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138-454: Waverley Park (also and originally called VFL Park ) is an Australian rules football stadium in Mulgrave, Victoria , Australia . The first venue to be designed and built specifically for Australian Rules football, for most of its history, its purpose was as a neutral venue and used by all Victorian -based Victorian Football League/Australian Football League clubs. During the 1990s it became

276-606: A dominion , leagues were also established in the major cities. This renewed popularity helped encourage the formation of the Australasian Football Council , which in 1908 in Melbourne staged the first national interstate competition, the Jubilee Australasian Football Carnival , with teams representing each state and New Zealand. The game was also established early on in the new territories. In

414-622: A scratch match at the Richmond Paddock adjoining the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG). This was the first of several "kickabouts" held that year involving members of the Melbourne Cricket Club , including Wills, Bryant, W. J. Hammersley and J. B. Thompson . Trees were used as goalposts and play typically lasted an entire afternoon. Without an agreed-upon code of laws, some players were guided by rules they had learned in

552-504: A 25-metre heated indoor swimming pool, four refrigerated ice tanks, a gymnasium with a 60-metre running track and a warm-up area with projection and screen facilities to simulate match-day conditions. The grandstand has seating for around 2,000 patrons with the seating in the top level of the grandstand having been retained. In 2018, the Hawthorn Football Club announced plans to build a new training and administration facility named

690-482: A causal link with Australian football. In Melbourne , in 1858, in a move that would help to shape Australian football in its formative years, private schools (then termed " public schools " in accordance with nomenclature in England) began organising football games inspired by precedents at English public schools . The earliest match, held on 15 June, was between Melbourne Grammar and St Kilda Grammar. On 10 July 1858,

828-517: A century. State of Origin rules, introduced in 1977, stipulated that rather than representing the state of their adopted club, players would return to play for the state they were first recruited in. This instantly broke Victoria's stranglehold over state titles and Western Australia and South Australia began to win more of their games against Victoria. Both New South Wales and Tasmania scored surprise victories at home against Victoria in 1990. The term " Barassi Line ", named after VFL star Ron Barassi ,

966-429: A complete exchange of the alkali cations with the calcium ions released by portlandite, the alkali-silica reaction in its ultimate stage leading to calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) could be schematically represented as follows: Here, the silicic acid H 4 SiO 4 , or Si(OH) 4 , which is equivalent to SiO 2 · 2 H 2 O represents hydrous or amorphous silica for the sake of simplicity in aqueous chemistry. Indeed,

1104-457: A continuous rim of C-S-H completely envelops the external surface of the attacked siliceous aggregate, it behaves as a semi-permeable barrier and hinders the expulsion of the viscous sodium silicate while allowing the NaOH / KOH to diffuse from the hardened cement paste inside the aggregate. This selective barrier of C-S-H contributes to increase the hydraulic pressure inside the aggregate and aggravates

1242-419: A game for either medical or tactical reasons. Players on the playing surface can be swapped with those on the interchange bench at any time. They must though pass through a designated "Interchange Area". In the event a player fails to pass through this area correctly, or if too many players from one team are found to be on the ground at a time, a free kick will be awarded to the opposing side. While there

1380-440: A good proxy ( indicator ) for the maximal concentration of OH in pore solution. This is why the total alkali equivalent content ( Na 2 O eq ) of cement can simply rely on the measurements of Na and K ( e.g. , by ICP-AES , AAS , XRF measurements techniques). The maturation process of the fluid alkali silicagel found in exudations into less soluble solid products found in gel pastes or in efflorescences

1518-399: A mark is taken, a small protected zone is established on the field, extending 10 metres (11 yd) either side of "the mark" and the player who marked the ball, with a small protected corridor between "the mark" and the player. The opposition player is permitted to jump, but is not allowed to move from their position on "the mark". Any other movements result in a distance penalty (50 metres in

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1656-404: A modified cricket ground . Points are scored by kicking the oval ball between the central goal posts (worth six points), or between a central and outer post (worth one point, otherwise known as a "behind"). During general play, players may position themselves anywhere on the field and use any part of their bodies to move the ball. The primary methods are kicking , handballing and running with

1794-458: A mural of football legends by noted artist Harold Freedman. The state-level heritage listing of Waverley Park has been cited by the executive director of Heritage Victoria as the seminal case for an understanding of the cultural heritage significance of 20th-century places. Successful lobbying saw Heritage Victoria grant legislative protection to the site and, beginning in December 2002, portions of

1932-399: A negligible role for the calcium ions release. An anion-exchange reaction between chloride ions and the hydroxide anions contained in the lattice of some calcium aluminate hydrates (C-A-H), or related phases (C-A-S-H, AFm, AFt), is suspected to also contribute to the release of hydroxide anions into solution. The principle mechanism is schematically illustrated hereafter for C-A-H phases: As

2070-411: A player breaks a rule, a free kick is awarded to the opposing team, from the location that the misconduct occurred, or the ball's current location—whichever is closer to the team's scoring zone. As when a mark is taken, this location is called "the mark", and the same protections regarding the space apply. Alkali%E2%80%93silica reaction This deleterious chemical reaction causes the expansion of

2208-555: A proposed hybrid code of Australian football and rugby league , the predominant code of football in New South Wales and Queensland, was trialled without success. In Queensland, the state league went into recess for the duration of the war. VFL club University left the league and went into recess due to severe casualties. The WAFL lost two clubs and the SANFL was suspended for one year in 1916 due to heavy club losses. The Anzac Day match ,

2346-483: A reported $ 110 million; Once the plans were approved, the ground was demolished starting on 11 December 2002. Following its cessation as a venue for AFL football, the stadium fell into a state of disrepair, and anticipating complete demolition, the City of Greater Dandenong , on behalf of football patrons in southeast Victoria, moved quickly to nominate the whole of the facility and its grounds for heritage listing. The basis for

2484-502: A second-tier status. The VFA merged with the former VFL reserves competition in 1998, adopting the VFL name. State of Origin also declined in importance, especially after an increasing number of player withdrawals. The AFL turned its focus to the annual International Rules Series against Ireland in 1998 before abolishing State of Origin the following year. State and territorial leagues still contest interstate matches, as do AFL Women players. In

