121-591: The Qara Khitai , or Kara Khitai ( simplified Chinese : 哈剌契丹 ; traditional Chinese : 喀喇契丹 ; pinyin : Kālā Qìdān or Chinese: 黑契丹 ; pinyin: Hēi Qìdān ; lit. 'Black Khitan '), also known as the Western Liao (Chinese: 西遼 ; pinyin: Xī Liáo ), officially the Great Liao (Chinese: 大遼 ; pinyin: Dà Liáo ), was a dynastic regime based in Central Asia ruled by
242-644: A Tungus people who lived north of Liao dynasty in Manchuria , established the Jin dynasty in 1115 and began to dominate Manchuria. The Jin dynasty formed an alliance with the Song dynasty to attack the Liao, and by 1122 the Jin had captured a large part of Liao territories, including its supreme capital of Chifeng . The Liao emperor Tianzuo fled west, and his uncle Prince Yelü Chun then formed
363-627: A Naiman prince, Kuchlug , fled his homeland after being defeated by Mongols. Kuchlug was welcomed by the Qara Khitai, and was allowed to marry Zhilugu's daughter. However, in 1211, Kuchlug revolted, and later captured Yelü Zhilugu while the latter was hunting. Zhilugu was allowed to remain as the nominal ruler but died two years later, and many historians regarded his death as the end of the Qara-Khitai empire. In 1216, Genghis Khan dispatched his general Jebe to pursue Kuchlug; Kuchlug fled, but in 1218, he
484-632: A Western Karakhanid ruler at Khujand and then spent several years consolidating his power in the Ferghana valley and Tashkent , thereby expanding his empire to the west and south. The Western Karakhanids were then vassal of the Seljuks , and Mahmud appealed to the Seljuk sultan Ahmad Sanjar for help. In 1141, Dashi, interceding in a conflict between the Karakhanids and Karluk nomads, came into direct conflict with
605-443: A component—either a character or a sub-component called a radical —usually involves either a reduction in its total number of strokes , or an apparent streamlining of which strokes are chosen in what places—for example, the ⼓ ' WRAP ' radical used in the traditional character 沒 is simplified to ⼏ ' TABLE ' to form the simplified character 没 . By systematically simplifying radicals, large swaths of
726-434: A conversion table. While exercising such derivation, the following rules should be observed: Sample Derivations : The Series One List of Variant Characters reduces the number of total standard characters. First, amongst each set of variant characters sharing identical pronunciation and meaning, one character (usually the simplest in form) is elevated to the standard character set, and the rest are made obsolete. Then amongst
847-407: A few revised forms, and was implemented for official use by China's State Council on 5 June 2013. In Chinese, simplified characters are referred to by their official name 简化字 ; jiǎnhuàzì , or colloquially as 简体字 ; jiǎntǐzì . The latter term refers broadly to all character variants featuring simplifications of character form or structure, a practice which has always been present as
968-455: A mix of Buddhism and traditional Khitan religion, which included fire worship and tribal customs, such as the tradition of sacrificing a gray ox with a white horse. In an innovation unique to the Qara Khitai, the Khitans paid each of their soldiers a salary. The empire ruled over a diverse population that was quite different from its rulers. The majority of the population was sedentary, although
1089-526: A new empire. There are various theories regarding his name. According to Sugiyama Masaaki, Dashi (大石) might be a borrowing from Chinese title taishi (太師). Qidan Guo Zhi suggests was just a nickname. Yelü Dashi was a minor member of the Liao dynasty's imperial Yelü clan and an eighth generation descendant of the Emperor Taizu of Liao . His date of birth is not entirely clear but may have been in either 1087 or 1094, according to various accounts of
1210-599: A newly coined phono-semantic compound : Removing radicals Only retaining single radicals Replacing with ancient forms or variants : Adopting ancient vulgar variants : Readopting abandoned phonetic-loan characters : Copying and modifying another traditional character : Based on 132 characters and 14 components listed in Chart 2 of the Complete List , the 1,753 derived characters found in Chart 3 can be created by systematically simplifying components using Chart 2 as
1331-568: A part of the Chinese writing system. The official name tends to refer to the specific, systematic set published by the Chinese government, which includes not only simplifications of individual characters, but also a substantial reduction in the total number of characters through the merger of formerly distinct forms. According to Chinese palaeographer Qiu Xigui , the broadest trend in the evolution of Chinese characters over their history has been simplification, both in graphical shape ( 字形 ; zìxíng ),
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#17328863774161452-410: A romantic relationship with his brother, Xiao Fuguzhi. She planned to get rid of her husband in order to spend more time with his brother, however her father-in-law caught wind of her plans and conducted a coup. Xiao Wolila surrounded the palace with his troops and killed both his son and the empress. Xiao Wolila installed Yelü Zhilugu (r. 1178–1211), the second son of Yelü Yilie , on the throne. At
1573-508: A shield maker, revolted against local leadership in Bukhara. Representatives of the Burhan family, who were responsible for tax collection, went to the Qara Khitai court for help. While the Qara Khitai reaffirmed the Burhan family's position, they offered no concrete assistance. In the absence of Qara Khitai backing, the notables of Bukhara and Samarkand sought out Muhammad II for help. Before challenging
1694-626: A sizable tribute. In late 1209 or early 1210, when Merkit refugees arrived in Qocho, Barchuq attacked them and drove them off. He made haste to report his loyal behaviour to Genghis, accompanying it with tribute. In 1211, the Uyghur Idiqut had an audience with Genghis on the Kerulen River . In the same year, another vassal of the Qara Khitai, the Karluk Arslan Khan surrendered to Genghis. In 1208,
1815-648: A vassal of the Seljuks) to conquer the lands of the Seljuks and responded to an appeal to intervene by the Karluks who were involved in a conflict with the Karakhanids and Seljuks. Khitan forces ranging from 20,000 to 700,000 depending on the source met in battle with Seljuk forces numbering 100,000. While many Muslim sources suggested that the Khitan forces greatly outnumbered the Seljuks, some contemporary Muslim authors also reported that
1936-649: A year before Ibrahim's brother, Ali Chaghri Khan, took power. Ali wanted to avenge his brother and soon after his accession, killed one of the Karluk leaders. In early 1156, the Karluks fled to Khwarazm and sought the help of its ruler, Il-Arslan , who sent an army against Samarkand. Ali sent for help from his sovereign, the Qara Khitai, who instructed the ruler of the Eastern Karakhanids to come to his aid. The Eastern Karakhanids sent 10,000 riders to reinforce Samarkand, however
