , gonadorelin , clomiphene , tamoxifen , diethylstilbestrol . Emollients , anti-pruritics , antifungals , antiseptics , scabicides , pediculicides , tar products, vitamin A derivatives , vitamin D analogues , keratolytics , abrasives , systemic antibiotics , topical antibiotics , hormones , desloughing agents, exudate absorbents, fibrinolytics , proteolytics , sunscreens , antiperspirants , corticosteroids , immune modulators. Antibiotics , antifungals , antileprotics , antituberculous drugs , antimalarials , anthelmintics , amoebicides , antivirals , antiprotozoals , probiotics, prebiotics, antitoxins , and antivenoms. Vaccines , immunoglobulins , immunosuppressants , interferons , and monoclonal antibodies . Anti-allergics , antihistamines , NSAIDs , corticosteroids . Tonics, electrolytes and mineral preparations (including iron preparations and magnesium preparations ), parenteral nutrition , vitamins , anti-obesity drugs , anabolic drugs , haematopoietic drugs, food product drugs. Cytotoxic drugs , therapeutic antibodies , sex hormones , aromatase inhibitors , somatostatin inhibitors, recombinant interleukins , G-CSF , erythropoietin . Contrast media . A euthanaticum
950-410: The human gastrointestinal tract ), injection into the body, and by other routes ( dermal , nasal , ophthalmic , otologic , and urogenital ). Oral administration , the most common form of enteral administration, can be performed using various dosage forms including tablets or capsules and liquid such as syrup or suspension. Other ways to take the medication include buccally (placed inside
988-423: The 1987 Newbery Medal for children's books, tells of the brattish Prince Horace who learns humility on an adventure with his whipping boy, a rat-catcher named Jemmy. In George R. R. Martin 's fantasy series A Song of Ice and Fire , published from 1991, the characters Tommen Baratheon and Joffrey Baratheon have a whipping boy named Pate. In David Belbin 's 2002 children's novel Boy King , Barnaby FitzPatrick
1026-606: The Pauper , the pauper's masquerade as Edward VI is aided by information from the prince's whipping boy, son and namesake of the late Sir Humphrey Marlow, a "Head Lieutenant" in Henry VIII's Household . Twain wrote, "James I. and Charles II. had whipping-boys, when they were little fellows, to take their punishment for them when they fell short in their lessons; so I have ventured to furnish my small prince with one, for my own purposes." The Whipping Boy by Sid Fleischman , which won
1064-643: The active ingredient from traditional remedies or by serendipitous discovery. Later chemical libraries of synthetic small molecules , natural products , or extracts were screened in intact cells or whole organisms to identify substances that have a desirable therapeutic effect in a process known as classical pharmacology . Since sequencing of the human genome which allowed rapid cloning and synthesis of large quantities of purified proteins, it has become common practice to use high throughput screening of large compound libraries against isolated biological targets which are hypothesized to be disease-modifying in
1102-401: The back parts, as may appear by the scar, if his knightship would but untruss there". Ned hopes the tutors will refrain from whipping a knight, to which the fool retorts, "If they do, he shall make thee a lord , and then they dare not." This work may have helped the idea of a whipping boy to take root. John Donne alluded to proxy whipping in a sermon he preached in 1628: "Sometimes, when
1140-399: The basis of pharmacological properties like mode of action and their pharmacological action or activity, such as by chemical properties , mode or route of administration , biological system affected, or therapeutic effects . An elaborate and widely used classification system is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System (ATC system). The World Health Organization keeps
1178-408: The case of a boy king, protected by divine right , and not to mere princes. In Renaissance humanism , Erasmus ' treatises " The Education of a Christian Prince " (1516) and "Declamatio de pueris statim ac liberaliter instituendis" (1530) mention the inappropriateness of physical chastisement of princes, but do not mention proxy punishment. Hartley Coleridge wrote in 1852, "to be flogged by proxy
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1216-400: The cheek), sublingually (placed underneath the tongue), eye and ear drops (dropped into the eye or ear), and transdermally (applied to the skin). They can be administered in one dose, as a bolus . Administration frequencies are often abbreviated from Latin, such as every 8 hours reading Q8H from Quaque VIII Hora . The drug frequencies are often expressed as the number of times a drug
1254-406: The children of great persons offend at school, another person is whipped for them, and that affects them, and works upon a good nature; but if that person should take physic for them in a sickness, it would do them no good: God's corrections upon others may work by way of example upon thee; but because thou art sick for physic, take it thyself." The earliest attestation of the word "whipping boy" in
1292-728: The offences of a master's child. In 19th-century southern China , among slave boys as study companions to candidates for the imperial examinations , one example was noted by James L. Watson . In Alex Tizon 's 2017 nonfiction essay " My Family's Slave ", the author's mother recounts a 1940s incident in which, caught in a lie, she made Lola, the titular servant, receive the punishment of 12 lashes of her father's belt. Biram Dah Abeid has alleged that slaves in Mauritania are used as souffre douleurs or whipping boys. Medication A medication (also called medicament , medicine , pharmaceutical drug , medicinal drug or simply drug )
1330-516: The state level, or at both state and national levels by various bodies, as is the case in Australia. The role of therapeutic goods regulation is designed mainly to protect the health and safety of the population. Regulation is aimed at ensuring the safety, quality, and efficacy of the therapeutic goods which are covered under the scope of the regulation. In most jurisdictions, therapeutic goods must be registered before they are allowed to be marketed. There
1368-407: The vicarious mode of punishment, James bore the penance of his own faults, and Mungo Malagrowther enjoyed a sinecure ; but James's other pedagogue, Master Patrick Young , went more ceremoniously to work, and appalled the very soul of the youthful King by the floggings which he bestowed on the whipping-boy, when the royal task was not suitably performed." In Mark Twain 's 1881 novel, The Prince and
1406-450: The victim or scape-goat of the royal misdemeanours". In current English, a "whipping boy" is a metaphor which may have a similar meaning to scapegoat , fall guy , or sacrificial lamb ; alternatively it may mean a perennial loser, a victim of group bullying or someone who is unfairly blamed for the actions of others. Young royals alleged to have had whipping boys include: An adult example often included in discussions of whipping boys
1444-529: Was the exclusive privilege of royal blood. ... It was much coveted for the children of the poorer gentry , as the first step in the ladder of preferment." John Gough Nichols wrote in 1857, "the whole matter is somewhat legendary, and though certain vicarious or rather minatory punishments may have been occasionally adopted, it does not seem likely that any one individual among the King's schoolfellows should have been uniformly selected, whether he were in fault or not, as
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