2622-506: A select few ways as defined by the Laws of Australian Football, published by the AFL. The ball can be propelled in any direction by way of a kick or a clenched fist (called a handball )—deemed a correct disposal. Failure to dispose of the ball in one of these two methods will result in a free kick to the opposing team. If the ball is not currently in a player's possession, it can be moved legally through

2760-603: A similar situation existing in Western Australia in the sport, the VFL pursued a more national competition. Two more non-Victorian clubs, West Coast and Brisbane , joined the league in 1987 generating more than $ 8 million in license revenue for the Victorian clubs and increasing broadcast revenues which helped the Victorian clubs survive. In their early years, the Sydney and Brisbane clubs struggled both on and off-field because

2898-399: A simple, but robust, conclusion, the presence of soluble Na and K salts can also cause, by precipitation of poorly soluble calcium salt (with portlandite, CH) or anion exchange reactions (with phases related to C-A-H), the release of OH anions into solution. Therefore, the presence of any salts of Na and K in cement pore water is undesirable and the measurements of Na and K elements is

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3036-498: A slightly modified version of the Victorian game in 1879. The South Australian Football Association (SAFA), the sport's first governing body , formed on 30 April 1877, firmly establishing Victorian rules as the preferred code in that colony. The Victorian Football Association (VFA) formed the following month. Clubs began touring the colonies in the late 1870s, and in 1879 the first intercolonial match took place in Melbourne between Victoria and South Australia . To standardise

3174-542: A soluble strong base as NaOH or KOH in the presence of Ca(OH) 2 (alkalinity buffer present in the solid phase) can be compared with the carbonatation process of soda lime . The silicic acid ( H 2 SiO 3 or SiO 2 ) is simply replaced in the reaction by the carbonic acid ( H 2 CO 3 or CO 2 ). In the presence of water or simply ambient moisture , the strong bases, NaOH or KOH, readily dissolve in their hydration water ( hygroscopic substances, deliquescence phenomenon), and this greatly facilitates

3312-406: A technique known shepherding when the ball is within 5 metres (5.5 yd) of an opposition player. Shepherding involves the use of a player's body to push, bump or otherwise block an opposition player, providing they do not have possession of the ball. If a player takes possession of the ball that has travelled more than 15 metres (16 yd) from another player's kick, by way of a catch within

3450-480: A total of 25,000 cars. Lighting was added in May 1977, at a cost of $ 1.2 million, in time for the first of the 1977 night-series televised matches. In 1982, a monochrome video matrix scoreboard was installed, for the first time in VFL history, displaying instant replay highlights. In 1984, the arena was re-turfed and the drainage system upgraded. Two years later a mosaic mural, commemorating many great names of VFL football,

3588-427: A uniform code known as "Victorian rules". In 1866, the "first distinctively Victorian rule", the running bounce , was formalised at a meeting of club delegates chaired by H. C. A. Harrison , an influential pioneer who took up football in 1859 at the invitation of Wills, his cousin. The game around this time was defensive and low-scoring, played low to the ground in congested rugby-style scrimmages. The typical match

3726-565: A very complex set of various reactions, the whole ASR reaction, after its complete evolution (ageing process) in the presence of sufficient Ca cations available in solution, could be compared to the pozzolanic reaction which would be catalysed by the undesirable presence of excessive concentrations of alkali hydroxides (NaOH and KOH) in the concrete. It is a mineral acid-base reaction between NaOH or KOH , calcium hydroxide , also known as portlandite , or (Ca(OH) 2 ), and silicic acid (H 4 SiO 4 , or Si(OH) 4 ). For simplification, after

3864-452: Is a hypothetic molecule which has never been observed, even in extreme diluted solutions because H 2 SiO 3 is unstable and continues to hydrate. Indeed, contrary to the hydration of CO 2 which consumes only one water molecule and stops at H 2 CO 3 , the hydration of SiO 2 consumes two water molecules and continues one step further to form H 4 SiO 4 . The difference in hydration behaviour between SiO 2 and CO 2

4002-405: Is analogous to a basketball center and as such rucks are typically the tallest player on the team. Lifting teammates is not allowed so the ruck may only jump to reach the ball. If the ruck does not take possession of the football, it must must be tapped or fisted, which is known as a hit-out. An effective hit-out that passes the ball to a teammate is known as a hit-out to advantage. In the event

4140-425: Is considered in analogy to carbonic acid ): The combination of the two above mentioned reactions gives a general reaction resembling the pozzolanic reaction, but it is important to keep in mind that this reaction is catalysed by the undesirable presence in cement, or other concrete components, of soluble alkaline hydroxydes (NaOH / KOH) responsible for the dissolution of the silica (silicic acid) at high pH: Without

4278-403: Is described hereafter. Four distinct steps are considered in this progressive transformation. 1. SiO 2 dissolution and Na 2 SiO 3 formation (here, explicitly written in the ancient industrial metasilicate notation (based on the non-existing metasilicic acid , H 2 SiO 3 ) to also illustrate the frequent use of this later in the literature): 2. Maturation of

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4416-412: Is explained by thermodynamic reasons ( Gibbs free energy ) and by bond energy or steric hindrance around the central atom of the molecule. This is why the more correct geochemical notation referring to the orthosilicic acid Si(OH) 4 really existing in dilute solution is preferred here. However, the main advantage of the now deprecated, but still often used, industrial notation referring to

4554-598: Is formally possible to write the same reactions sets by simply replacing the CO 3 anions by HCO 3 and the SiO 3 anions by HSiO 3 , the principle of catalysis remaining the same, even if the number of intermediate species differs. One can distinguish several sources of hydroxide anions ( OH ) in hardened cement paste (HCP) from the family of Portland cement (pure OPC , with BFS , or with cementitious additions, FA or SF ). OH anions can be directly present in

4692-455: Is known as the Goal Line. Around the perimeter of the field, two white lines are drawn between the set of behind posts in an arc-shape, marking the field of play. Other field markings include: The 50m arcs, centre square, centre circle and goal square are used at the beginning of each quarter or after each goal. With each team permitted a maximum of six players in each 50m arc, with one in

4830-477: Is much more soluble and sensitive to alkaline attack by OH anions than well crystallized silica such as quartz . Strained (deformed) quartz or chert exposed to freeze-thaw cycles in Canada and Nordic countries are also more sensitive to alkaline (high pH) solutions. The species responsible for silica dissolution is the hydroxide anion (OH ). The high pH conditions are said to be alkaline and one also speaks of