2057-440: Is actually more complex than eliminated ones. An example is the character 搾 which is eliminated in favor of the variant form 榨 . The 扌 'HAND' with three strokes on the left of the eliminated 搾 is now seen as more complex, appearing as the ⽊ 'TREE' radical 木 , with four strokes, in the chosen variant 榨 . Not all characters standardised in the simplified set consist of fewer strokes. For instance,
2178-454: Is derived. Merging homophonous characters: Adapting cursive shapes ( 草書楷化 ): Replacing a component with a simple arbitrary symbol (such as 又 and 乂 ): Omitting entire components : Omitting components, then applying further alterations : Structural changes that preserve the basic shape Replacing the phonetic component of phono-semantic compounds : Replacing an uncommon phonetic component : Replacing entirely with
2299-670: Is most commonly called the "Western Liao" (西遼) and is considered to be an orthodox Chinese dynasty , as is the case for the Liao dynasty . The history of the Qara Khitai was included in the History of Liao (one of the Twenty-Four Histories ), which was compiled officially during the Yuan dynasty by Toqto'a et al. Simplified Chinese characters Simplified Chinese characters are one of two standardized character sets widely used to write
2420-809: Is now discouraged. A State Language Commission official cited "oversimplification" as the reason for restoring some characters. The language authority declared an open comment period until 31 August 2009, for feedback from the public. In 2013, the List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters was published as a revision of the 1988 lists; it included a total of 8105 characters. It included 45 newly recognized standard characters that were previously considered variant forms, as well as official approval of 226 characters that had been simplified by analogy and had seen wide use but were not explicitly given in previous lists or documents. Singapore underwent three successive rounds of character simplification , eventually arriving at
2541-609: Is referred to as the " big seal script ". The traditional narrative, as also attested in the Shuowen Jiezi dictionary ( c. 100 AD ), is that the Qin small seal script that would later be imposed across China was originally derived from the Zhou big seal script with few modifications. However, the body of epigraphic evidence comparing the character forms used by scribes gives no indication of any real consolidation in character forms prior to
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#17328863774162662-568: Is the origin of " Cathay ", a European name for China . The Qara Khitai empire, also known as the Western Liao dynasty, was the remnant offshoot of the Khitan -led Liao dynasty . From 1114 to 1125, the Jurchen -led Jin dynasty conquered the Liao. In 1122, two groups of Khitans fled westward to escape the Jin invasion. One of these groups was led by Yelü Dashi , who joined the Liao emperor, Tianzuo , at
2783-736: Is uncertain how long he held it. The lack of references as well as dismissive portrayal of his time there, referred to as "the business in Transoxania," probably implies a short duration. By 1193, Bukhara was again ruled by the Karakhanid vassal of the Qara Khitai. Praises of Ibrahim Arslan Khan, the Karakhanid ruler, were sung by the Bukharan sadr around this time. The conflict between Tekish and his brother Sultan Shah continued in Khorasan until 1193 when Sultan Shah died. Although Tekish took precautions to guard
2904-540: Is used instead of 叠 in regions using traditional characters. The Chinese government stated that it wished to keep Chinese orthography stable. The Chart of Generally Utilized Characters of Modern Chinese was published in 1988 and included 7000 simplified and unsimplified characters. Of these, half were also included in the revised List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese , which specified 2500 common characters and 1000 less common characters. In 2009,
3025-656: The Chinese language , with the other being traditional characters . Their mass standardization during the 20th century was part of an initiative by the People's Republic of China (PRC) to promote literacy, and their use in ordinary circumstances on the mainland has been encouraged by the Chinese government since the 1950s. They are the official forms used in mainland China and Singapore , while traditional characters are officially used in Hong Kong , Macau , and Taiwan . Simplification of
3146-420: The Jin dynasty and restore the territories once held by the Liao dynasty. However, he soon discovered the relative weakness of his empire vis-a-vis the Jin dynasty and gave up the idea after a disastrous attack on the Jin dynasty in 1134. The Western Liao continued to defy Jin supremacy in 1146, and continued sending scouts and small military units against the Jin in 1156, 1177, 1185, 1188. This indicates that for
3267-573: The Karakhanids at Kashgar but was repelled. He later returned in 1134 and conquered the Karakhanid city of Balasaghun (in modern Kyrgyzstan ), resulting in the vassalization of the nearby Kankalis , Karluks , Kyrgyz , and the Kingdom of Qocho . Kashgar , Khotan , and Beshbalik .In 1137, he defeated the Western Karakhanids near Khujand and annexed Fergana and Tashkent . Yelü Dashi's host
3388-577: The Karluks , Qocho kingdom, the Kankalis , and the Kara-Khanid Khanate were vassal states of the Qara Khitai at some point in history. Chinese and Muslim historiographical sources, such as the History of Liao , considered the Qara Khitai to be a legitimate Chinese dynasty . The Qara Khitai took on trappings of a Chinese state and inherited the dynastic name "Great Liao". Hence, Chinese, Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese historians generally refer to
3509-479: The Tarim Basin , and Uyghuria . His empress Xiao Tabuyan succeeded him as regent of the dynasty. The dynasty Yelü established would last until its usurpation by Kuchlug followed by conquest of its domain by Genghis Khan in 1218. His victory over the Seljuks and his amicable relations with Nestorian Christianity , which flourished under the Qara Khitai, led to his association with the legend of Prester John ,
3630-537: The Yelü clan of the Khitan people . Being a rump state of the Khitan-led Liao dynasty , Western Liao was culturally Sinicized to a large extent, especially among the elites consisting of Liao refugees. The dynasty was founded by Yelü Dashi (Emperor Dezong), who led the remnants of the Liao dynasty from Manchuria to Central Asia after fleeing from the Jurchen -led Jin dynasty conquest of northern China. The empire