4968-470: Is no set uniform, the basic equipment for Australian football consists of a guernsey, shorts, socks and boots, with additional pieces of apparel such as headbands and gloves additionally being permitted. Players may wear certain pieces of protective equipment, such as helmets or arm guards, if approved by the relevant controlling body. Mouthguards are strongly recommended for all players. Players are not permitted to wear jewellery, or other materials which

5106-493: Is officiated by at least five match officials, known as an umpire . These match officials are placed into three categories based upon their roles and responsibilities, with varying minimum numbers of Umpires required depending on position: At AFL level, a video score review system is utilised. Only umpires are permitted to request a review, and only scoring shots and potential scoring shots are permitted to be reviewed. An Australian rules football may only be propelled forward in

5244-481: Is the hydroxide, or the oxide, component of the salt which is the only relevant chemical species for silica dissolution, not the alkali metal in itself. However, to determine the alkali equivalent content (Na 2 O eq ) in cement, because of the need to maintain electroneutrality in solids or in solution, one directly measures the contents of cement in Na and K elements and one conservatively considers that their counter ions are

5382-783: Is used. The ball must be inflated to a pressure of 69 kilopascals (10.0 pounds per square inch). There are no defined laws regarding what material a ball must be made from, but standard AFL match-used balls are produced by Sherrin using cowhide leather. While there is no standard colour of the ball, red and yellow are most common and the only colours used at AFL level. Yellow is used for games beginning after 3 pm or in an enclosed stadium, due to its greater visibility, and to assist score reviews. Unlike other forms of football which are played on rectangular fields, Australian rules football playing fields are oval-shaped, and are between 135 and 185 metres (148 and 202 yd) long and 110 and 155 metres (120 and 170 yd) wide. At either end of

5520-483: Is visible from the nearby Monash Freeway ; however, due to new noise walls being installed on the freeway alignment, the stand's visibility from the freeway has been significantly reduced. The oval itself and the eight bays of the Sir Kenneth Luke Stand have been retained with the remaining section of the members stand, which have been redeveloped into a state-of-the-art training and administrative facility for

5658-554: The Australian Football League , while the league itself also uses this name for local competitions in some areas. Primitive forms of football were played sporadically in the Australian colonies in the first half of the 19th century. Compared to cricket and horse racing , football was considered a mere "amusement" by colonists at the time, and while little is known about these early one-off games, evidence does not support

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5796-558: The Hawthorn Football Club a similar arrangement to what fellow AFL club Adelaide have with Football Park in Adelaide . The Hawthorn Football Club moved its administrative and training facilities from Glenferrie Oval to a redeveloped Waverley Park early in 2006 in preparation for the 2006 season . The facility incorporates an MCG-dimension oval, the size of the playing arena having been reduced from its original size, and includes

5934-542: The Kennedy Community Centre in Dingley to replace Waverley Park. It is currently unknown what the future is for Waverley Park once Hawthorn move to their new facility in Dingley. Australian rules football Australian rules football , also called Australian football or Aussie rules , or more simply football or footy , is a contact sport played between two teams of 18 players on an oval field , often

6072-482: The Monash Freeway , it was only easily accessible by car, as successive governments had failed to provide adequate public transport to the venue. The stadium's car park was large enough to service its crowds, but the access roads were incapable of dispersing them, and long delays for driving spectators were common. Spectators felt distanced from the game in the huge arena, and seating was only partly undercover giving it

6210-540: The alkalinity of the basic solutions. For the sake of electroneutrality, (OH ) anions need to be accompanied by positively charged cations, Na or K in NaOH or KOH solutions, respectively. Na and K both belong to the alkali metals column in the Periodic Table . When speaking of alkalis, one systematically refers to NaOH and KOH basic hydroxides, or their corresponding oxides Na 2 O and K 2 O in cement. Therefore, it

6348-400: The catalysis process because the reaction in aqueous solution occurs much faster than in the dry solid phase. The moist NaOH impregnates the surface and the porosity of calcium hydroxide grains with a high specific surface area. Soda lime is commonly used in closed-circuit diving rebreathers and in anesthesia systems. The same catalytic effect of the alkali hydroxides (function of

6486-407: The field umpire has deemed to be either potentially dangerous or increase the risk of injury to other players. Australian rules football is played with an ellipsoid ball, between 72 and 73 cm (28 and 29 in) in long circumference, and 54.5 and 55.5 cm (21.5 and 21.9 in) in short circumference. For women's competitions, a smaller ball size of 69 and 53 cm (27 and 21 in)

6624-485: The hydroxide anion (OH ), i.e., by increasing the pH of the solution. Alkaline hydrolysis of siloxane bonds occurs by nucleophilic substitution of OH onto a silicon atom, while another O–Si group is leaving to preserve the tetravalent character of Si atom: Deprotonation of silanol groups: In the pH range 0 – 7, the solubility of silica is constant, but above pH=8, the hydrolysis of siloxane bonds and deprotonation of silanol groups exponentially increase with

6762-577: The pozzolanic reaction . There exist also other indirect sources of OH , all related to the presence of soluble Na and K salts in the pore water of hardened cement paste (HCP). The first category contains soluble Na and K salts whose corresponding anions can precipitate an insoluble calcium salts, e.g., Na 2 SO 4 , Na 2 CO 3 , Na 3 PO 4 , NaB(OH) 4 , Na 2 B 4 O 7 , ... . Hereafter, an example for calcium sulfate ( gypsum , anhydrite ) precipitation releasing sodium hydroxide : or,

6900-596: The 2010s, the AFL signalled further attempts at expanding into markets outside Australian football's traditional heartlands by hosting home-and-away matches in New Zealand, followed by China. After several failed bids since the early 1990s for a Tasmania-based AFL team, the Tasmania Football Club secured the 19th AFL license in 2023, and is set to compete by 2028. In a standard match, a team may consist of anywhere between 14 and 18 players who may be permitted on

7038-461: The AFL). The player who was awarded the mark may then choose to either dispose of the ball over "the mark" or may choose to attempt disposal via a different method, in which case the field umpire will call "play on"—a verbal instruction to continue play. "Play on" may also be called if the umpire deems the player awarded the mark to be taking an unreasonable amount of time to dispose of the football. Once

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7176-468: The AFLW using 17 minutes per quarter. For any given match, two timekeepers are appointed to officiate the duration. The timekeepers record all relevant statistics for the match, such as total quarter duration and score by each team. Additionally timekeepers are required to sound a siren prior to and at the conclusion of each quarter until such time they are acknowledged by the field umpires. To stop and recommence

7314-624: The ANFC, and later the Australian Football Championships (AFC) ran a night series , which invited clubs and representative sides from around the country to participate in a knock-out tournament parallel to the premiership seasons, which Victorian sides still dominated. With the lack of international competition, state representative matches were regarded with great importance. Due in part to the VFL poaching talent from other states, Victoria dominated interstate matches for three-quarters of

7452-524: The British Isles, "others by no rules at all". Another milestone in 1858 was a 40-a-side match played under experimental rules between Melbourne Grammar and Scotch College , held at the Richmond Paddock. Umpired by Wills and teacher John Macadam , it began on 7 August and continued over two subsequent Saturdays, ending in a draw with each side kicking one goal. It is commemorated with a statue outside

7590-489: The C-S-H leading to precipitation of calcium carbonate and amorphous SiO 2 stylized as follows: As long as the alkali gel ( Na 2 SiO 3 ) has not yet reacted with Ca ions released from portlandite dissolution, it remains fluid and can easily exude from broken aggregates or through open cracks in the damage concrete structure. This can lead to visible yellow viscous liquid exudations (amber liquid droplets) at

7728-466: The HCP pore water or be slowly released from the solid phase (main buffer, or solid stock) by the dissolution of Ca(OH) 2 (portlandite) when its solubility increases when high pH value starts to drop. Beside these two main sources, ions exchange reactions and precipitation of poorly soluble calcium salts can also contribute to release OH into solution. Alkali hydroxides, NaOH and KOH, arise from

7866-568: The Irish game evolved in a similar direction. Another theory, first proposed in 1983, posits that Wills, having grown up among Aboriginals in Victoria, may have seen or played the Aboriginal ball game of Marn Grook , and incorporated some of its features into early Australian football. There is only circumstantial evidence that he knew of the game, and according to biographer Greg de Moore's research, Wills

8004-727: The MCG at the Parade Hotel, owned by Bryant, and drafted ten rules: "The Rules of the Melbourne Football Club" . These are the laws from which Australian football evolved. The club aimed to create a simple code suited to the hard playing surfaces around Melbourne, and to eliminate the roughest aspects of English school games—such as "hacking" (shin-kicking) in Rugby School football—to reduce the risk of injuries to working men. In another significant departure from English public school football,

8142-555: The MCG, and the two schools have since competed annually in the Cordner–Eggleston Cup , the world's oldest continuous football competition . Since the 1920s, it has been suggested that Australian football may have been derived from the Irish sport of Gaelic football . However, there is no archival evidence in favour of a Gaelic influence, and the style of play shared between the two modern codes appeared in Australia long before

8280-547: The Melbourne CBD. In contrast with more central venues, its reliance on car transport to get spectators to the venue became an obvious weakness. The legacy of Waverley Park remains controversial. Under the direction of architect Reginald E. Padey of Meldrum and Partners, work started at the site on 5 January 1966 when the VFL President Sir Kenneth Luke turned the first sod. Construction of the stadium involved

8418-576: The Melbourne rules omitted any offside law . "The new code was as much a reaction against the school games as influenced by them", writes Mark Pennings. The rules were distributed throughout the colony; Thompson in particular did much to promote the new code in his capacity as a journalist. Following Melbourne's lead, Geelong and Melbourne University also formed football clubs in 1859. While many early Victorian teams participated in one-off matches, most had not yet formed clubs for regular competition. A South Yarra club devised its own rules. To ensure

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8556-673: The Melbourne-based Bell's Life in Victoria and Sporting Chronicle published a letter by Tom Wills , captain of the Victoria cricket team , calling for the formation of a "foot-ball club" with a "code of laws" to keep cricketers fit during winter. Born in Australia, Wills played a nascent form of rugby football while a pupil at Rugby School in England, and returned to his homeland a star athlete and cricketer. Two weeks later, Wills' friend, cricketer Jerry Bryant , posted an advertisement for

8694-416: The Na 2 O eq content of cement ) also contributes to the carbonatation of portlandite by atmospheric CO 2 in concrete although the rate of propagation of the reaction front is there essentially limited by the CO 2 diffusion within the concrete matrix less porous . The soda lime carbonatation reaction can be directly translated into the ancient industrial notation of silicate (referring to

8832-409: The SANFL's Port Adelaide (1997), the only pre-existing club outside Victoria to join the league. In 2011 and 2012, respectively, two new non-Victorian clubs were added to the competition: Gold Coast and Greater Western Sydney . The AFL, currently with 18 member clubs, is the sport's elite competition and most powerful body. Following the emergence of the AFL, state leagues were quickly relegated to

8970-692: The Southern Stand at the MCG. This provided the impetus to replace the 50-year-old stand with a state-of-the-art facility that was completed in 1992 at a cost of $ 150 million, subsequently named the Great Southern Stand. The new stand was jointly funded by the AFL, allowing the AFL the opportunity to negotiate a better commercial arrangement with the Melbourne Cricket Club. This reduced the AFL's incentive to drive finals and blockbuster games to Waverley Park. The old practice of scheduling 'match of

9108-413: The affinity of silica for water and makes colloidal silica very hydrophilic . Siloxane bonds may undergo hydrolysis and condensation reactions as schematically represented hereafter: On the other hand, silanol groups can also undergo protonation /deprotonation: These equilibria can be shifted towards the right side of the reaction leading to silica dissolution by increasing the concentration of

9246-548: The alkali gel: polymerisation and gelation by the sol–gel process . Condensation of silicate monomers or oligomers dispersed in a colloidal solution (sol) into a biphasic aqueous polymeric network of silicagel. Ca divalent cations released by calcium hydroxide ( portlandite ) when the pH starts to slightly drop may influence the gelation process. 3. Cation exchange with calcium hydroxide (portlandite) and precipitation of amorphous calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H) accompanied by NaOH regeneration: 4. Carbonation of

9384-611: The alkali-silica reaction do not explicitly appear in this simplified representation of the ultimate reaction with portlandite, because they are continuously regenerated from the cation exchange reaction with portlandite. As a consequence, they disappear from the global mass balance equation of the catalyzed reaction. The surface of solid silica in contact with water is covered by siloxane bonds (≡Si–O–Si≡) and silanol groups (≡Si–OH) sensitive to an alkaline attack by OH ions. The presence of these oxygen-bearing groups very prone to form hydrogen bonds with water molecules explains