3751-600: The Yenisei Kyrgyz he established a new base on the Emil River just east of the current Chinese border about 1500 km west of Kedun. At about the same time, he was welcomed by the ruler of the Kingdom of Qocho (about 500 km southeast of Emil near Turfan) who became his ally or vassal. In the summer of 1131 he attacked Kashgar (over 1000 km east of Qocho ), was soundly defeated and withdrew to Qocho. The Jurchens sent an army after him, but this failed because of
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3872-495: The "Dot" stroke : The traditional components ⺥ and 爫 become ⺈ : The traditional component 奐 becomes 奂 : Yel%C3%BC Dashi Yelü Dashi ( Chinese : 耶律大石 ; pinyin : Yēlǜ Dàshí ; Wade–Giles : Yeh-Lü Ta-Shih ; alternatively Chinese: 耶律達實 ; pinyin: Yēlǜ Dáshí ), courtesy name Zhongde ( 重德 ), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Dezong of Western Liao ( 西遼德宗 ),
3993-456: The "external appearances of individual graphs", and in graphical form ( 字体 ; 字體 ; zìtǐ ), "overall changes in the distinguishing features of graphic[al] shape and calligraphic style, [...] in most cases refer[ring] to rather obvious and rather substantial changes". The initiatives following the founding of the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) to universalize the use of their small seal script across
4114-476: The 1986 General List of Simplified Chinese Characters , hereafter the General List . All characters simplified this way are enumerated in Chart 1 and Chart 2 in the 1986 Complete List . Characters in both charts are structurally simplified based on similar set of principles. They are separated into two charts to clearly mark those in Chart 2 as 'usable as simplified character components', based on which Chart 3
4235-508: The 1986 mainland China revisions. Unlike in mainland China, Singapore parents have the option of registering their children's names in traditional characters. Malaysia also promulgated a set of simplified characters in 1981, though completely identical to the mainland Chinese set. They are used in Chinese-language schools. All characters simplified this way are enumerated in Charts 1 and 2 of
4356-562: The Amu Darya against Qara Khitai support of his brother during the conflict, the Qara Khitai offered no further responses to the matter. It is likely that there was a rapprochement between Tekish and the Qara Khitai court before 1194 and at the very latest before 1198, when the Qara Khitai aided Tekish against the Ghurids. The cessation of hostilities was probably a financial agreement as several Muslim sources assert that Tekish dutifully paid tribute to
4477-535: The Amu Darya was agreed upon as the border between the two realms. Muhammad of Ghor later returned to avenge himself against the Qara Khitai. In the summer of 1205, the Ghurid viceroy in Balkh seized Tirmidh and destroyed a Qara Khitai army stationed there. Plans were underway for a bridge to be built across the Amu Darya to facilitate a Ghurid invasion of Transoxiana. However before any of this came to fruition, Muhammad of Ghor
4598-470: The Chinese government published a major revision to the list which included a total of 8300 characters. No new simplifications were introduced. In addition, slight modifications to the orthography of 44 characters to fit traditional calligraphic rules were initially proposed, but were not implemented due to negative public response. Also, the practice of unrestricted simplification of rare and archaic characters by analogy using simplified radicals or components
4719-487: The Ghurids first won a victory against the Qara Khitai before being overtaken from exhaustion. According to another version, the Ghurids split their forces while fleeing from the Khwarazmian army and the Qara Khitai caught them in the desert. The Qara Khitai then attacked the Ghurids with 20,000 horsemen while a strong wind blowing towards the Ghurids resulted in a Qara Khitai victory. All versions of events, however, agree that
4840-467: The Jin takeover, Dashi slipped away with 7000 of his troops to join the Emperor Tianzuo. Dashi was later captured by the Jin dynasty, but escaped five months later to rejoin the emperor. However, the emperor signalled his intention to attack the Jin. Dashi thought this was folly, as the Jin was in a strong position. Unable to convince the emperor, in 1124 Dashi led a band of Liao officials northwest to
4961-421: The Khwarazmian force was too large to comfortably engage, and a truce was achieved with the help of religious dignitaries. The Karluks were reinstalled to their former posts and Il-Arslan returned to Khwarazm. The Karluks continued to cause trouble for Samarkand until the Qara Khitai ordered the Western Karakhanids to drive them from Bukhara and Samarkand to Kashgar. Mas'ud Tabghach Khan, the brother of Ibrahim, took
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5082-420: The Liao dynasty, including the use of Confucian administration and imperial trappings. The empire also adopted the title of Gurkhan (universal Khan). The Khitans used the Chinese calendar , maintained Chinese imperial and administrative titles, gave its emperors reign names, used Chinese-styled coins, and sent imperial seals to its vassals. Although most of its administrative titles were derived from Chinese,
5203-542: The Liao garrison town of Kedun. Emperor Tianzuo was captured by the Jin dynasty in 1125 and the Liao dynasty ended. He started out with 10,000 horses, a small force assuming at least 2 horses for every man. His new base of Kedun was about 1500 km northwest of Beijing, probably along the Orkhon River in Bulgan Province . It was an old Liao garrison with 20,000 tribal horsemen, good pasture, and protected by desert to
5324-506: The Oghuz in Khorasan. In 1181, they helped him seize Merv , Sarakhs , Nasa, and Abiward . In 1181, the Kipchaks under Qara Ozan Khan, established in a marriage alliance with Tekish, attacked Talas in Qara Khitai territory. In 1182, Tekish attacked Bukhara. According to his own description, the city dwellers preferred the rule of non-believers to his Muslim army. Tekish captured the city but it
5445-504: The Oghuz in Transoxiana and pushing them into Balkh, where they were heavily taxed by Sanjar due to his losses at Qatwan. The Oghuz rebellion was caused by the governor of Balkh, Amir Qumach, who had enlisted Oghuz support against the Ghurids in 1152. However the Oghuz defected to the Ghurids, allowing them to temporarily occupy Balkh. After retaking the city, Qumach increased the tax burdens on
5566-407: The Oghuz. In 1153, the Oghuz killed a Seljuk tax collector and Qumach retaliated by attacking them. In the conflict that followed, Qumach and his sons were killed, and Sanjar was defeated and captured. The Oghuz plundered Khorasan whil Sanjar escaped captivity in 1156 but failed to restore his former authority. He died the following year. There is no evidence that the Khitans were directly involved in