9522-421: The alkali-silica reaction is self-perpetuating as the alkali hydroxides are continuously regenerated in the system. Therefore, portlandite is the main buffer of OH in the solid phase. As long as the stock of hydroxides in the solid phase is not exhausted, the alkali-silica reaction can continue to proceed until the complete disparition of one of the reagents ( Ca(OH) 2 or SiO 2 ) involved in

9660-435: The altered aggregate by the formation of a soluble and viscous gel of sodium silicate (Na 2 SiO 3 · n H 2 O , also noted Na 2 H 2 SiO 4 · n H 2 O , or N-S-H (sodium silicate hydrate), depending on the adopted convention). This hygroscopic gel swells and increases in volume when absorbing water: it exerts an expansive pressure inside the siliceous aggregate, causing spalling and loss of strength of

9798-561: The annual game between Essendon and Collingwood on Anzac Day, is one example of how the war continues to be remembered in the football community. The role of the Australian National Football Council (ANFC) was primarily to govern the game at a national level and to facilitate interstate representative and club competition. In 1968, the ANFC revived the Championship of Australia , a competition first held in 1888 between

9936-422: The area would become the demographic centre of Melbourne . The VFL lobbied the state government to construct a rail connection to the stadium, but that never occurred. The push for rail to allow transportation to the stadium was still in existence in early to mid 1980s The original plans were for a stadium catering for up to 157,000 patrons, which would have made it one of the biggest in the world. To accommodate

10074-415: The ball is in dispute at all times except when a free kick or mark is paid. Players can tackle using their hands or use their whole body to obstruct opponents. Dangerous physical contact (such as pushing an opponent in the back ), interference when marking, and deliberately slowing the play are discouraged with free kicks, distance penalties , or suspension for a certain number of matches depending on

10212-436: The ball. There are rules on how the ball can be handled; for example, players running with the ball must intermittently bounce or touch it on the ground . Throwing the ball is not allowed, and players must not get caught holding the ball . A distinctive feature of the game is the mark , where players anywhere on the field who catch the ball from a kick (with specific conditions) are awarded unimpeded possession . Possession of

10350-448: The calcified gel hardens, hindering therefore the alkali gel transport in concrete. When the C-S-H gel is exposed to atmospheric carbon dioxide , it undergoes a rapid carbonation, and white or yellow efflorescences appear at the surface of concrete. When the relatively fluid alkali gel continues to exude below the hardened superficial gel layer, it pushes the efflorescences out of the crack surface making them to appear in relief. Because

10488-442: The case of Sydney , denial of access to grounds, the influence of university headmasters from Britain who favoured rugby, and the loss of players to other codes inhibited the game's growth. In 1896, delegates from six of the wealthiest VFA clubs— Carlton , Essendon , Fitzroy , Geelong, Melbourne and South Melbourne —met to discuss the formation of a breakaway professional competition. Later joined by Collingwood and St Kilda ,

10626-435: The clock, the field umpires are required to signal to the timekeepers to indicate when the clock should be stopped or restarted. Between each quarter, a break is observed to allow players a rest period. Two six-minute breaks are observed between the first and second quarters, and the third and fourth quarters. A longer 20-minute break is observed between the second and third quarter, commonly known as half-time . Each game

10764-493: The clubs formed the Victorian Football League (VFL), which held its inaugural season in 1897 . The VFL's popularity grew rapidly as it made several innovations, such as instituting a finals system, reducing teams from 20 to 18 players, and introducing the behind as a score. Richmond and University joined the VFL in 1908, and by 1925, with the addition of Hawthorn , Footscray and North Melbourne , it had become

10902-490: The code took hold during a series of gold rushes . Likewise, when New Zealand experienced a gold rush , the sport arrived with a rapid influx of Australian miners. Now known as Australian rules or Australasian rules, the sport became the first football code to develop mass spectator appeal, attracting world record attendances for sports viewing and gaining a reputation as "the people's game". Australian rules football reached Queensland and New South Wales as early as 1866;

11040-478: The concrete, finally leading to its failure. ASR can lead to serious cracking in concrete, resulting in critical structural problems that can even force the demolition of a particular structure. The expansion of concrete through reaction between cement and aggregates was first studied by Thomas E. Stanton in California during the 1930s with his founding publication in 1940. To attempt to simplify and to stylize

11178-515: The cracking process. It is the expansion of the aggregates which damages concrete in the alkali-silica reaction. Portlandite (Ca(OH) 2 ) represents the main reserve of OH anions in the solid phase as suggested by Davies and Oberholster (1988) and emphasized by Wang and Gillott (1991). As long as portlandite, or the siliceous aggregates, has not become completely exhausted, the ASR reaction will continue. The alkali hydroxides are continuously regenerated by

11316-427: The direct dissolution of Na 2 O and K 2 O oxides produced by the pyrolysis of the raw materials at high temperature (1450 °C) in the cement kiln . The presence of minerals with high Na and K contents in the raw materials can thus be problematic. The ancient wet manufacturing process of cement, consuming more energy (water evaporation) that the modern dry process, had the advantage to eliminate much of

11454-436: The excavation of 378,000 cubic yards (289,000 m) of topsoil, and the surface of the oval was lowered to a depth of 27 feet (8.2 metres) from the surrounding area. The spoil was used to form the banks for some sections of the stadium. The foundations of the K.G. Luke stand were laid in 1969 and more than 12 miles (19 kilometres) of concrete terracing was laid around the ground. On 18 April 1970, Fitzroy and Geelong played

11592-409: The field of play, it is deemed as a mark . To be awarded a mark, it must be deemed that the player sufficiently controlled the ball and took possession prior to it being touched, touching the ground, or in the case of a contest, being spoiled by an opponent. Upon a mark being taken, one opposition player may choose to stand on the point on the field where the mark was taken, known as "the mark". When

11730-413: The field, two sets of posts are erected in a straight line to indicate the scoring areas on the field, each with two kinds of posts, named the goal posts and the behind posts respectively. The goal posts are placed first, located 6.4 metres (7.0 yd) apart from each other, with a behind post being placed a further 6.4 metres to the side of each goal post. The name for the field line between two goal posts

11868-438: The first laws of Australian football in May 1859. Australian football has the highest spectator attendance and television viewership of all sports in Australia, while the Australian Football League (AFL), the sport's only fully professional competition, is the nation's wealthiest sporting body. The AFL Grand Final , held annually at the Melbourne Cricket Ground , is the second-highest-attended club championship event in

12006-401: The first game at Waverley Park, in front of a crowd of 25,887. However, the stadium was far from completed, with only the first level of the K.G. Luke Stand having been finished. The rest of the stadium had only been constructed to ground level. The Public Reserve Stands encircling the rest of the stadium were finished in 1974, at a cost of $ 4.5 million, and the car park was extended to fit

12144-618: The first match in Darwin . The game went on to become the most popular sport in the Territory and build the highest participation rate for the sport nationally. Both World War I and World War II had a devastating effect on Australian football and on Australian sport in general. While scratch matches were played by Australian " diggers " in remote locations around the world, the game lost many of its great players to wartime service. Some clubs and competitions never fully recovered. Between 1914 and 1915,

12282-526: The formation of the Adelaide Football Club , the oldest football club in Australia outside Victoria. It devised its own rules, and, along with other Adelaide -based clubs, played a variety of codes until 1876, when they uniformly adopted most of the Victorian rules, with South Australian football pioneer Charles Kingston noting their similarity to "the old Adelaide rules". Similarly, Tasmanian clubs quarrelled over different rules until they adopted

12420-425: The free porosity. When this latter is completely filled, and if the soluble but very viscous gel cannot be easily expelled from the silica network, the hydraulic pressure rises inside the attacked aggregate and leads to its fracture. The hydro-mechanical expansion of the damaged siliceous aggregate surrounded by calcium-rich hardened cement paste is responsible for the development of a network of cracks in concrete. When

12558-435: The goal square and four players in the centre square with one in the centre circle. If this is breached, a free kick is awarded. A game lasts for 80 minutes, split into four-quarters consisting of 20 minutes playing time, with the clock being stopped for stoppages in play such as scores, or at the umpire 's discretion, e.g. for serious injury. Leagues may choose to employ shorter quarters of play at their discretion, such as

12696-426: The hardened cement paste (HCP)? Beside portlandite, other hydrated solid phases are present in HCP. The main phases are the calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H) (the " glue " in cement paste), calcium sulfo-aluminate phases ( AFm and AFt , ettringite ) and hydrogarnet . C-S-H phases are less soluble (~ 10  M) than portlandite (CH) (~ 2.2 10  M at 25 °C) and therefore are expected to play

12834-529: The home ground of both the Hawthorn and St Kilda football clubs. It ceased to be used for AFL games from the 2000 season following the opening of Docklands Stadium . It is currently used as a training venue by Hawthorn. The main grandstand and oval are listed on the Victorian Heritage Register . The seating capacity is now 6,000, down from a peak of 72,000–90,000. Waverley Park (then VFL Park)

12972-498: The hydroxide ions. As Na and K cations are hydrated species, they also contribute to retain water in alkali-silica reaction products. Osmotic processes (Chatterji et al. , 1986, 1987, 1989) and the electrical double layer (EDL) play also a fundamental role in the transport of water towards the concentrated liquid alkali gel, explaining their swelling behavior and the deleterious expansion of aggregates responsible of ASR damages in concrete. The ASR reaction significantly differs from

13110-623: The intent of replacing the MCG as the permanent home of the grand final, but the Victorian government, with interests in the MCG, refused to allow its capacity upgrade. No further development occurred and the ground capacity was set at just over 100,000 patrons, later reduced to 72,000. In 1965 construction started. In 1970, the first game was played, between Geelong and Fitzroy. Roads not upgraded and rail line never built. The previous government of 17 years wasn't interested in VFL Park. The playing surface, being 200 metres long and 160 metres wide,

13248-424: The knees (a low tackle or a trip ) or above the shoulders (a high tackle ), the team with possession of the football gets a free kick. Furthermore, tackles deemed to be dangerous by the umpire and those conducted from front-on while an opposition player has their head over the football are deemed to be prohibited contact, and will incur a free kick against the offending player. Additionally, players may perform

13386-586: The large number of patrons, the members' stand was to be extended around the whole ground. However, in 1982-1983, when the extensions were due to commence, the Government of Victoria , led by Premier John Cain , who was a member of the Melbourne Cricket Club , refused to approve the plans for the upgrade because it would have threatened the Melbourne Cricket Ground 's (MCG) right to host the VFL Grand Final . The league-owned VFL Park had originally been built with

13524-446: The left side of the reaction. So, a question arises: can NaCl or KCl from deicing salts still possibly play a role in the alkali-silica reaction? Na and K cations in themselves cannot attack silica (the culprit is their counter ion OH ), and soluble alkali chlorides cannot produce soluble alkali hydroxide by interacting with calcium hydroxide. So, does it exist another route to still produce hydroxide anions in

13662-403: The metasilicate anion ( SiO 3 ), which also does not exist in aqueous solution, is its greater simplicity and its direct similitude in notation with the carbonate ( CO 3 ) system. One will also note that the NaOH and KOH species ( alkali hydroxides , also often simply called alkali to refer to their strongly basic character) which catalyze and accelerate the silica dissolution in

13800-489: The never observed metasilicic acid ) simply by substituting a C atom by a Si atom in the mass balance equations ( i.e. , by replacing a carbonate by a metasilicate anion). This gives the following set of reactions also commonly encountered in the literature to schematically depict the continuous regeneration of NaOH in ASR: If NaOH is clearly deficient in the system under consideration (soda lime or alkali-silica reaction), it

13938-548: The new national capital Canberra both soccer and rugby had a head start, but following the first matches in 1911, Australian rules football in the Australian Capital Territory became a major participation sport. By 1981 it had become much neglected and quickly lagged behind the other football codes. Australian rules football in the Northern Territory began shortly after the outbreak of the war in 1916 with

14076-410: The nomination is that the stadium was the first major stadium purpose built for Australian rules football, that its construction and ownership by the VFL provided the basis on which the league built its power base and eventual evolution to become the AFL, that it hosted the 1991 AFL Grand Final, that night-time cricket games were first held at the ground, and that the members' (or K.G. Luke) stand features