5687-490: The Qara Khitai and ordered his son to continue to do so. In the east, there is some vague evidence according to Song dynasty spy reports that the Qara Khitai had tried to ally with the Tangut Western Xia dynasty to attack the Jin in 1185. Although nothing came of it, the Jin evidently took the Qara Khitai threat seriously. In 1188, Wanyan Xiang, a leading Jin official, came back from a tribute collecting mission among
5808-418: The Qara Khitai chased the Ghurids to Andkhud , a village between Merv and Balkh, where Muhammad of Ghor took refuge in a castle. As the Qara Khitai were about to capture him, Uthman intervened and negotiated the Ghurids' surrender. This act has been attributed to solidarity between Muslim leaders. According to one account, Uthman advised the Ghurids to move their forces in and out of the castle by night to create
5929-478: The Qara Khitai court after realizing the Ghurids would not challenge Tekish for his claim, and sent a large army with him led by her husband to oust Tekish. During the conflict with Khwarazm, the Qara Khitai also faced rebellions by tribes to the north and east. In the early 1170s, the Qara Khitai sent an imperial son-in-law named Abensi against the Yebulian and other tribes in the north. Abensi could not defeat them and
6050-466: The Qara Khitai crossed the Amu Darya to attack Khwarazm, whose ruler Il-Arslan had neglected to pay tribute. Il-Arslan fell ill on the way to battle and let a Karluk commander lead his forces while he remained behind. The Khwarazmian army was soundly defeated and Il-Arslan returned to Khwarazm where he died in March 1172. However no new tribute collection agreement was enforced, possibly due to satisfaction from
6171-424: The Qara Khitai, Muhammad II made preparations by compromising with the Ghurids on certain domains and enlisting the aid of the Karakhanid ruler Uthman ibn Ibrahim , who had been insulted by the Qara Khitai's refusal to grant him a royal princess in marriage. In 1207, Muhammad II entered Bukhara and exiled Sanjar to Khwarazm. The Qara Khitai sent an army against him and warfare continued for some time before Tort-Aba,
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#17328863774166292-435: The Qara Khitai, but he was killed before reaching them. Muhammad II's conflict with the Ghurids in Khorasan continued for several years. In 1204, Muhammad of Ghor attacked Khwarazm directly. Muhammad II hurried back to Khwarazm and opened the dikes and burned the meadows in an effort to slow the Ghurid advance. The Khwarazmian forces suffered a heavy defeat against the Ghurids near a canal east of Gurganj and Muhammad II fled to
6413-529: The Qara Khitai, but was killed by another Khitan leader, Yelü Wowo, who proclaimed himself the new Khitan emperor. Wowo was killed by the Jurchens in 1163. The Qara Khitai played a key role in the conflict between their vassals: the Karluks, Karakhanids, and Khwarazm. In early 1156, the Karluks killed Ibrahim Tabghach Khan, the Western Karakhanid ruler of Samarkand. Ibrahim was succeeded by his son, Mahmud, for
6534-555: The Qara Khitai. As a result, Khwarazm managed to provide some manner of compensation to the Qara Khitai for their losses incurred fighting against the Ghurids, using Ghurid funds. Tekish died in 1200 and his son Muhammad II of Khwarazm started his reign as a tributary of the Qara Khitai. The Ghurids took advantage of Tekish's death to conquer certain parts of Khorasan, including Merv and Sarakhs, where they installed Hindu Khan, Muhammad II's nephew, as their subject. In September 1201, Muhammad II marched on Merv. Hindu Khan tried to escape to
6655-612: The Qara Khitai. The Qara Khitai commissioner was chased into a high building where he was put to death. The Uyghur ruler, Barchuq Art Tegin , reported the incident to the Qara Khitai, but at this point individuals at Qocho had already started defecting to the Mongols. When Genghis Khan 's messengers arrived at Qocho, the Uyghur ruler offered his allegiance to the Mongol khan. Genghis gave Barchuq his daughter in return for his attendance at court as well as
6776-580: The Qara Khitai. The Qara Khitai sent to his aid a force of 10,000 or 40,000 led by Tayangu and the Karakhanid rulers Uthman ibn Ibrahim and his cousin Taj al-Din Bilge Khan, the ruler of Otrar . The Ghurids retreated south upon receiving news of Qara Khitai reinforcements. The sequence of events after the Ghurid retreat is unclear. One version of events has the Ghurids being pursued by Khwarazmian forces until they fell into Qara Khitai hands. Another version states that
6897-603: The Seljuks. Sanjar marched his troops to meet the Kara-Khitans. At the Battle of Qatwan , however, Dashi achieved a decisive victory against the Seljuk Turks . The Seljuk army suffered a great death toll, and Sanjar barely escaped with his life, but his wife and some of his best warriors were captured. The power of the Seljuks sharply declined after the battle, and the Seljuk state collapsed into internal rebellion. The Kara-Khitans became
7018-514: The Seljuq army was destroyed and Sanjar barely escaped. Figures of the dead ranged from 11,000 to 100,000. Among those captured at the battle were Seljuq military commanders and Sanjar's wife. The Seljuk defeat resulted in the loss of all of Transoxiana to the Khitans.f After his victory, Yelü Dashi spent 90 days in Samarkand, accepting the loyalty of Muslim nobles and appointing Mahmud's brother Ibrahim as
7139-514: The Son of Heaven and demanded her to show obeisance to the Jin court. When he threatened that the Jin were ready to send an army to invade their lands, the empress executed him. His fate only became known to the Jin in 1175 as a result of deserters from the Qara Khitai. The son, Yelü Yilie , ruled from 1150 to 1163. The only known act he was involved in according to the History of Liao during his 13 year reign
7260-423: The appearance of reinforcements arriving, thereby boosting their negotiating position. Tayangu and the Qara Khitai agreed to let Muhammad of Ghor go in return for a ransom payment. According to one account, the payment was everything Muhammad of Ghor had in his possession, while another account states that the payment was much more modest, consisting of one elephant and an additional payment. The Ghurids kept Balkh and
7381-489: The battle was fought between forces of equal size. The Khitans were also said to have been given a reinforcement of 30,000–50,000 Karluk horsemen. The Battle of Qatwan took place on the Qatwan steppe, north of Samarkand, on 9 September 1141. The Khitans attacked the Seljuk forces simultaneously, encircled them, and forced the Seljuq center into a wadi called Dargham, about 12 km from Samarkand. Encircled from all directions,