14214-420: The pH value. This is why glass easily dissolves at high pH values and does not withstand extremely basic NaOH/KOH solutions. Therefore, NaOH/KOH is released during cement hydration attacks and dissolves the tridimensional network of silica present in the aggregates. Amorphous or poorly crystallized silica, such as cryptocrystalline chalcedony or chert present in flints (in chalk ) or rolled river gravels ,

14352-455: The phasing out of many of the game's kicking styles and the increasing use of handball; while presentation was influenced by television. In 1982, in a move that heralded big changes within the sport, one of the original VFL clubs, South Melbourne, relocated to Sydney and became known as the Sydney Swans . In the late 1980s, due to the poor financial standing of many of the Victorian clubs, and

14490-407: The player has disposed of the ball, or "play on" is called, normal play resumes. Rucking is the only specialist skill and is performed by a ruck, the term for designated players from each side to which umpire sends the ball to commence play. Only a nominated ruck may contest ball-ups and throw-ins. They are the only player allowed within the 10 metre circle at a centre bounce. Functionally the role

14628-429: The player penalised for ' holding the ball ', except if the umpire deems there was a lack of prior opportunity to do so. The ball carrier may only be tackled between the shoulders and knees from the front or side. If the player forcefully contacts the opposing in the back while performing a tackle, the opposition player will be penalised for a push in the back . If the opposition tackles the player with possession below

14766-436: The playing surface at any given time. Each team may have up to four interchange (reserve) players who may be swapped for those on the field at any time during the game. Although some leagues in less populated areas may use as few as 12 players. In addition, some leagues notably including the AFL, have each team designate one additional player as a substitute who can be used to make a single permanent exchange of players during

14904-402: The pozzolanic reaction by the fact that it is catalysed by soluble alkali hydroxides ( NaOH / KOH ) at very high pH. It can be represented as follows using the classical geochemical notation for representing silica by the fully hydrated dissolved silica (Si(OH) 4 or silicic acid : H 4 SiO 4 ), while in an older industrial notation the non-existing (H 2 SiO 3 , hemihydrated silica,

15042-580: The preeminent league in the country and would take a leading role in many aspects of the sport. The time around the federation of the Australian colonies in 1901 saw Australian rules undergo a revival in New South Wales, New Zealand and Queensland. In 1903, both the Queensland Australian Football League and the NSW Australian Football Association were established, and in New Zealand, as it moved towards becoming

15180-521: The premiers of the VFA and SAFA. Although clubs from other states were at times invited, the final was almost always between the premiers from the two strongest state competitions of the time—South Australia and Victoria—with Adelaide hosting most of the matches at the request of the SAFA/SANFL. The last match took place in 1976, with North Adelaide being the last non-Victorian winner in 1972. Between 1976 and 1987,

15318-426: The presence of dissolved NaOH or KOH, responsible for the high pH (~13.5) of the concrete pore water, the amorphous silica of the reactive aggregates would not be dissolved and the reaction would not evolve. Moreover, the soluble sodium or potassium silicate is very hygroscopic and swells when it absorbs water. When the sodium silicate gel forms and swells inside a porous siliceous aggregate, it first expands and occupies

15456-430: The reaction of sodium carbonate with portlandite, also important for the catalysis of the alkali–carbonate reaction as emphasized by Fournier and Bérubé (2000) and Bérubé et al. (2005): However, not all Na or K soluble salts can precipitate insoluble calcium salts, such as, e.g. , NaCl-based deicing salts: As calcium chloride is a soluble salt, the reaction cannot occur and the chemical equilibrium regresses to

15594-482: The reaction of the sodium silicate with portlandite and thus represent the transmission belt of the ASR reaction driving it to completeness. It is thus impossible to interrupt the ASR reaction. The only way to avoid ASR in the presence of siliceous aggregates and water is to maintain the concentration of soluble alkali (NaOH and KOH) at the lowest possible level in concrete, so that the catalysis mechanism becomes negligible. The alkali-silica reaction mechanism catalysed by

15732-496: The round' at the ground ended quickly, and by 1993 it was used as a home ground by Hawthorn and St Kilda . In 1999 the Australian Football League announced that it would not schedule any further matches at Waverley Park. Instead it would aim to sell the ground and its surrounding land, hoping to raise a sum of $ 30 million to $ 80 million to go towards the construction of a new stadium under construction at Docklands at

15870-549: The severity of the infringement. The game features frequent physical contests, spectacular marking , fast movement of both players and the ball, and high scoring. The sport's origins can be traced to football matches played in Melbourne , Victoria , in 1858, inspired by English public school football games . Seeking to develop a game more suited to adults and Australian conditions, the Melbourne Football Club published

16008-408: The sodium silicate expelled from the aggregate encounters grains of portlandite present in the hardened cement paste, an exchange between sodium and calcium cations occurs and hydrated calcium silicate (C-S-H) precipitates with a concomitant release of NaOH. In its turn, the regenerated NaOH can react with the amorphous silica aggregate, leading to an increased production of soluble sodium silicate. When

16146-421: The soluble Na and K salts present in the raw material. As previously described in the two sections dealing respectively with ASR catalysis by alkali hydroxides and soda lime carbonatation, soluble NaOH and KOH are continuously regenerated and released into solution when the soluble alkali silicate reacts with Ca(OH) 2 to precipitate insoluble calcium silicate. As suggested by Davies and Oberholster (1988),

16284-467: The sport across Australia, delegates representing the football associations of South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and Queensland met in 1883 and updated the code. New rules such as holding the ball led to a "golden era" of fast, long-kicking and high-marking football in the 1880s, a time which also saw players such as George Coulthard achieve superstardom, as well as the rise of professionalism , particularly in Victoria and Western Australia , where

16422-467: The sport experienced a period of dominance in the former, and in the latter, several regions remain strongholds of Australian rules, such as the Riverina . However, by the late 1880s, rugby football had become the dominant code in both colonies, as well as in New Zealand. This shift was largely due to rugby's spread with British migration, regional rivalries and the lack of strong local governing bodies. In

16560-452: The stadium were demolished except for the members' stand and the members' stand mural. The surrounding car park has been replaced by suburban housing, including 1,400 new dwellings for 3,500 people. In homage to the original place and its purpose, the street layout mirrors the original car park and street names honour Waverley's patron Sir Kenneth Luke , architect Reginald Padey and other associations with football and cricket. The members' stand

16698-414: The substantial TV revenues they generated by playing on a Sunday went to the VFL. To protect these revenues the VFL granted significant draft concessions and financial aid to keep the expansion clubs competitive. The VFL changed its name to the Australian Football League (AFL) for the 1990 season , and over the next decade, three non-Victorian clubs gained entry: Adelaide (1991), Fremantle (1995) and

16836-587: The supremacy of the Melbourne rules, the first-club level competition in Australia, the Caledonian Society's Challenge Cup (1861–64), stipulated that only the Melbourne rules were to be used. This law was reinforced by the Athletic Sports Committee (ASC), which ran a variation of the Challenge Cup in 1865–66. With input from other clubs, the rules underwent several minor revisions, establishing

16974-412: The surface of affected concrete. When pH slowly drops due to the progress of the silica dissolution reaction, the solubility of calcium hydroxide increases, and the alkali gel reacts with Ca ions. Its viscosity increases due to gelation process and its mobility (fluidity) strongly decreases when C-S-H phases start to precipitate after reaction with calcium hydroxide (portlandite). At this moment,

17112-400: The term silicic acid has traditionally been used as a synonym for silica , SiO 2 . Strictly speaking, silica is the anhydride of orthosilicic acid, Si(OH) 4 . An ancient industrial notation referring to H 2 SiO 3 , metasilicic acid , is also often used to depict the alkali-silica reaction. However, the metasilicic acid, H 2 SiO 3 , or SiO(OH) 2 ,

17250-464: The unflattering nickname "Arctic Park" which was due to its location on an exposed site, with the prevailing south-westerly winds bringing rain to Melbourne's eastern suburbs directly from Port Phillip Bay . In 2000, AFL pre-season cup matches were played at the venue, and Victorian Football League games also took place there, including finals and the grand final. Melbourne's Eastern Football League also played division 1 and division 2 Grand Finals at

17388-412: The usage of other means, such as punching. While in possession of the ball, players may run with the ball, but are required to either bounce or touch the ball on the ground at least once every 15 metres (16 yd). Tackling is a technique employed by players used to force opposition players to dispose of the ball when they are in possession. Failure to dispose of the ball when legally tackled may see

17526-421: The venue at the conclusion of the 2000 season. The 2000 VFA/VFL Grand Final was the last official game of football played at the venue when Sandringham 15.18 (108) defeated North Ballarat 11.11 (77) in front of a sparse crowd of 8,652 people. Afterwards, Waverley Park was not maintained and vandals eventually broke into the site and damaged the facilities. The playing surface, once one of the best in Australia,

17664-456: The western end of the Melbourne central business district . Later the League would also argue that a portion of the income from the sale of Waverley would provide further finance for the development of AFL football as a national code in Australia. The last official AFL game was played in 1999 between Hawthorn and Sydney in front of a sell-out crowd of 72,130. After the decision to close the venue

17802-531: The world . The sport is also played at amateur level in many countries and in several variations . Its rules are governed by the AFL Commission with the advice of the AFL's Laws of the Game Committee. Australian rules football is known by several nicknames, including Aussie rules, football and footy. In some regions, where other codes of football are more popular, the sport is most often called AFL after

17940-429: Was "almost solely influenced by his experience at Rugby School". A loosely organised Melbourne side, captained by Wills, played against other football enthusiasts in the winter and spring of 1858. The following year, on 14 May, the Melbourne Football Club was officially established, making it one of the world's oldest football clubs . Three days later, Wills, Hammersley, Thompson and teacher Thomas H. Smith met near

18078-545: Was a 20-per-side affair, played with a ball that was roughly spherical, and lasted until a team scored two goals. The shape of the playing field was not standardised; matches often took place in rough, tree-spotted public parks, most notably the Richmond Paddock ( Yarra Park ), known colloquially as the Melbourne Football Ground. Wills argued that the turf of cricket fields would benefit from being trampled upon by footballers in winter, and, as early as 1859, football

18216-478: Was allowed on the MCG. However, cricket authorities frequently prohibited football on their grounds until the 1870s, when they saw an opportunity to capitalise on the sport's growing popularity. Football gradually adapted to an oval-shaped field, and most grounds in Victoria expanded to accommodate the dual purpose—a situation that continues to this day. Football became organised in South Australia in 1860 with

18354-435: Was coined by scholar Ian Turner in 1978 to describe the "fictitious geographical barrier" separating the rugby-following parts of New South Wales and Queensland from the rest of the country, where Australian football reigned. It became a reference point for the expansion of Australian football and for establishing a national league. The way the game was played had changed dramatically due to innovative coaching tactics, with

18492-484: Was first conceived in 1959 when delegates from the 12 VFL clubs asked the league to find land that was suitable for the building of a new stadium. In September 1962, the VFL secured a 212-acre (86 ha) block of grazing and market garden land in Mulgrave . The area was chosen because it was believed that, with the effects of urban sprawl and the proposed building of the South-Eastern (later called Monash ) freeway,

18630-412: Was installed on the grandstand façade above the members' entrance. During the 1988 season, automatic turnstiles were introduced at the members' entrance. In its history, 732 AFL/VFL matches were played at Waverley Park, 70 of which were finals and one a grand final. Waverley Park hosted many special events other than Australian rules football. These included: In 1988 concrete cancer was discovered in

18768-410: Was made by the AFL, the ground's fundamental flaws were highlighted. Despite an excellent playing surface and its own water storage, focus shifted to its unfavourable position, and its antiquated corporate and spectator facilities available, such as the originally high tech but now ageing sepia-toned video screen. Although Waverley Park was only 20 minutes from the Melbourne CBD by car and was serviced by

18906-401: Was reduced to a field of weeds. In mid-2002, Victorian MP Mary Delahunty called on the AFL to mow the dilapidated stadium, as it remained under their control until the plans for the site by housing developer Mirvac (who brought the land off the AFL in late 2001) were approved. In December 2001, the ground and surrounds were sold by the AFL to Australian property development company Mirvac for

19044-411: Was the biggest in the league. That caused some controversy, and the boundary lines and goals were relocated to make the playing area a similar size to that of the MCG. Waverley allowed Gippsland-based football patrons to attend VFL games, given the shorter travelling distance. Although its relative remoteness was irritating for some, it was a significant multi-purpose venue not based in the environs of

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