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#17328863774167502-453: The border of the Western Xia kingdom. Dashi was captured by the Jin in 1123 and forced to lead them to Tianzuo's camp, resulting in the capture of the entire Liao imperial family except for Tianzuo and one of his sons. Dashi later rejoined Tianzuo but the emperor was captured in early 1125 and died at the Jin court in 1128. In 1124, Yelü Dashi fled northwest and established his headquarter at
7623-512: The central region of the empire. The rest of their empire consisted of highly autonomous vassalized states, primarily Khwarezm , the Karluks , the Kingdom of Qocho of the Uyghurs , the Kankalis , and the Western, Eastern, and Fergana Kara-Khanids . The late-arriving Naimans also became vassals, before usurping the empire under Kuchlug . The Khitan rulers inherited many administrative elements from
7744-428: The character set are altered. Some simplifications were based on popular cursive forms that embody graphic or phonetic simplifications of the traditional forms. In addition, variant characters with identical pronunciation and meaning were reduced to a single standardized character, usually the simplest among all variants in form. Finally, many characters were left untouched by simplification and are thus identical between
7865-407: The chosen variants, those that appear in the "Complete List of Simplified Characters" are also simplified in character structure accordingly. Some examples follow: Sample reduction of equivalent variants : Ancient variants with simple structure are preferred : Simpler vulgar forms are also chosen : The chosen variant was already simplified in Chart 1 : In some instances, the chosen variant
7986-475: The conflict lasted until 1175. In the same year, the Naimans and Kangly surrendered to the Jin. In 1177, the Qara Khitai sent spies into Jin territory and news of them reached the Jin court. In response, the Jin resettled the Khitans in the northwest to the northeast. In addition, the border market of Suide was closed due to fear that it was being used as a hub for spies. While her husband was away, Pusuwan developed
8107-443: The conflict of Khorasan, however the Turkic leaders all paid tribute to them to gain their favor during this time. The lack of Khitan involvement may be due to conflict with the Jin to the east. In 1156, a Jin army led by Po Longdun met with a Qara Khitan raiding group several hundred strong at Kedun. The Khitan force withdrew after negotiations. Khitans under Jin rule rebelled in 1161. One of the rebel leaders, Saba, planned to defect to
8228-406: The country's writing system as a serious impediment to its modernization. In 1916, a multi-part English-language article entitled "The Problem of the Chinese Language" co-authored by the Chinese linguist Yuen Ren Chao (1892–1982) and poet Hu Shih (1891–1962) has been identified as a turning point in the history of the Chinese script—as it was one of the first clear calls for China to move away from
8349-428: The distance. In 1132, he was proclaimed Gurkhan by his followers and adopted the regnal name "Emperor Tianyou" (天祐皇帝). He established his authority over Almaliq and Qayaliq (near Taldıqorğan ). To the west was the disorganized Kara-Khanid Khanate that had split into two. The Eastern Karakanid ruler of Balasaghun , Ibrāhīm II b. Ahmad, invited him to help fight the Karluks and Kankalis , and in 1134 Dashi took
8470-433: The dominant force in Central Asia , and Khwarazm and Karakhanids became vassal states of his empire. Their empire controlled an area roughly equivalent to most of today's Xinjiang , Kyrgyzstan , Uzbekistan , Tajikistan , and southern Kazakhstan . Yelü Dashi died two years after Qatwan in 1143 as the master of much of Central Asia. At time of his death, the Qara Khitai ruled Transoxiana , Ferghana , Semirechye ,
8591-426: The early 20th century. In 1909, the educator and linguist Lufei Kui formally proposed the use of simplified characters in education for the first time. Over the following years—marked by the 1911 Xinhai Revolution that toppled the Qing dynasty , followed by growing social and political discontent that further erupted into the 1919 May Fourth Movement —many anti-imperialist intellectuals throughout China began to see
8712-642: The east and south. He probably planned to build up his forces and attack the Jurchens when an opportunity arose, which it never did. He took control of the imperial horse herds and gained some power over the local tribes. Alliances with the Western Xia to the south or the Song dynasty to the southeast never developed. As the Jurchens grew stronger the disorganized lands to the west became increasingly attractive. There had already been significant tribal movements westward, including some Khitans. On 13 March 1130 he headed west with less than 20,000 men. After some minor fighting with
8833-663: The empire also adopted local administrative titles, such as tayangyu (Turkic) and vizier . The Khitans maintained their old customs, even in Central Asia. They remained nomads, adhered to their traditional dress, and maintained the religious practices followed by the Liao dynasty Khitans. The ruling elite tried to maintain the traditional marriages between the Yelü king clan and the Xiao queen clan, and were highly reluctant to allow their princesses to marry outsiders. The Qara-Khitai Khitans followed
8954-546: The empire as the "Western Liao", emphasizing its continuation from the Liao dynasty . The name "Qara Khitai", commonly used by Central Asian tribes to refer to the dynasty, is also commonly used in Western scholarly works. The term is often translated as the Black Khitans in Mongolian, but its original meaning is unclear today. In Modern Mongolian, "Kara-Khitan" is rendered "Хар Хятан" (Khar Khyatan). Since no direct records from
9075-506: The empire in the east is hard to define but the Khitans exercised some sovereignty over the Naimans east of the Altai Mountains until 1175. Simultaneously during the invasion of Central Asia, Dashi also sent invasion forces to attack the Jin and retake Liao territory, however these efforts proved fruitless and ended in defeat. Yelü Dashi had originally hoped to recapture northern China from
9196-454: The empire may have had to the old territories of the Liao dynasty. Muslim historians initially referred to the state simply as "Khitay" or "Khitai;" they may have adopted this form of "Khitan" via the Uyghurs of Kocho in whose language the final -n or -ń became -y. Only after the Mongol conquest did the state begin to be referred to in the Muslim world as the "Kara-Khitai" or "Qara-Khitai." Khitan
9317-446: The empire survive today, the only surviving historical records about the empire come from foreign sources. "Black Khitans" (黑契丹) has also been seen used in Chinese. "Qara," which literally means "black," corresponds with the Liao's dynastic color black and its dynastic element water, according to the theory of five elements (wuxing). The Jurchens referred to the empire as "Dashi" or "Dashi Linya" (after its founder), to reduce any claims
9438-709: The empire's direct rule was the region around their capital, Balasagun . Around it were the subject kingdoms of Qocho , the eastern and western Karakhanids , Khwarazm , and the Karluk tribes. Its western border was defined by the Amu Darya , but the Khitans were active in Khorasan until the 1180s while Balkh remained under their rule until 1198. In the north they bordered the Yenisei Kyrgyz north of Lake Balkhash until 1175 when they retreated further south. The southern boundary stretched from Balkh to Khotan to Hami . The boundary of
9559-444: The first 2 generations there remained considerable interest in reconquest. When Yelü Dashi died, his wife and paternal cousin, Xiao Tabuyan (1143-1150), became regent for their son. Tabuyan used the honorific titles of empress Gantian, Gurkhan, and Dashi. Her successors retained the titles of Gurkhan and Dashi. While the History of Liao states that Tabuyan was merely a regent, Muslim sources state that she held unlimited power over
9680-616: The first official list of simplified forms was published, consisting of 324 characters collated by Peking University professor Qian Xuantong . However, fierce opposition within the KMT resulted in the list being rescinded in 1936. Work throughout the 1950s resulted in the 1956 promulgation of the Chinese Character Simplification Scheme , a draft of 515 simplified characters and 54 simplified components, whose simplifications would be present in most compound characters. Over
9801-463: The first round—but was massively unpopular and never saw consistent use. The second round of simplifications was ultimately retracted officially in 1986, well after they had largely ceased to be used due to their unpopularity and the confusion they caused. In August 2009, China began collecting public comments for a revised list of simplified characters; the resulting List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters lists 8,105 characters, including
9922-465: The following decade, the Script Reform Committee deliberated on characters in the 1956 scheme, collecting public input regarding the recognizability of variants, and often approving forms in small batches. Parallel to simplification, there were also initiatives aimed at eliminating the use of characters entirely and replacing them with pinyin as an official Chinese alphabet, but this possibility
10043-503: The founding of the Qin. The Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) that inherited the Qin administration coincided with the perfection of clerical script through the process of libian . Eastward spread of Western learning Though most closely associated with the People's Republic, the idea of a mass simplification of character forms first gained traction in China during
10164-568: The history of Liao. The History of Liao describes him as "well-versed in Khitan and Chinese scripts, excelled in riding and archery, and had passed the highest imperial examination in the fifth year of the Tianqing era " (1115 AD). In the twilight of the dynasty he held increasingly important administrative and military posts. He held posts of governorship of Taizhou (泰州, in modern Tailai County , Heilongjiang ) and Xiangzhou (祥州, in modern Wanjinta Township, Nong'an County ). The Jurchens ,
10285-466: The increased usage of 朙 was followed by proliferation of a third variant: 眀 , with 目 'eye' on the left—likely derived as a contraction of 朙 . Ultimately, 明 became the character's standard form. The Book of Han (111 AD) describes an earlier attempt made by King Xuan of Zhou ( d. 782 BC ) to unify character forms across the states of ancient China , with his chief chronicler having "[written] fifteen chapters describing" what
10406-459: The left, with the 月 'Moon' component on the right. Li Si ( d. 208 BC ), the Chancellor of Qin, attempted to universalize the Qin small seal script across China following the wars that had politically unified the country for the first time. Li prescribed the 朙 form of the word for 'bright', but some scribes ignored this and continued to write the character as 明 . However,
10527-468: The military garrison of Kedun (Zhenzhou) on the Orkhon River . Dashi secured the allegiance of the garrison forces numbering 20,000 and set himself up as gurkhan (universal khan). He conquered two Jin tribes in 1129. In 1130, Dashi led his host further west in search of new territory. Within a year, he had established himself as suzerain of Qocho and gained a foothold in Transoxiana . In 1131, he attacked
10648-449: The morning, the Qara Khitai army was badly defeated, suffering 12,000 losses. The Qara Khitai turned to Tekish for compensation for the damage incurred and sent Xiao Duolubu to Khwarazm to collect. Tekish in turn asked the Ghurids for help. Ghiyath al-Din agreed to help with the compensation on the condition that Tekish offered his obedience to the Caliph and returned territories taken earlier by
10769-402: The most prominent Chinese authors of the 20th century, stated that "if Chinese characters are not destroyed, then China will die" ( 漢字不滅，中國必亡 ). During the 1930s and 1940s, discussions regarding simplification took place within the ruling Kuomintang (KMT) party. Many members of the Chinese intelligentsia maintained that simplification would increase literacy rates throughout the country. In 1935,
10890-841: The new Khwarazmian commissioner in Samarkand, and the isfahbad of Kabud-Jama (in Tabaristan ) defected to the Qara Khitai. Both sides retreated but the Qara Khitai took many captives. There are accounts that Muhammad II was actually taken captive at one point but was not recognized and released. During Muhammad II's absence, his brother Ali Shah (viceroy in Tabaristan) and Kozli (commander in Nishapur ) had tried to set themselves up as rulers of Khorasan. When Muhammad II returned, Kozli fled and both he and his son were killed soon after, and Ali Shah fled to Firuzkuh . Muhammad II restored his position in Khorasan by conquering Herat and Firuzkuh. In 1208-9, Ali Shah
11011-721: The new ruler of Khwarazm in return for a share of its treasures and annual tribute. Pusuwan sent her husband, Xiao Duolubu, with a large army to support Tekish's claim. Sultan Shah and his mother fled Khwarazm and Tekish was enthroned on 11 December, 1172. Terken Khatun enlisted the help of Mu'ayyid al-Din Ai-Aba , a former Seljuk amir, to fight for their cause. However he was defeated and executed in Khwarazm in July 1174. Sultan Shah and his mother then fled to Dihistan , which Tekish then conquered and put to death Terken Khatun. Sultan Shah fled to Tughan Shah,
11132-533: The new ruler of Samarkand. Dashi allowed the Muslim Burhan family to continue to rule Bukhara . After this battle, Khwarazm became a vassal state of the Khitans. In 1142, Dashi sent Erbuz to Khwarazm to pillage the province, which forced Atsiz to agree to pay 30,000 dinars annual tribute. The Qara Khitai in 1143 constituted a realm encompassing a territory roughly equivalent to modern Xinjiang , Kyrgyzstan , Uzbekistan , Tajikistan , and south Kazakhstan . Under
11253-476: The northern tribes and presented to the emperor a detailed program and map to prevent their subjects from defecting to the Qara Khitai. Wanyan Xiang was promoted for his contributions. In 1190, one of the Qara Khitai subject tribes surrendered to the Jin, which may have been the result of this new policy. In the early 1190s, the khan of the Keraites , Toghrul , fled to the Qara Khitai seeking military support after he
11374-479: The occasion to purge Transoxiana of the Karluks. Yelü Pusuwan (r. 1164–1177) was explicitly chosen for succession by her brother, Yelü Yilie . Known as Empress Chengtian, Pusuwan refocused the Qara Khitai's attention westward. In 1165, the Qara Khitai participated in Mas'ud Tabghach Khan's invasion of Balkh and Andkhud , then under Oghuz domination, and incorporated Balkh under Qara Khitai rule lasting until 1198. In 1172,
11495-432: The opportunity to depose him, and according to Persian historian Ata-Malik Juvayni , "ascended a throne that had cost him nothing." He made Balasaghun his new capital and took over 16,000 Khitans that had served the old ruler. He spread his power over Zhetysu (modern-day eastern Kazakhstan). He sent two armies east to attack the Jurchens, which failed. He gained control over what is now Xinjiang . In May 1137 he defeated
11616-449: The population suddenly became more nomadic during the end of the empire, due to the influx of Naimans . The majority of their subjects were Muslims, although a significant minority practiced Buddhism and Nestorianism . Although Chinese and Khitan were the primary languages of administration, the empire also administered in Persian and Uyghur . In Chinese historiography , the Qara Khitai
11737-430: The public and quickly fell out of official use. It was ultimately formally rescinded in 1986. The second-round simplifications were unpopular in large part because most of the forms were completely new, in contrast to the familiar variants comprising the majority of the first round. With the rescission of the second round, work toward further character simplification largely came to an end. In 1986, authorities retracted
11858-535: The realm as is implied by her titles. Taking advantage of Dashi's death, the Oghuz invaded Bukhara but were likely driven off sometime before 1152, when they were located in Khuttal and Balkh . In 1143, the Seljuk sultan Ahmad Sanjar attacked Khwarazm and occupied Khorasan . Although Atsiz once again became a Seljuk subject, in practice he continued to pay tribute to the Qara Khitai. According to Ibn al-Athir , Atsiz
11979-465: The recently conquered parts of the empire is generally seen as being the first real attempt at script reform in Chinese history. Before the 20th century, variation in character shape on the part of scribes, which would continue with the later invention of woodblock printing , was ubiquitous. For example, prior to the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) the character meaning 'bright' was written as either 明 or 朙 —with either 日 'Sun' or 囧 'window' on
12100-504: The reign of Öljaitü of the Ilkhanate . The Qara-Khitans were dispersed widely all over Eurasia as part of the Mongol army. In the 14th century, they began to lose their ethnic identity, traces of their presence however may be found as clan names or toponyms from Afghanistan to Moldova . Today a Khitay tribe still lives in northern Kyrgyzstan. The Khitans ruled from their capital at Balasagun (in today's Kyrgyzstan ), directly controlling
12221-476: The same set of simplified characters as mainland China. The first round was promulgated by the Ministry of Education in 1969, consisting of 498 simplified characters derived from 502 traditional characters. A second round of 2287 simplified characters was promulgated in 1974. The second set contained 49 differences from the mainland China system; these were removed in the final round in 1976. In 1993, Singapore adopted
12342-461: The second round completely, though they had been largely fallen out of use within a year of their initial introduction. That year, the authorities also promulgated a final version of the General List of Simplified Chinese Characters . It was identical to the 1964 list save for 6 changes—including the restoration of 3 characters that had been simplified in the first round: 叠 , 覆 , 像 ; the form 疊
12463-401: The short-lived Northern Liao in its southern capital of Liao Nanjing (now Beijing ). The Song forces under the command of Tong Guan attacked Northern Liao from the south, but under the command of Dashi and Xiao Gan, the Liao army was able to repel the Song attacks. However, the Jin dynasty continued to advance from the north, and eventually captured the southern capital in 1123. Just before
12584-520: The son of Mu'ayyid, in Nishapur , and then to the Ghurids . Tekish soon fell out with the Qara Khitai. Despite owing his crown to them, Tekish found the conduct of their emissaries to be insulting and their demands exceeding the original agreement. In the mid 1170s, Tekish killed the leader of the emissaries who was part of the Qara Khitai royal family, and ordered the Khwarazmian notables ( ayan ) to kill every Qara Khitai who entered Khwarazm. Pusuwan summoned Sultan Shah, who had already been in contact wih
12705-405: The spoils that the Qara Khitai had already collected from their victory. Il-Arslan's death led to a succession struggle between his two sons in which the Qara Khitai were involved. The younger son, Sultan Shah , was enthroned with the aid of his mother, Terken Khatun , who ruled in his name. The older brother, Tekish , fled to the Qara Khitai court and asked for their support in installing him as
12826-443: The time of Zhilugu's accession, a large Qara Khitai army under the command of the late empress's husband, Xiao Duolubu, was accompanying Sultan Shah to Khwarazm. Tekish managed to halt the Qara Khitai advance by flooding the Amu Darya's dikes and blocking their path. Xiao Duolubu decided to retreat but Sultan Shah offered him a large sum in return for leaving part of his troops behind. These troops accompanied Sultan Shah to fight against
12947-488: The traditional and simplified Chinese orthographies. The Chinese government has never officially announced the completion of the simplification process after the bulk of characters were introduced by the 1960s. In the wake of the Cultural Revolution , a second round of simplified characters was promulgated in 1977—largely composed of entirely new variants intended to artificially lower the stroke count, in contrast to
13068-817: The traditional character 強 , with 11 strokes is standardised as 强 , with 12 strokes, which is a variant character. Such characters do not constitute simplified characters. The new standardized character forms shown in the Characters for Publishing and revised through the Common Modern Characters list tend to adopt vulgar variant character forms. Since the new forms take vulgar variants, many characters now appear slightly simpler compared to old forms, and as such are often mistaken as structurally simplified characters. Some examples follow: The traditional component 釆 becomes 米 : The traditional component 囚 becomes 日 : The traditional "Break" stroke becomes
13189-516: The use of characters entirely. Instead, Chao proposed that the language be written with an alphabet, which he saw as more logical and efficient. The alphabetization and simplification campaigns would exist alongside one another among the Republican intelligentsia for the next several decades. Recent commentators have echoed some contemporary claims that Chinese characters were blamed for the economic problems in China during that time. Lu Xun , one of
13310-461: Was abandoned, confirmed by a speech given by Zhou Enlai in 1958. In 1965, the PRC published the List of Commonly Used Characters for Printing [ zh ] (hereafter Characters for Printing ), which included standard printed forms for 6196 characters, including all of the forms from the 1956 scheme. A second round of simplified characters was promulgated in 1977, but was poorly received by
13431-506: Was also in conflict with the Ghurids) not to let this slide, as the other Ghurid ruler Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad would seize Khwarazm and Transoxiana. The Qara Khitai invaded Ghurid lands around Kurzuban (around modern Taloqan ). At first they were victorious, killing and capturing many Ghurid soldiers, but they were surprised by an attack in the night. When Ghiyath al-Din's reinforcements arrived in
13552-473: Was executed. Khwarazm returned to paying tribute to the Qara Khitai in 1209-10 when Muhammad II was planning a campaign against the Kipchaks. Not wanting to sever relations with the Qara Khitai at that moment, Muhammad II left the matter of tribute to his mother, who welcomed the Qara Khitai emissaries with great respect. However Mahmud Tai, the Qara Khitai's chief vizier, was unconvinced and reported that Muhammad II
13673-663: Was finally captured and decapitated. The Mongols fully conquered the former territories of the Qara-Khitai in 1220. The Qara Khitais became absorbed into the Mongol Empire ; a segment of the Qara-Khitan troops had previously already joined the Mongol army fighting against Kuchlug. Another segment of the Qara-Khitans, in a dynasty founded by Buraq Hajib , survived in Kirman as a vassal of the Mongols, but ceased to exist as an entity during
13794-582: Was further bolstered by 10,000 Khitans who had previously been subjects of the Karakhanids. They went on to conquer Kashgar , Khotan , and Beshbalik . The Western Karakhanids were vassals of the Seljuk Empire and the Karakhanid ruler Mahmud II appealed to his Seljuk overlord Ahmad Sanjar for protection. In 1141, Sanjar with his army arrived in Samarkand . The Khitans were invited by the Khwarazmians (also
13915-479: Was killed on 13 March, 1206 and the Ghurid invasion came to an end. Muhammad II of Khwarazm convinced the governor of Tirmidh to surrender and returned it to Qara Khitai control. In return, the Qara Khitai recognized the Khwarazm Shah's suzerainty over all of Khorasan. Muhammad II saw the Qara Khitai's recognition of his claims as a sign of weakness and started interfering in Transoxiana in 1207 when Sanjar, son of
14036-414: Was only spared due to Sanjar's fear of the Khitans. Sanjar may have also wielded power in Transoxiana until his death, as implied by an 1148 coin minted in Bukhara. In 1144, Qocho offered tribute to the Jin . The Jin sent a messenger named Niange Hannu to the Qara Khitai. When he met Tabuyan in 1146, he refused to dismount in her presence and proclaimed that he had come from a superior court as an emissary of
14157-512: Was ousted by his own family. When no support was forthcoming, Toghrul returned to Mongolia in 1196 seeking Temüjin 's help. Toghrul later made an alliance with the Jin, through which he received his other title, Ong Khan, in 1197. In 1198, Muhammad of Ghor , one of the Ghurid rulers, seized Balkh from the vassal of the Qara Khitai. The Qara Khitai were urged by the Khwarazm Shah Tekish (who
14278-574: Was taking a census of people over 18 years old. The result was 84,500 households in total. The small number, less than Samarkand 's 100,000 households in the pre-Mongol era, was likely due to being geographically limited to only Balasagun and the surrounding area that the Khitans directly ruled. It is unknown if even the sedentary population was counted in the census. During Yilie's reign, the Oghuz rebelled against Ahmad Sanjar in Khorasan . The Khitans were at least partly responsible for this due to displacing
14399-515: Was the founder of the Western Liao dynasty (Qara Khitai). He initially ruled as king from 1124 to 1132, then as emperor and gurkhan from 1132 to 1143. He was also known in Muslim sources as Nūshī Taifū, Qushqin Taifū or Qushqīn, son of Baighū. A member of the imperial Yelü clan, he fled the Liao dynasty in northern China as it was on the verge of destruction by the Jurchen -led Jin dynasty and moved westward into Central Asia where he established
14520-761: Was unlikely to pay tribute again. Late in the period it expanded far to the south as the Khwarezmian Empire until it was conquered by the Mongols in 1220, two years after the Qara Kitai. In the south the Kara-Khanid vassals were lightly held and engaged in various conflicts with each other, the Qara Kitai, Khwarezm and the Gurids. In 1204, the Qara Khitai put down a rebellion in Khotan and Kashgar . In 1209, Qocho rebelled against
14641-603: Was usurped by the Naimans under Kuchlug in 1211; traditional Chinese, Persian, and Arab sources consider the usurpation to be the end of the dynasty, even though the empire would not fall until the Mongol conquest in 1218. Some remnants of the Qara Khitai would form the Qutlugh-Khanid dynasty in southern Iran. The territories of the Qara Khitai corresponded to parts of modern-day China , Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan , Mongolia , Tajikistan and Uzbekistan . The Anushtegin dynasty ,
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